1.
Victoria Embankment
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Victoria Embankment is part of the Thames Embankment, a road and river-walk along the north bank of the River Thames in London. It runs from the Palace of Westminster to Blackfriars Bridge in the City of London, the Victoria Embankments construction started in 1865 and was completed in 1870 under the direction of Joseph Bazalgette. It was a project of the Metropolitan Board of Works, the contractor for the work was Thomas Brassey. The original impetus was the need to provide London with a sewerage system. Another major consideration was the relief of congestion on the Strand, the project involved building out on to the foreshore of the River Thames, narrowing the river. The construction work required the purchase and demolition of much expensive riverside property, the cut-and-cover tunnel for the District Railway was built within the Embankment and roofed over to take the roadway. At ground level, in addition to the new roads, two gardens were laid out. One of these backs onto the government buildings of Whitehall, the gardens contain many statues, including a monument to Bazalgette. The Victoria section was the most complex of the three sections and it was much larger, more complex and more significant to the metropolis than the other two and officially opened on 13 July 1870 by the Prince of Wales and Princess Louise. When people refer to the Embankment they are referring to that portion of it. The total cost of the construction of the Victoria Embankment is estimated to be £1,260,000, the total cost includes the cost of materials used in the construction of the embankment. Construction of the Victoria Embankment proved to be difficult because of the grandness of it, parliament was assured that three years would be ample time to complete the project, which did not hold to be true. They had a labour force along with issues of the architect and property appraiser securing all the wharves and other property needed for access. There was also difficulty in acquiring contract requirement to access to steamboat landings at Westminster. In addition, time and money was lost in experimenting with a new type of cofferdam, in December 1878 Victoria Embankment became the first street in Britain to be permanently lit by electricity. The light was provided by 20 Yablochkov candles powered by a Gramme DC generator,16 March 1879 the system was extended to 40 lamps and 10 October to 55 lamps. Previously the street had been lit by gas, and in June 1884, shell Mex House, the Savoy Hotel and Savoy Place are located between the Embankment and the Strand. London Underground stations along Victoria Embankment are Westminster, Embankment, Charing Cross, Temple, the former Aldwych station was also located nearby
2.
Modern architecture
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Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
3.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
SE postcode area
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The SE postcode area, also known as the London SE postcode area, is the part of the London post town covering part of south-east London, England. The postcode area originated in 1857 as the SE district, in 1868 it gained some of the area of the abolished S district, with the rest going to SW. SE28 is a later addition carved out of the existing districts SE2. The postcode area is part of the London post town, there are no dependent localities used in the postcode area. SE1P is a postcode district for PO boxes located in SE1. SE2–SE18 are organised in the part of the postcode area, with SE2, SE7, SE8, SE10, SE16. Postcode districts SE19–SE27 form a group in the southwest and SE28 is located in the extreme northeast, the postcode area maps roughly to the combined area of the London Borough of Southwark, London Borough of Lewisham and Royal Borough of Greenwich. Royal Mail has said it will not consider changes to postcodes for these reasons, Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
7.
London County Council
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It covered the area today known as Inner London and was replaced by the Greater London Council. The LCC was the largest, most significant and most ambitious English municipal authority of its day, by the 19th century the City of London Corporation covered only a small fraction of metropolitan London. From 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works had certain powers across the metropolis, many powers remained in the hands of traditional bodies such as parishes and the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent. While the Conservative government of the day would have preferred not to create a body covering the whole of London. It was established as a council on 31 January 1889. Shortly after its creation a Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London considered the means for amalgamation with the City of London. The LCC inherited the powers of its predecessor the MBW, but had authority over matters such as education, city planning. It took over the functions of the London School Board in 1903, from 1899 the Council progressively acquired and operated the tramways in the county, which it electrified from 1903. One of the LCCs most important roles during the late 19th and early 20th century, was in the management of the expanding city, in the Victorian era, new housing had been intentionally urban and large-scale tenement buildings dominated. Beginning in the 1930s, the LCC incentivized an increase in suburban housing styles. The LCC set the standard for new construction at 12 houses per acre of land at a time when some London areas had as many as 80 housing units per acre. By 1938,76,877 units of housing had been built under the auspices of the LCC in the city and its periphery, many of these new housing developments were genuinely working-class, though the poorest could rarely afford even subsidized rents. They relied on an expanding London Underground network that ferried workers en masse to places of employment in the city center and these housing developments were broadly successful, and they resisted the slummification that blighted so many Victorian tenement developments. The LCC undertook between 1857 and 1929 to standardize and clarify street names across London, many streets in different areas of the city had similar or identical names, and the rise of the automobile as a primary mode of transportation in the city made these names unworkable. In an extreme case, there were more than 60 streets called Cross Street spread across the city when the LCC began its process of systematic renaming and these were given names from an approved list that was maintained by the LCC, containing only suitably English names. If street names were deemed un-English, they were slated for change, Zulu Crescent in Battersea, for instance. By 1939, the council had the powers and duties. The LCC initially used the Spring Gardens headquarters inherited from the Metropolitan Board of Works, the building had been designed by Frederick Marrable, the MBWs supeintending architect, and dated from 1860
8.
Greater London Council
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The Greater London Council was the top-tier local government administrative body for Greater London from 1965 to 1986. It replaced the earlier London County Council which had covered a smaller area. The GLC was dissolved in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and its powers were devolved to the London boroughs, a new administrative body, known as the Greater London Authority, was established in 2000. It further recommended that the LCC be replaced by a strategic authority, with responsibility for public transport, road schemes, housing development. Most of the Commission’s recommendations were accepted, but the number of new boroughs was reduced to 32, other areas recommended for inclusion that were never part of Greater London included Epsom and Ewell, Caterham and Warlingham, Esher, and Weybridge. GLC councillors elected for areas within the former County of London became ex officio members of the new Inner London Education Authority, the GLC was responsible for running strategic services such as the fire service, emergency planning, waste disposal and flood prevention. The GLC shared responsibility with the London boroughs for providing roads, housing, city planning and it had a very limited role in direct service provision with most functions the responsibility of the London boroughs. The GLC did not take control of transport from the London Transport Board until 1970. Under the 1963 Act, the GLC was required to produce a Greater London Development Plan, the plan included the comprehensive redevelopment of Covent Garden and creating a central London motorway loop. The plan was subject to an Inquiry which lasted from July 1970 until May 1972, the campaign to save Covent Garden along with various opposition on other matters largely derailed the plan. Each of the six GLC elections was won by the national opposition party. The first GLC election was on 9 April 1964, each of the new boroughs elected a number of representatives under the bloc vote system. Despite Conservative hopes, the first GLC consisted of 64 Labour and 36 Conservative councillors, at the next election in 1967 the unpopularity of the national Labour government produced a massive Conservative victory with 82 seats, to Labours 18. Desmond Plummer became the first Conservative leader of London-wide government in 33 years, the Conservatives retained control in 1970 with a reduced majority. In 1972 the electoral system was reformed to introduce single-member constituencies for the election after the 1973 contest, Labour fought the 1973 election on a strongly socialist platform and won with 57 seats to 33 for the Conservatives. The GLCs hopes under the Labour administration of Reg Goodwin were badly affected by the oil crisis of 1974, massive inflation which when combined with the GLCs £1.6 billion debt led to heavy rate increases and unpopular budget cuts. Some months before the 1977 elections the Labour Group began to split, a left group, including Ken Livingstone, denounced the election manifesto of the party. The Conservatives regained control in May 1977, winning 64 seats under their new Thatcherite leader Horace Cutler against a Labour total of just 28, Cutler headed a resolutely right-wing administration, cutting spending, selling council housing and deprioritising London Transport
9.
