1.
Baroque architecture
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It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow, and dramatic intensity. Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on the one hand more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, the new style manifested itself in particular in the context of the new religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits who aimed to improve popular piety. The architecture of the High Roman Baroque can be assigned to the reigns of Urban VIII, Innocent X and Alexander VII. Dissemination of Baroque architecture to the south of Italy resulted in variations such as Sicilian Baroque architecture or that of Naples. To the north, the Theatine architect Camillo-Guarino Guarini, Bernardo Vittone and Sicilian born Filippo Juvarra contributed Baroque buildings to the city of Turin and the Piedmont region. A synthesis of Bernini, Borromini and Cortona’s architecture can be seen in the late Baroque architecture of northern Europe which paved the way for the more decorative Rococo style. During the 17th century, Baroque architecture spread through Europe and Latin America, michelangelos late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peters Basilica, may be considered precursors to Baroque architecture. Colonialism required the development of centralized and powerful governments with Spain and France, the initial mismanagement of colonial wealth by the