Arts Council of Great Britain
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The Arts Council of Great Britain was a non-departmental public body dedicated to the promotion of the fine arts in Great Britain. The Arts Council of Great Britain was divided in 1994 to form the Arts Council of England, the Scottish Arts Council, at the same time the National Lottery was established and these three arts councils, plus the Arts Council of Northern Ireland, became distribution bodies. In 1940, during the Second World War, the Council for the Encouragement of Music, chaired by Lord De La Warr, President of the Board of Education, the Council was government-funded and after the war was renamed the Arts Council of Great Britain. A Royal Charter was granted on 9 August 1946, followed by another in 1967, the Councils first Chairman was John Maynard Keynes who used his influence in Government to secure a high level of funding despite Britains poor finances following the war. The majority of funding was directed to organisations with which Keynes had close ties such as the Royal Opera House and was restricted to Central London. After Keynes death Government funding was reduced but the Arts Council received wide recognition for its contribution to the Festival of Britain thanks to the new Chairman Kenneth Clark, artworks commissioned by the Council for the Festival were retained to form the basis of the Arts Council Collection. The Arts Council commissioned 12 sculptors and 60 painters, who made paintings,114 by 152 centimetres or more. Ultimately the works were to be given to new hospitals, libraries, schools, under the Harold Wilson Government of 1964-70 the Arts Council enjoyed a Golden Age thanks to the close relationship between Chairman Arnold Goodman and the Arts Minister Jennie Lee. This period saw the Council establish a network of organisations across the country as regular client organisations. Since 1987, the gallery has been managed by the South Bank Centre. In 2003 sculpture in the Collection was moved to a base in Yorkshire, during the 1970s and 1980s the Arts Council came under attack for being elitist and politically biased, in particular from the prominent Conservative Party minister Norman Tebbit. The Government grant to the Council was capped effecting a real reduction in funding though it was argued that any shortfall would be made up by increased sponsorship from the private sector. The Secretary-General from 1975–83, Roy Shaw, the last secretary-General to be knighted, faced the task of reconciling the needs of arts organisations with the restricted funding. William Rees-Mogg was an appointment as Chairman and proposed slimming down the Councils responsibilities. This led to a series of clashes with prominent figures from the Arts such as Peter Hall who resigned from the Council in protest, in 1987 the restructure inspired by Rees-Mogg cut by half the number of organisations receiving Arts Council funding. During the same period the Arts Council began encouraging a greater level of sponsorship for the arts. The Arts Council of Great Britain was divided in 1994 to form the Arts Council of England, Scottish Arts Council, at the same time the National Lottery was established and the Arts Council of England became one of the distribution bodies
10.
Southbank Centre
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Southbank Centre is a complex of artistic venues in London, England, on the South Bank of the River Thames. It comprises three main venues, together with the Hayward Gallery, and is Europe’s largest centre for the arts. It attracts more than six million visitors annually, in addition, three to six major art exhibitions are presented at Hayward Gallery yearly, and National Touring Exhibitions reach over 100 venues across the UK. Southbank Centres site, which extended to 21 acres from County Hall to Waterloo Bridge, is fronted by The Queen’s Walk. The site is located next to the National Theatre and BFI Southbank, susan Gilchrist became chairman of the Board of Governors of the Southbank Centre in 2016, having first joined the Board in 2008. In April 2009 Alan Bishop, former chairman of Saatchi and Saachi International and Chief Executive of the Central Office of Information, September 2005 saw the arrival of Jude Kelly as Southbank Centres Artistic Director. The closest Underground stations are Waterloo and Embankment, the history of Southbank Centre starts with the Festival of Britain, held in 1951. The Royal Festival Hall is the building from the Festival of Britain that survives. From 1962 to 1965, the Royal Festival Hall was extended towards the river and Waterloo station and refurbished. The London County Council decided in 1955 to build a concert hall. It was another 12 years before the Queen Elizabeth Hall and the linked Purcell Room opened to the public, together, they were to be known as South Bank Concert Halls. In 1968, the Hayward opened, under management of the Arts Council. The new buildings had their main entrances at first floor level and were integrated into an elevated concrete walkway system linked to the Royal Festival Hall. Following abolition of the Greater London Council in 1986, the South Bank Board was formed to take operational control of the concert halls. The following year, the South Bank Board took over the running of the Hayward from the Arts Council. Collectively, the venues, along with Jubilee Gardens, became the South Bank Centre. The walkway on the east side of the RFH, running along Belvedere Road towards the Shell Centre was removed in 1999-2000 and this did not proceed due to the high degree of National Lottery funding required and likely high cost. In 2000, a masterplan for the South Bank Centre site was produced, between 2005-7 the Festival Hall auditorium was modified, the natural acoustic enhanced to meet classical music requirements
11.
Robert Matthew
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Sir Robert Hogg Matthew, OBE, FRIBA was a Scottish architect and a leading proponent of modernism. Robert Matthew was the son of John Fraser Matthew and his wife, from 1920 the family lived at 43 Minto Street ironically the epitome of Georgian classicism rather than modern architecture. Robert was born and brought up in Edinburgh, was educated at Edinburgh Institution, in 1931 Matthew married Lorna Pilcher. They had three children, Robert Aidan Matthew, born in July 1936, Janet Frances Catriona Matthew, born in March 1939, from 1939 they lived at 12 Darnaway Street, Edinburgh and from 1956 they lived at Keith Marischal House, Humbie, East Lothian. Robert was apprenticed with his fathers firm, then in 1936, he joined the Department of Health, where by 1945 he had risen to become their Chief Architect and Planning Officer. It was during these formative years that the LCC’s housing and town planning policy established an international reputation. In 1956, with Stirrat Johnson Marshall, Robert Matthew established the firm of RMJM in Edinburgh and their first project was New Zealand House in the Haymarket, London. He continued as Professor there until 1968, the Matthew Architecture Gallery is now housed in the Department in his honour. Matthew/RMJM were directly responsible for the design of the Arts Faculty buildings, now called the David Hume tower, Adam Ferguson building, in the early 1960s Matthew was involved in the replacement of overcrowded, insanitary tenement housing in Hutchesontown, Glasgow with high rise tower blocks. He worked alongside Basil Spence in the planning and design of the controversial Area C blocks in the Gorbals, in Edinburgh he was also behind the Royal Commonwealth Pool, British Home Stores on Princes Street, Edinburgh Airport, Lothian Regional Council Building and Wester Hailes Education Centre. Elsewhere, Matthew/RMJM were both involved in the design for the campuses of the University of Stirling and University of York, during his studies, Robert Matthew won the Pugin Student award and was Soane medallist. He became a Fellow of the RIBA in 1955 and served as its President from 1962 to 1964 and he was awarded an OBE in 1952 and knighted in 1962. He was later also President of the Commonwealth Association of Architects, apart from his work as an architect, Matthew produced drawings that were widely exhibited, and also paintings, although they are less well known. Both display the same concerns as Le Corbusier, Pablo Picasso and Henry Moore all of whom he was able to count among his friends. Research paper, Edinburgh University and the Monumental Tradition
12.
Leslie Martin
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Sir John Leslie Martin was an English architect, and a leading advocate of the International Style. Martins most famous building is the Royal Festival Hall and his work was especially influenced by Alvar Aalto. After studying at Manchester University Leslie Martin taught at the University of Hull, in 1937 he co-edited with Ben Nicholson and Naum Gabo the journal Circle that reviewed avant-garde abstract art and architecture. In 1939 Martin, and his wife Sadie Speight, co-wrote The flat book, during the Second World War Martin was assigned to the pre-nationalisation Railway companies to supervise re-building of bomb damaged regional rail stations. In this capacity Martin developed pre-fabricated designs to speed construction, from 1956 Martin was made head of the Architecture School at Cambridge University where Colin St. John Wilson was his assistant. He was Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Oxford for 1965–66, Martin was involved initially with Patrick Hodgkinson in the Brunswick Centre, an early experiment in planned mixed-use development in Bloomsbury that was partially completed. The 1950s also saw the creation of the Loughborough Estate in Brixton, South London, in the 1960s the British government commissioned Martin to draw plans for a wholesale demolition and redevelopment of the area between St. Jamess Park and the Thames Embankment in London. The plans met with determined opposition from the public and conservation groups, especially the Victorian Society, the Heath Government eventually formally abandoned Martins plan in 1971. The existing buildings were restored and opened to the public. Taking a broader view of Martins work, a picture emerges of the man as a quiet achiever par excellence, through his skilled networking in support of promising younger architects, and his self-effacing work on committees, he strongly influenced the course of post-war British architecture. He was efficient, cooperative, impeccably well networked and calmly authoritative, justifying his advice with his architectural expertise. Cross faculty libraries, St Cross Road, for Oxford University, Martin was also the masterplanner for Leicester University. One of his projects was an extension to Kettles Yard Art Gallery to house the works of Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth. Martin was also responsible for the modernist house Brackenfell in Brampton, Cumbria, built for textile designer and artist Alastair Morton, MD of Edinburgh Weavers
13.
Robin Day (designer)
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Robin Day, OBE, FCSD was one of the most significant British furniture designers of the 20th century, enjoying a long career spanning seven decades. An accomplished industrial and interior designer, he was active in the fields of graphics. His wife Lucienne Day, née Conradi was a textile designer. The couple married in 1942 and had one daughter, Paula Day, Robin Day grew up in the furniture-making town of High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire. High Wycombe Technical Institute, where he was a day student, had close links with the local furniture industry. Being gifted at drawing, Day progressed to High Wycombe School of Art in 1931, Day met his future wife, Désirée Conradi, in 1940 at a dance at the RCA, where she was studying printed textile design. They married in 1942, moving in to a flat in Chelsea, in 1952 the couple moved to a house on Cheyne Walk, their home and joint studio for the next 50 years. After the Second World War, Robin Day taught interior design at the Regent Street Polytechnic, Day continued designing exhibitions and trade stands until the early 1960s for clients such as the radio manufacturer EKCO and the industrial giant ICI. A talented graphic designer, he designed an eye-catching series of recruitment posters for the RAF during 1948-9. Their ingenious concept for a range of storage units fabricated from a tube of pre-formed moulded plywood received international acclaim. Although never mass-produced, a set of made by Heal & Son in 1949 demonstrated the principles behind the design. Supported on tubular aluminium legs, the cabinets were compact and flexible, with sliding doors, interchangeable shelf and drawer fittings and a writing desk with a drop-down flap. Day’s success in the MOMA competition brought him to the attention of Rosamind Julius, the prize was also instrumental in securing an important commission to design the seating for the Royal Festival Hall in 1951, another major breakthrough in his career. 1951 was an annus mirabilis for Robin Day, the brief for the Royal Festival Hall project was complex and demanding, including restaurant and foyer furniture, auditorium seating and orchestra chairs, each with specific functional requirements. This proved so effective that it is still in use today, the chairs he designed for the restaurant and foyer had sculptural moulded plywood seats with wing-like armrests and spindly black steel rod legs. Day was the first designer in Britain to exploit these materials in furniture and his chairs were revolutionary at the time as they appeared to hover above the ground. Day’s ingenuity was evident in the two open-plan living room / dining room settings he created for the Homes and Gardens Pavilion at the Festival of Britain. Designed to illustrate what could be achieved on different budgets, both rooms were equipped with his Royal Festival Hall chairs, along with newly designed storage units
14.
Holland, Hannen & Cubitts
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Holland, Hannen & Cubitts was a major building firm responsible for many of the great buildings of London. During the Second World War the company was one of the contractors engaged in building the Mulberry harbour units. In the 1960s, when Lord Ashcombe was the Chairman of the company, it held a stake in ACI Property Corporation. The company was acquired by Drake & Gorham Scull in 1969 and then by Tarmac in 1976, code Name Mulberry, The Planning Building and Operation of the Normandy Harbours
15.
South Bank
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The South Bank is an entertainment and commercial district of Central London, England, next to the River Thames opposite the City of Westminster. It forms a narrow, unequal strip of land within the London Borough of Lambeth. As with most central London districts its edges evolve and are informally defined however its central area is bounded by Westminster Bridge, both the County Hall and the Shell Centre contain major residential parts. South Bank is 800 metres southeast of Charing Cross, the pedestrianised embankment is The Queens Walk which is part of the Albert Embankment built not only for public drainage but to raise the whole tract of land and prevent flooding. In 1951 the Festival of Britain redefined the area as a place for arts and it now forms a significant tourist district in central London, stretching from the Blackfriars Bridge in the east to Westminster Bridge in the west. A series of central London bridges connect the area to the bank of the Thames Golden Jubilee. During the Middle Ages this area developed as a place of entertainment outside the regulation of the City of London on the north bank. By the 18th century the more genteel entertainment of the gardens had developed. The shallow bank and mud flats were ideal locations for industry and docks, there was a shift in use when the London County Council required a new County Hall, which was built between 1917 and 1922 on the south bank near North Lambeths Lower Marsh. The construction of County Hall returned the first section of frontage to public use. This was extended eastwards in 1951 when the Festival of Britain caused a considerable area to be redeveloped and it was renamed South Bank as part of promoting the Festival. The South Bank stretches two miles along the southern bank of the River Thames. The western section is in the Bishops ward of the London Borough of Lambeth, there are significant amounts of public open space along the riverside. Between the London Studios and the Oxo Tower lies Bernie Spain Gardens, named after Bernadette Spain, the South Bank is a significant arts and entertainment district. The Southbank Centre comprises the Royal Festival Hall, the Queen Elizabeth Hall, the Royal National Theatre, the London IMAX super cinema and BFI Southbank adjoin to the east, but are not strictly part of the centre. County Hall is non-administrative and has converted into The London Marriott Hotel County Hall, Sea Life London Aquarium. It contains the Jubilee Gardens, home to the Udderbelly Festival for 15 weeks in the summer, the OXO Tower Wharf is towards the eastern end of South Bank, and houses Gallery@Oxo, shops and boutiques, and the OXO Tower Restaurant run by Harvey Nichols. The London Studios, the home of ITV faces the Thames
16.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
17.
Hungerford Bridge and Golden Jubilee Bridges
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The Hungerford Bridge crosses the River Thames in London, and lies between Waterloo Bridge and Westminster Bridge. The north end of the bridge is Charing Cross railway station, and is near Embankment Pier, the south end is near Waterloo station, County Hall, the Royal Festival Hall, and the London Eye. Each pedestrian bridge has steps and lift access, the first Hungerford Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, opened in 1845 as a suspension footbridge. It was named after the then Hungerford Market, because it went from the South Bank to Hungerford Market on the side of the Thames. In 1859 the original bridge was bought by the railway company extending the South Eastern Railway into the newly opened Charing Cross railway station. The railway company replaced the bridge with a structure designed by Sir John Hawkshaw, comprising nine spans made of wrought iron lattice girders. The chains from the old bridge were re-used in Bristols Clifton Suspension Bridge, the buttress on the South Bank side still has the entrances and steps from the original steamer pier Brunel built on to the footbridge. Walkways were added on each side, with the one later being removed when the railway was widened. Another walkway was added in 1951 when an Army Bailey bridge was constructed for the Festival of Britain. In 1980 a temporary walkway was erected on the side while the downstream railway bridge. It is one of three bridges in London to combine pedestrian and rail use, the others being Fulham Railway Bridge. The footbridge gained a reputation for being narrow, dilapidated and dangerous, in the mid-1990s a decision was made to replace the footbridge with new structures on either side of the existing railway bridge, and a competition was held in 1996 for a new design. It was felt, especially following the Marchioness disaster, that these should be clad in concrete at water level, the Golden Jubilee Bridges achieved this protection at no cost to Railtrack. The concept design for the new footbridges was won by architects Lifschutz Davidson Sandilands, detailed design of the two bridges was carried out by consulting engineers Gifford, now Ramboll UK. Despite extensive surveys of the riverbed, London Underground was unwilling to accept these risks and preliminary works were stopped in 2000. The design was modified so that the structure on the north side. Excavation near the lines was carried out when the tube was closed. The two new 4-metre wide footbridges were completed in 2002 and they were named the Golden Jubilee Bridges, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of Queen Elizabeth IIs accession, although in practice they are still referred to as the Hungerford Footbridges
18.
London Borough of Lambeth
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Lambeth is a London borough in south London, England, which forms part of Inner London. Its name was recorded in 1062 as Lambehitha and in 1255 as Lambeth, Lambeth was part of the large, ancient parish of Lambeth St Mary, the site of the archepiscopal Lambeth Palace, in the hundred of Brixton in the county of Surrey. It was an elongated north-south parish with 2 miles of River Thames frontage opposite the cities of London, Lambeth became part of the Metropolitan Police District in 1829. It remained a parish for Poor Law purposes after the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, until 1889, Surrey included the present-day London borough of Lambeth. Young was commissioned to make recommendations to the government on the shape of the future London boroughs. However, Wandsworths suggestion to merge Lambeth with the Metropolitan Borough of Battersea was rejected by both councils involved, in 1979, the administration of Edward Knight organised the boroughs first public demonstration against the Thatcher government. In 1985 Knights Labour administration was subjected to rate-capping, with its budget restricted by the government, Knight and most of the Labour councillors protested by refusing to propose budgets. As a result of the protest,32 councillors were ordered to repay interest lost by the due to budgeting delays and were disqualified from office. In 1991, Joan Twelves administration failed to collect the poll tax, the following year, Twelves and 12 other councillors were suspended from the local Labour Party by regional officials for advocating non-payment of the poll tax and other radical ideas. Twelves equally-militant deputy leader at this time was John Harrison, from 1978 to 2002 the council comprised 64 members, elected from 20 three-member and two two-member wards. Before this, the council had 60 members elected from 20 three-member wards, just before the 2010 election, its political balance was 37 Labour members,18 Liberal Democrats, seven Conservatives and one Green, giving Labour an eleven-member majority. In the 2010 Lambeth Council election, Labour gained seats and the Liberal Democrats, Conservatives, in 2014 the Liberal Democrats lost their seats, Conservatives were reduced to three and the Greens to one. Labour, gaining seats from the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, had 59 seats, in the 2016 European Union referendum, Lambeth at 78. 62% had the highest share of Remain vote in the United Kingdom, second to Gibraltars 95. 9%. Lambeth is a long, thin borough, about 3 miles wide and 7 miles long, Brixton is its civic centre, and there are other town centres. The largest shopping areas are Streatham, Brixton, Vauxhall, Clapham, in the northern part of the borough are the central London districts of the South Bank, Vauxhall and Lambeth, in the south are the suburbs of Gipsy Hill, Streatham, West Dulwich and West Norwood. Vauxhall and South Lambeth are central districts in the process of redevelopment with high-density business, Streatham is between suburban London and inner-city Brixton, with the suburban and developed areas of Streatham, Streatham Hill and Streatham Vale. Despite the boroughs population density, Lambeth has open spaces, along and around the South Bank, a tourist area has developed around the former Greater London Council headquarters of County Hall and the Southbank Centre and National Theatre. Also on the river is the London Eye and Shell Centre, nearby is St Thomas Hospital, Lambeth Palace and the Florence Nightingale Museum
19.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
20.
London Philharmonic Orchestra
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The London Philharmonic Orchestra is one of five permanent symphony orchestras based in London. It was founded by the conductors Sir Thomas Beecham and Malcolm Sargent in 1932 as a rival to the existing London Symphony, the founders ambition was to build an orchestra the equal of any European or American rival. Between 1932 and the Second World War the LPO was widely judged to have succeeded in this regard, after the outbreak of war the orchestras private backers withdrew and the players reconstituted the LPO as a self-governing cooperative. By the 1960s the LPO had regained its earlier standards, in 1993 it was appointed resident orchestra of the Royal Festival Hall on the south bank of the Thames, one of Londons major concert venues. Since 1995 the residency has been held with the Philharmonia. In addition to its work at the Festival Hall and Glyndebourne, the LPO performs regularly at the Congress Theatre, Eastbourne and the Brighton Dome, and tours nationally and internationally. Since Beecham, the orchestra has had ten principal conductors, including Sir Adrian Boult, Bernard Haitink, Sir Georg Solti, Klaus Tennstedt and Vladimir Jurowski. The orchestra has been active in recording studios since its earliest days, since 2005 the LPO has had its own record label, issuing live recordings of concerts. The orchestra has played on film soundtracks, including Lawrence of Arabia. In the 1920s the London Symphony Orchestra was the citys best-known concert, others were the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra, the orchestra of the Royal Philharmonic Society, the BBCs Wireless Symphony Orchestra and Sir Henry Woods Queens Hall Orchestra. All except the last of these were ad hoc ensembles, with little continuity of personnel. This became obvious in 1927 when the Berlin Philharmonic, under Wilhelm Furtwängler, the chief music critic of The Times later commented, the British public. Was electrified when it heard the disciplined precision of the Berlin Philharmonic and this apparently was how an orchestra could, and, therefore, ought to sound. In 1928 they opened discussions about jointly setting up such an ensemble, but after 18 months of negotiations it became clear that the corporation and the conductor had irreconcilable priorities. The BBC went ahead without him, and under its director of music, Adrian Boult, launched the BBC Symphony Orchestra in October 1930, to immense acclaim. Originally Sargent and Beecham envisaged a version of the LSO, but the orchestra. In 1932 Beecham lost patience and agreed with Sargent to set up a new orchestra from scratch, the BBC having attracted a large number of the finest musicians from other orchestras, many in the musical world doubted that Beecham could find enough good players. He was fortunate in the timing of the enterprise, the economy had severely reduced the number of freelance dates available to orchestral players
21.
Philharmonia Orchestra
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The Philharmonia Orchestra is a British orchestra based in London. It was founded in 1945 by Walter Legge, a music record producer for EMI. Since 1995, the orchestra has been based in the Royal Festival Hall, the Philharmonia also has residencies at De Montfort Hall, Leicester, the Corn Exchange, Bedford, and The Anvil, Basingstoke. Esa-Pekka Salonen has been the principal conductor and artistic advisor since 2008. Helen Sprott is the current managing director, The Philharmonia Orchestra performs more than 160 concerts a year and tours widely. The orchestra was founded in 1945 by Walter Legge, as Legge was a recording producer for EMI, it was believed that the orchestra was primarily formed for recording purposes, but that was not Legges intention. After the war, opera resumed at Covent Garden under a different management and his contacts in the musical world during the war enabled him to secure the services of a large number of talented young musicians still serving in the armed forces in 1945. At the Philharmonias first concert on 25 October 1945, more than sixty per cent of the players were officially in the services. Beecham conducted the concert, but as he refused to be Legges employee and Legge refused to control of the orchestra. Herbert von Karajan was closely associated with the Philharmonia in its early years, at first, Legge was against appointing an official principal conductor, feeling that no one conductor should have more importance to the orchestra than Legge himself. But Karajan was principal conductor in all but name and he built the orchestra into one of the finest in the world and made numerous recordings, including all the Beethoven symphonies. In 1954, Karajan was elected director of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. Needing to find a new conductor for the orchestra, Legge turned to Otto Klemperer, klemperers name became closely linked with the orchestra during an Indian summer of celebrated recordings. In 1959, Klemperer was named director for life. On 10 March 1964, Legge announced that he was going to disband the Philharmonia Orchestra, at a recording session with Klemperer, a meeting was convened where those present unanimously agreed that they would not allow the orchestra to be disbanded. On 17 March 1964, the members of the orchestra elected their own governing body, the inaugural concert of the New Philharmonia under its own auspices took place on 27 October 1964. It was a performance of Beethovens Symphony No,9, conducted by Klemperer, who was now honorary president of the orchestra. From 1966 until 1972, the chairman of the orchestra was the principal flautist, the orchestra gave many more live performances after it became self-governing than it had under Legges management
22.
Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment
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The Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment is a British period instrument orchestra. The OAE is a resident orchestra of the Southbank Centre, London, the leadership is rotated between four musicians, Matthew Truscott, Kati Debretzeni and Margaret Faultless. The OAE does not have a conductor, but chooses conductors individually. Having no permanent music director gives the flexibility to work with some of the world’s greatest conductors. The current Principal Artists are Sir Simon Rattle, Vladimir Jurowski, Iván Fischer, John Butt, Sir Roger Norrington and William Christie are Emeritus Conductors, as were the late Frans Brüggen and Sir Charles Mackerras. The Ethos of the Orchestra is based on democracy, with the idea that the players are not simply technicians, when it began anyone who wanted to could become a member of the orchestra, although they wouldn’t necessarily be asked to play. Responsibility for concert planning is given to a Players Artistic Committee which is elected annually by the members, the OAE’s first concerts, in June 1986, were booked at Oxfords Town Hall and London’s Queen Elizabeth Hall. Conducted by Sigiswald Kuijken, their first programme consisted of an Overture Suite by Telemann, Rameau’s Suite from Dardanus, the OAEs current recurring season at the Southbank Centre in London includes concerts at the Queen Elizabeth Hall and Royal Festival Hall. In May 2006, the OAE started a series of late night concerts called The Night Shift. The OAE celebrated the 21st anniversary of its founding with a concert at the Royal Festival Hall on 30 June 2007, conducted by Norrington, Elder, Mackerras and Jurowski respectively. In July 2008 the OAE moved its headquarters to Kings Place in London where it now shares an office with the London Sinfonietta, while continuing its Southbank season. On 29 January 2010 The Night Shift made its first appearance at The Roundhouse in Camden, in August 2010 the OAE played at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms season, performing Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde and the Love Scene from Romeo and Juliet by Berlioz. The concert was conducted by Sir Simon Rattle and included soloists Sarah Connolly, Ben Heppner, the OAE has toured many countries, including South America and the US in 2002, and toured South East Asia for the first time in autumn 2003. Over the spring/summer of 2010, the OAE are running a series of three concerts inspired by Monteverdi’s Vespers for the schools in which they work, the Night Shift is a concert series where classical music is presented in a relaxed and informal setting. Established in 2006 by the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, unusual characteristics include the concise length of each performance, the invitation to bring alcoholic drinks into the concert hall, and the ability to clap and talk at your own convenience. Since its creation, The Night Shift has proven successful among people under age 35, over 80% of the audience falls within this age bracket and approximately 20% of the audience is attending a classical concert for the first time. The Ann and Peter Law OAE Experience scheme is a scheme for young period instrumentalists. Official website Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment Blog The Night Shift Bach Cantatas page on the OAE2007 Royal Philharmonic Society Music Awards page Charity Commission, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, registered charity no.295329
23.
Festival of Britain
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The Festival of Britain was a national exhibition and fair that reached millions of visitors throughout the United Kingdom in the summer of 1951. Up and down the land, lesser festivals enlisted much civic, Labour cabinet member Herbert Morrison was the prime mover, in 1947 he started with the original plan to celebrate the centennial of the Great Exhibition of 1851. However it was not to be another World Fair, for international themes were absent, instead the 1951 festival focused entirely on Britain and its achievements, it was funded chiefly by the government, with a budget of £12 million. The Festivals centrepiece was in London on the South Bank of the Thames, there were events in Poplar, Battersea, South Kensington and Glasgow. The Festival became a beacon for change that proved popular with thousands of elite visitors. It helped reshape British arts, crafts, designs and sports for a generation, journalist Harry Hopkins highlights the widespread impact of the Festival style. It was, clean, bright and new, in 1945, the government appointed a committee under Lord Ramsden to consider how exhibitions and fairs could promote exports. When the committee reported a year later, it was decided not to continue with the idea of an international exhibition because of its cost at a time when reconstruction was a high priority, Morrison insisted there be no politics, explicit or implicit. Much of London lay in ruins and models of redevelopment were needed, the Festival was an attempt to give Britons a feeling of recovery and progress and to promote better-quality design in the rebuilding of British towns and cities. The Festival of Britain described itself as one united act of national reassessment, gerald Barry, the Festival Director, described it as a tonic to the nation. A Festival Council to advise the government was set up under General Lord Ismay, responsibility for organisation devolved upon the Lord President of the Council, Herbert Morrison, the deputy leader of the Labour Party, who had been London County Council leader. In March 1948, a Festival Headquarters was set up, which was to be the nucleus of the Festival of Britain Office, Festival projects in Northern Ireland were undertaken by the government of Northern Ireland. Associated with the Festival of Britain Office were the Arts Council of Great Britain, the Council of Industrial Design, the British Film Institute and the National Book League. Government grants were made to the Arts Council, the Council of Industrial Design, the British Film Institute and the National Museum of Wales for work undertaken as part of the Festival. A long-time editor with left-leaning, middle-brow views, he was energetic and optimistic, with an eye for what would be popular, unlike Morrison, Barry was not seen as a Labour ideologue. Barry selected the next rank, giving preference to young architects and they thought along the same lines socially and aesthetically, as middle-class intellectuals with progressive sympathies. Thanks to Barry a collegial sentiments prevailed that minimised stress and delay, the arts were displayed in a series of country-wide musical and dramatic performances. Achievements in architecture were to presented in a new neighbourhood, the Lansbury Estate, planned, built, there were other displays elsewhere, each intended to be complete in itself, yet each part of the one single conception
24.
Queen Elizabeth Hall
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The Queen Elizabeth Hall is a music venue on the South Bank in London, England, that hosts daily classical, jazz, and avant-garde music and dance performances. The QEH forms part of Southbank Centre arts complex and stands alongside the Royal Festival Hall, which was built for the Festival of Britain of 1951, and the Hayward Gallery. It stands on the site of a shot tower, built as part of a lead works in 1826. The venue was closed for two years of renovations in September 2015, the QEH has over 900 seats and the Purcell Room in the same building has 360 seats. These two auditoriums were built together by Higgs and Hill and opened in March 1967, the sculpture Zemran in stainless steel stands on the riverside terrace of the QEH. The QEH is an example of brutalist architecture, the design was intended to show to a high degree the separate masses and elements of the building, in order to avoid competing with the scale and presence of the Royal Festival Hall. The QEH uses minimal decoration and was designed to allow circulation at multiple levels around the building, the focus is primarily on the internal spaces, which have very limited fenestration except for the sweep along the river frontage of the foyer building. The original arrangements provided circulation above and below the foyer, right around the sides, the powerful forms and austere materials are an example of Brutalist architecture, and the design also highlights the plasticity of concrete. The foyer is at first floor level and the building is supported on octagonal reinforced concrete columns, with an undercroft below. The two arms of the vee-shape are linked to the QEH auditorium by cast concrete tubes, reminiscent of a spaceships docking arrangement, the provision of only two entrances to the auditorium causes congestion and slow exit for audiences. The foyer is a shape to accommodate the change in angle between the lines of Waterloo Bridge and the north-east side of the Royal Festival Hall. A notable feature of the QEH is the interior of the building, with its intimate scale and subtle use of materials. The original 1960s cool of this area has now largely lost due to the intrusion of artificial partitions to provide smaller areas for various activities by day as well as in the evening. Access to all parts of the building, including from the foyer to the auditorium, the main entrance to the foyer is from walkway level near the north end of the terrace of the Royal Festival Hall. To see the effect this should be viewed head-on from the north corner of the Royal Festival Hall. The entrance, in Brutalist style, is in the form of a slit in a concrete structure. A smaller entrance is provided at ground level, intended to be for visitors set down by car or coming from the car park under The Hayward and this entrance also appears to have led to the undercroft but that access is now blocked off. An internal stairs leads to the level from this lower entrance
25.
Purcell Room
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The Purcell Room is a concert and performance venue which forms part of the Southbank Centre, one of central Londons leading cultural complexes. It is named after the 17th century English composer Henry Purcell and has 370 seats, the Purcell Room hosts a wide range of chamber music, jazz, mime and poetry recitals. Access is via the foyer as for the Queen Elizabeth Hall. The Purcell Room was built at the time as the QEH, with which it shares a common foyer building. The focus of the building is its space and it makes few concessions to external decoration. From outside, even its position within Southbank Centre is not easy to discern. G West, the Purcell Room stands between the QEH auditorium and The Hayward, aligned parallel to Waterloo Bridge, with the stage backing on to the side of the QEH auditorium. The auditorium is cantilevered out over the access road and its rear façade faces the entrance to The Hayward. The auditorium is reported to be fitted with a Helmholtz resonator to allow its acoustic properties to be modified, the access link from the foyer building is through a massive sculpted concrete casing, visible from outside the entrance to The Hayward, near the overhead bridge. The artists foyer is between the Purcell Room and QEH auditoriums at ground level, the treatment of the ventilation services is an early example of the external treatment of such equipment. This idea later reached a peak in the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, the roof of the building, which is supported independently of the auditorium, holds the plant room for both the QEH and the Purcell Room. The plant rooms three massive vents are housed high above the walkway near the entrance to the Hayward and also towards the Waterloo Bridge side of the corner of the roof. Large concrete ducts lead from the plant room, vertically to the building below via the mysterious concrete tower
26.
Hayward Gallery
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The Hayward Gallery is an art gallery within the Southbank Centre, part of an area of major arts venues on the South Bank of the River Thames, in central London, England. It is sited adjacent to the other Southbank Centre buildings and also the Royal National Theatre, following a rebranding of the South Bank Centre to Southbank Centre in early 2007, the Hayward Gallery was known as the Hayward until early 2011. The gallery was closed in September 2015, for two years of renovations. The Hayward Gallery was built by Higgs and Hill and opened on 9 July 1968 and its massing and extensive use of exposed concrete construction are typical of Brutalist architecture. Warren Chalk then developed the plan and connective first floor walkways. Alan Waterhouse, then Dennis Crompton, worked on the designs for the Hayward, the building is named after Sir Isaac Hayward, a former leader of the London County Council, the GLCs predecessor. Joanna Drew was the founding Director and Ralph Rugoff is the current Director, the Hayward hosts three/four major temporary modern or contemporary exhibitions each year and does not house any permanent collections. From 1968 to 1986, the gallery was managed by the Arts Council of Great Britain, the gallery is also the base of the Arts Councils National Touring Exhibitions programme, as it was, until 2002, of the Arts Council Collection. Unlike British galleries receiving state funding support, but in common with other exhibitions at British galleries. The Haywards exhibition policy embraces visual art from all periods, and past shows have included the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Edvard Munch and the French Impressionists. It has hosted two surveys of works from the Arts Council Collection, British Art 1940–1980 and How to Improve the World,60 Years of British Art. The design brief was for five gallery spaces, two levels of galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts in order to house the Arts Council collection. The two levels of the open to the public are linked by a pair of cast concrete staircases. These staircases, and lavatories at a level, are accommodated in a concrete box in between the eastern and western parts of the indoor galleries. One of these staircases also runs down to level with access to Belvedere Road. This almost hidden private entrance is located below the foyer and external walkway on the facade, above the car park. The building originally had a small main foyer area with cast aluminium doors similar to those of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. A shop had been added earlier inside the north-west end of the lower gallery, the two upper galleries can use heavily filtered natural light from the glass pyramids on their flat roofs
27.
Nelson Mandela
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Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the countrys first black head of state and the first elected in a representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism, ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress party from 1991 to 1997. A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family and he studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943, after the National Partys white-only government established apartheid—a system of racial segregation that privileged whites—he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANCs Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he joined the banned South African Communist Party. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, amid growing domestic and international pressure, and with fears of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory, internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy. Mandela became a statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela was a figure for much of his life. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours—including the Nobel Peace Prize—and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba. Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning troublemaker, in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africas modern Eastern Cape province, one of Ngubengcukas sons, named Mandela, was Nelsons grandfather and the source of his surname. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrates unreasonable demands
28.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
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Waterloo tube station
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Waterloo is a London Underground station located within the Waterloo station complex that incorporates both the tube station and the main line railway station. It is the busiest station in Great Britain, with in excess of 99 million passenger entries and it is served by four lines, the Bakerloo, Jubilee, Northern and Waterloo & City lines. The station is situated in fare zone 1 and is located near the South Bank of the River Thames and its within walking distance to the London Eye. The first Underground Line at Waterloo was opened on 8 August 1898 by the Waterloo & City Railway, a subsidiary of the owners of the line station. The W&CR, nicknamed The Drain, achieved in a way the L&SWRs original plan of taking its tracks the short distance north-east into the City of London. On 10 March 1906, the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway was opened, on 13 September 1926, the extension of the Hampstead & Highgate line was opened from Embankment to the existing City & South London Railway station Kennington with a new station at Waterloo. As a subsidiary of the L&SWR and its successor, the Southern Railway, following nationalisation of the main line railway companies in 1948, it became part of British Railways. London Transport had already sought parliamentary approval to construct tunnels from Aldwych to Waterloo in November 1964, detailed planning took place, although public spending cuts led to postponement of the scheme in 1967 before tenders were invited. Due to an Easter shut-down, the first Underground service on the line was on 5 April 1994, on 24 September 1999, the Jubilee line station was opened as part of the Jubilee Line Extension. The Jubilee line platforms are at the end of the site from those of the Bakerloo and Northern lines. The station is served by London Buses routes 1,4,26,59,68,76,77,139,168,171,172,176,188,211,243,341,381,507,521, RV1 and X68 and night routes N1, N68, N76, N171, N20, N343 and N381
30.
Embankment tube station
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Embankment is a London Underground station in the City of Westminster, known by various names during its history. It is served by the Circle, District, Northern and Bakerloo lines, on the Northern and Bakerloo lines, the station is between Waterloo and Charing Cross stations, on the Circle and District lines, it is between Westminster and Temple and is in Travelcard Zone 1. The station has two entrances, one on Victoria Embankment and the other on Villiers Street, a variety of underground and main line services have operated over the sub-surface tracks and the CCE&HR part of the station was reconstructed in the 1920s. In 2014 major work commenced to replace the 80 year old escalators, work to replace them was difficult as they supported the station structure. The station was opened on 30 May 1870 by the DR when the extended its line from Westminster to Blackfriars. The construction of the new section of the DR was planned in conjunction with the building of the Victoria Embankment and was achieved by the cut, due to its proximity to the South Eastern Railways Charing Cross station, the station was originally called Charing Cross. The DR connected to the MR at South Kensington and, although the two companies were rivals, each operated its trains over the others tracks in a joint service known as the Inner Circle. On 1 February 1872, the DR opened a branch from its station at Earls Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway at Addison Road. From that date the Outer Circle service began running over the DRs tracks, the service was operated jointly by the H&CR and the DR. On 30 June 1900, the Middle Circle service was shortened to terminate at Earls Court, and, on 31 December 1908, in 1949, the Metropolitan line-operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the tube map as the Circle line. In 1897 the DR obtained parliamentary permission to construct a tube railway running between Gloucester Road and Mansion House beneath the sub-surface line. The new line was to be a route using electric trains to relieve congestion on the sub-surface tracks. Only one intermediate station was planned, at Charing Cross,63 feet below the sub-surface platforms, the plan was dropped in 1908. On 10 March 1906, the BS&WR opened with its deep-level platforms beneath, although an interchange was provided between the two separate railways, the BS&WR named its station differently as Embankment. On 6 April 1914, the CCE&HR opened a one stop extension south from its terminus at Charing Cross, the extension was constructed to facilitate a better interchange between the BS&WR and CCE&HR. Both lines were owned by the UERL which operated two separate and unconnected stations at the end of main line station – Trafalgar Square on the BS&WR. The CCE&HR extension was constructed as a single track running south from Charing Cross as a loop under the River Thames. A single platform was constructed on the return section of the loop
31.
Textile design
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Textile design is essentially the process of creating designs for woven, knitted or printed fabrics or surface ornamented fabrics. Textile designers are involved with the production of designs, which are used, sometimes repetitively, in clothing. The field encompasses the actual pattern making while supervising the production process, in other words, textile design is a process from the raw material into finished product. Fiber, yarn and finishes are the key elements to be considered during the design procedure. Textile designing is a field that includes fashion design, carpet manufacturing. Textile design fulfills a variety of purposes in our lives, for example, our clothing, carpets, drapes, towels, and rugs are all a result of textile design. These examples illustrate the significance of textiles in our daily lives, the creations of textiles are not only important for their use, but also for the role they play in the fashion industry. Textile designers have the ability to inspire collections, trends, the textile industry, while being a creative art form, is a very business savvy industry. Textile designers marry a creative vision of what a finished textile will look like with an understanding of the technical aspects of production and the properties of fiber, yarn. The creative process often begins with different art mediums to map concepts for the finished product, traditionally, drawings of woven textile patterns were translated onto special forms of graph paper called point papers, which were used by the weavers in setting up their looms. Today, most professional textile designers use some form of computer-aided design software created expressly for this purpose, some of the latest advances in textile printing have been in the area of digital printing. The process is similar to the computer controlled paper printers used for office applications, in addition, heat-transfer printing is another popular printing method to be used in the textile design. Patterns are often designed in repeat to maintain a balanced design even when fabric is made into yardage, repeat size is the distance directly across or down from any motif in a design to the next place that same motif occurs. The size of the repeat is determined by the production method, for example, printed repeat patterns must fit within particular screen sizes while woven repeat patterns must fit within certain loom sizes. There are several different types of layouts for repeated patterns, some of the most common repeats are straight and half drop. Often, the design is produced in many different colored versions. Zika Ascher came to England from Prague in 1939 and established a textile business in London with his wife Lida. During the 1940s the Aschers commissioned leading artists such as Matisse, from 1946 Ascher supplied fabrics to the international fashion industry
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Lucienne Day
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Désirée Lucienne Lisbeth Dulcie Day OBE RDI FCSD was a British textile designer. Day drew on inspiration from other arts to develop a new style of abstract pattern-making in post-war British textiles and she was also active in other fields, such as wallpapers, ceramics and carpets. Born in Coulsdon, Surrey, England, and raised in nearby Croydon, Lucienne Day was half-Belgian, the daughter of an English mother and a Belgian father, who worked as a re-insurance broker. Initially educated at home, she attended Woodford School in Croydon from 1926-9, at the age of 17 Lucienne enrolled at Croydon School of Art, where she developed her interest in printed textiles. She went on to specialise in this field at the Royal College of Art, where she studied from 1937-40. During her second year she was sent on a placement to the firm Sanderson, where she worked in the companys large wallpaper studio. ”In March 1940, during her final year at the RCA, Lucienne met her future husband, furniture designer Robin Day. Due to wartime constraints on manufacturing, Lucienne was unable to pursue her career as a designer for several years. In the interim she taught at Beckenham School of Art, initially the main openings were in the field of dress fabrics, where her clients included Stevenson & Sons, Argand, Pasman Fabrics, Silkella, Horrockses and Cavendish Textiles. In the longer term Lucienne’s aim was to design furnishing fabrics and her first significant client was the Edinburgh Weavers, who produced two screen-printed furnishing fabrics in 1949. Shortly afterwards, she was commissioned to design a stylised floral by Heal’s Wholesale and Export and this fabric, Fluellin, marked the start of her long relationship with Heal’s, which lasted until 1974. The Festival of Britain, an exhibition held on London’s South Bank in 1951. Seizing the opportunity to showcase her talents, she created several textiles and wallpapers which were displayed in room settings in the Homes. Her most famous design, Calyx, was created as a fabric for an interior designed by her husband Robin Day. Although Heal’s were initially sceptical about Calyx, it proved a success, also exhibited at the Milan Triennale in 1951, where it won a Gold Medal, this design generated a new school of pattern-making which became known as the Contemporary style. Calyx was widely emulated by other designers both at home and abroad, Lucienne also designed three wallpapers for the Festival of Britain, Provence, block printed by John Line & Son, and Stella and Diabolo, screen printed by Cole & Son. Following the success of Calyx, Lucienne Day was commissioned Tom Worthington, Heal Fabrics’ managing director, over the course of their 25-year partnership, Lucienne created more than seventy designs for Heal’s. At this date Lucienne’s textiles were characterised by energetic rhythms and a spidery, although apparently spontaneous, however, her designs displayed considerable technical skill, particularly their colourways and repeats. As well as abstracts, she often created stylised organic patterns incorporating motifs such as skeletal leaves, spindly stems, feathery seed heads
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Alvar Aalto
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Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto was a Finnish architect and designer, as well as a sculptor and painter. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware and his furniture designs were considered Scandinavian Modern. The Alvar Aalto Museum, designed by Aalto himself, is located in what is regarded as his home city Jyväskylä, hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto was born in Kuortane, Finland. His father, Johan Henrik Aalto, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, when Aalto was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland. Aalto studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, where he completed his education in 1916. In 1916 he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology and his studies were interrupted by the Finnish Civil War, which he fought in. He fought on the side of the White Army and fought at the Battle of Länkipohja and he built his first piece of architecture while still a student, a house for his parents, at Alajärvi. Afterwards, he continued his education, graduating in 1921, in the summer of 1922 he began his official military service, finishing at the Hamina reserve officer training school, and was promoted to reserve second lieutenant in June 1923. In 1920, while still a student, Aalto made his first trip abroad, travelling via Stockholm to Gothenburg, in 1922, he accomplished his first independent piece at the Industrial Exposition in Tampere. In 1923 he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened his first architectural office under the name Alvar Aalto, Architect, at that same time he also wrote articles for the Jyväskylä newspaper Sisä-Suomi under the pseudonym Remus. During this time, he designed a number of small houses in Jyväskylä. On October 6,1924, Aalto married architect Aino Marsio, their journey to Italy was Aaltos first trip there. The latter trip together sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that was to remain important to Aalto for the rest of his life, following winning the architecture competition for the Southwest Finland Agricultural Cooperative building in 1927 the Aaltos moved their office to Turku. They had made contact with the citys most progressive architect, Erik Bryggman, already before moving, Aaltos biographer, Göran Schildt, claimed that Bryggman was the only architect with whom Aalto cooperated as an equal. With increasing works in the Finnish capital, the Aaltos office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki, in 1926 the young Aaltos designed and had built for themselves a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora. Aino Aalto died of cancer in 1949, Aino and Alvar Aalto had 2 children, a daughter Johanna Hanni Alanen, born Aalto,1925, and a son Hamilkar Aalto,1928. In 1952 Aalto married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi, who had been working as an assistant in his office, in 1952 Aalto designed and had built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his new wife in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. Alvar Aalto died on 11 May 1976, in Helsinki, and is buried in the Hietaniemi cemetery in Helsinki and his wife and the office employees continued the works of the office which were still in progress
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Gunnar Asplund
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Asplund was professor of architecture at the Royal Institute of Technology from 1931. His appointment was marked by a lecture, later published under the title Our architectonic concept of space and it was particularly influential on the proposal submitted for the competition for the design of the Viipuri Library in 1927 by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, who regarded Asplund as his mentor. Asplund collaborated with architect Sigurd Lewerentz in the design of Skogskyrkogården and they were also the main architects for the temporary Stockholm International Exhibition. Although temporary, the modernist, exposed-glass-and-steel-frame Entry Pavilion at the fair was internationally influential, gunnar Asplund is considered perhaps the most important modernist Swedish architect and has had a major influence on later generations of Swedish and Nordic architects. The lecture Our architectonic concept of space was delivered in 1931 on the occasion of Asplund being appointed professor of architecture at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. The lecture was later regarded as an important contribution to the attitudes of Asplund, as well as others of his generation, the lecture has its background in the then well known 2-volume book by German philosopher Oswald Spengler The decline of the West
35.
Herbert Morrison
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Herbert Stanley Morrison, Baron Morrison of Lambeth, CH, PC was a British Labour politician who held a variety of senior positions in the Cabinet. Returning to the Commons in 1935, he was defeated by Clement Attlee in the Labour leadership election that year, Morrison organised Labours victorious 1945 election campaign, and served as Leader of the House of Commons and Deputy Prime Minister in Attlees governments of 1945–51. Attlee, Morrison, Ernest Bevin, Stafford Cripps and Hugh Dalton formed the Big Five who dominated those governments, Morrison oversaw Labours nationalisation programme, although he opposed Aneurin Bevans proposals for a nationalised hospital service as part of the setting up of the National Health Service. Morrison developed his views from his work in local politics. In the final year of Attlees premiership Morrison served a term as Foreign Secretary. Morrison was widely expected to succeed Attlee as Labour leader, but Attlee, Morrison, who was considered too old, came a poor third in the ensuing Labour leadership election. Morrison was the son of a constable and was born in Stockwell Lambeth. As a baby he permanently lost the sight in his right eye due to infection and he attended Stockwell Road Primary School and left school at 14 to become an errand boy. His early politics were radical, and he flirted with the Social Democratic Federation over the Independent Labour Party. As a conscientious objector, he worked in a garden in Letchworth in World War One where he met his wife. His total involvement in politics undermined his marriage, he never mentioned his wife in his autobiography, Morrison eventually became a pioneer leader in the London Labour Party. He was elected to the Metropolitan Borough of Hackney in 1919 when the Labour Party won control of the Borough, Morrison was a follower of Clapton Orient FC and became a shareholder in the club. Morrison returned to Parliament in the 1929 general election, and MacDonald appointed him Minister of Transport, Morrison, like many others in the party, was deeply disheartened by MacDonalds national government, and he lost his seat again in 1931. Morrison continued to sit on the London County Council and in 1933 was elected to lead the Labour Group, managers would be appointed to run monopoly industries in the public interest. He did not, however, envisage democratic control by the workers, unexpectedly, Labour won the 1934 LCC election and Morrison became Leader of the Council. This gave him control of almost all government services in London. He confronted the Government over its refusal to finance the replacement of Waterloo Bridge, in the 1935 election Morrison was once again elected to the House of Commons and immediately challenged Attlee for the leadership of the party. He was defeated by a margin in the final ballot
36.
Labour Party (UK)
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The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
37.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
38.
Cantilevered
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
39.
Clement Attlee
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Attlee was the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, serving under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government. He went on to lead the Labour Party to an election victory in summer 1945. One of only a handful of Labour frontbenchers to retain his seat in the defeat of 1931. In 1935 he became the Leader of the Party, at first advocating pacificism and appeasement, he later reversed his position and by 1938 became a strong critic of Neville Chamberlains attempts to appease Adolf Hitler. He took Labour into the Churchill war ministry in 1940, initially serving as Lord Privy Seal, he was appointed Deputy Prime Minister in 1942. With victory in Europe in May 1945, the government was dissolved. Attlee led Labour to win a majority in the ensuing 1945 general election two months later. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of public utilities and major industries, Attlee himself had little interest in economic matters but this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties for three decades. Foreign policy was the domain of Ernest Bevin, but Attlee took special interest in India. He supervised the process by which India was partitioned into India and he also arranged the independence of Burma, and Ceylon. His government ended the British Mandates of Palestine and Jordan, from 1947 he and Bevin pushed the United States to take a more vigorous role in the emerging Cold War against Soviet Communism. When the budgetary crisis forced Britain out of Greece in 1947 he called on Washington to counter the Communists with the Truman Doctrine and he avidly supported the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe with American money. In 1949, he promoted the NATO military alliance against the Soviet bloc and he sent British troops to fight in the Malayan Emergency in 1948 and sent the RAF to participate in the Berlin Airlift. He commissioned an independent nuclear deterrent for the UK and he used 13,000 troops and passed special legislation to promptly end the London dock strike in 1949. After leading Labour to a victory in the 1950 general election. Attlee was narrowly defeated by the Conservatives under Churchill in the 1951 general election and he continued as Labour leader but had lost his effectiveness by then. He retired after losing the 1955 general election and was elevated to the House of Lords, in public, Attlee was modest and unassuming, he was ineffective at public relations and lacked charisma. His strengths emerged behind the scenes, especially in committees where his depth of knowledge, quiet demeanour, objectivity and he saw himself as spokesman on behalf of his entire party and successfully kept its multiple factions in harness
40.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
41.
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother
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Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was the last Empress consort of India, born into a family of British nobility, she came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service and she undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the Smiling Duchess because of her consistent public expression. In 1936, her husband became king when his brother, Edward VIII. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II, during the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, after the war, her husbands health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen, on the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth became the most senior member of the British royal family after the sovereign, and was viewed as the family matriarch. In her later years, she was a popular member of the family. She continued a public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter. Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis, other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott. Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire, near the Strathmores English country house, St Pauls Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year. She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the parish church, All Saints. She spent much of her childhood at St Pauls Walden and at Glamis Castle and she was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs. When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophons Anabasis and her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler. On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany, four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915, another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917. Three weeks later, the family discovered he had captured after being wounded
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Malcolm Sargent
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Sir Harold Malcolm Watts Sargent was an English conductor, organist and composer widely regarded as Britains leading conductor of choral works. As chief conductor of Londons internationally famous music festival the Proms from 1948 to 1967. When he took over the Proms from their founder, Sir Henry Wood, he, by the time he died, he was assisted by a large international roster of guest conductors. He toured widely throughout the world and was noted for his skill as a conductor, his championship of British composers, and his debonair appearance, Sargent was born in Bath Villas, Ashford, in Kent, England, to a working-class family. His father, Henry Sargent, was a merchant, amateur musician and part-time church organist, his mother, Agnes. Sargent was brought up in Stamford, Lincolnshire, where he joined the choir at Peterborough Cathedral, studied the organ, at the age of 14, he accompanied rehearsals for amateur productions of The Gondoliers and The Yeomen of the Guard at Stamford. At the age of 16 he earned his diploma as Associate of the Royal College of Organists and he was chosen for the organist post over more than 150 other applicants. At the age of 24 Sargent became Englands youngest Doctor of Music, Sargents break came when Sir Henry Wood visited De Montfort Hall, Leicester, early in 1921 with the Queens Hall orchestra. As it was customary to commission a piece from a local composer, Sargent completed the work too late for Wood to have enough time to learn it, and so Wood called on Sargent to conduct the first performance himself. Sargent was invited to conduct the Impression again in the 1923 season, on the advice of Wood, among others, he soon abandoned composition in favour of conducting. He founded the amateur Leicester Symphony Orchestra in 1922, which he continued to conduct until 1939, under Sargent, the orchestras prestige grew until it was able to obtain such top-flight soloists as Alfred Cortot, Artur Schnabel, Solomon, Guilhermina Suggia and Benno Moiseiwitsch. Moiseiwitsch gave Sargent piano lessons without charge, judging him talented enough to make a career as a concert pianist. At the instigation of Wood and Adrian Boult he became a lecturer at the Royal College of Music in London in 1923, in the 1920s, Sargent became one of the best-known English conductors. Some of the principal cast members and the director, J. M. Gordon, objected to Sargents fast tempi. The DOyly Carte seasons brought Sargents name to a public with an early BBC radio relay of The Mikado in 1926 heard by up to eight million people. The Evening Standard noted that this was probably the largest audience that has heard anything at one time in the history of the world. In 1927, Sergei Diaghilev engaged Sargent to conduct for the Ballets Russes, sharing the duties with Igor Stravinsky. Sargent also conducted for the final Ballets Russes season in 1928, in 1928 he became conductor of the Royal Choral Society, and he retained this post for four decades until his death
43.
Adrian Boult
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Sir Adrian Cedric Boult, CH was an English conductor. His first prominent post was conductor of the City of Birmingham Orchestra in 1924, when the British Broadcasting Corporation appointed him director of music in 1930, he established the BBC Symphony Orchestra and became its chief conductor. The orchestra set standards of excellence that were rivalled in Britain only by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, forced to leave the BBC in 1950 on reaching retirement age, Boult took on the chief conductorship of the LPO. The orchestra had declined from its peak of the 1930s, and he retired as its chief conductor in 1957, and later accepted the post of president. Boult was known for his championing of British music and he gave the first performance of his friend Gustav Holsts The Planets, and introduced new works by, among others, Bliss, Britten, Delius, Tippett, Vaughan Williams and Walton. In his BBC years he introduced works by composers, including Bartók, Berg, Stravinsky, Schoenberg. A modest man who disliked the limelight, Boult felt as comfortable in the studio as on the concert platform. From the mid-1960s until his retirement after his last sessions in 1978 he recorded extensively for EMI, Boult was born in Chester, Cheshire, in North West England, the second child and only son of Cedric Randal Boult, and his wife Katharine Florence née Barman. When Boult was two years old the family moved to Blundellsands, where he was given a musical upbringing, in 1910, the family acquired the Lagafater Estate, in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. From an early age he attended concerts in Liverpool, conducted mostly by Hans Richter. His biographer, Michael Kennedy, writes, Few schoolboys can have attended as many performances by artists as Boult heard between 1901 and October 1908, when he went up to Christ Church, Oxford. While still a schoolboy, Boult met the composer Edward Elgar through Frank Schuster, among the musical friends he made at Oxford was Ralph Vaughan Williams, who became a lifelong friend. These guiding principles lasted throughout his career, Boult graduated in 1912, with a basic pass degree. He continued his education at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1912–13. The musician Hans Sitt was in charge of the conducting class and he later recalled, I went to all his rehearsals and concerts in the Gewandhaus. He had an astonishing baton technique and great command of the orchestra, but there were others who were greater interpreters. Boult admired Nikisch not so much for his musicianship but his power of saying what he wanted with a bit of wood. This style was in accord with Boults opinion that all conductors should be clad in an invisible Tarnhelm which makes it possible to enjoy the music without seeing any of the antics that go on
44.
Bernard Levin
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Henry Bernard Levin CBE was an English journalist, author and broadcaster, described by The Times as the most famous journalist of his day. The son of a poor Jewish family in London, he won a scholarship to the independent school Christs Hospital and went on to the London School of Economics, graduating in 1952. After a short spell in a job at the BBC selecting press cuttings for use in programmes, he secured a post as a junior member of the editorial staff of a weekly periodical, Truth. Levin reviewed television for the Manchester Guardian and wrote a political column in The Spectator noted for its irreverence and influence on modern parliamentary sketches. During the 1960s he wrote five columns a week for the Daily Mail on any subject that he chose and he began to write books in the 1970s, publishing 17 between 1970 and 1998. From the early 1990s, Levin developed Alzheimers disease, which forced him to give up his regular column in 1997. Levin was born in London, the child and only son of Philip Levin, a tailor of Jewish Bessarabian descent. Philip Levin abandoned the family and moved to South Africa when Levin was three, the two children were brought up with the help of their maternal grandparents, who had emigrated from Lithuania at the turn of the 20th century. And had hardly anything to do with the religion of their father, in return, as he grew older, he used to read to them. Bernard could not read Hebrew, but he could get by in Yiddish. Rose Levin was a cook, and, though the household was not well off. The cuisine was traditional Jewish, with fried fish as one cornerstone of the repertoire, as an adult Levin retained his love of Jewish cookery along with his passion for French haute cuisine. Levin persevered ineptly for two and a half years and then gave up with relief, the experience put him off music for some time, and it was only later that it became one of his passions, a frequent topic in his writing. Levin was a child and, encouraged by his mother, he worked hard enough to win a scholarship to the independent school Christs Hospital in the countryside near Horsham. His housemaster was D. S. Macnutt, the head of Classics. In the local streets, the schools uniform, including a cloak and tight stockings. Levins biographer Bel Mooney writes of this period, Jeers put iron in his soul, among the consolations of Christs Hospital was its thriving musical life. At concerts by the orchestra, Levin listened seriously to music for the first time
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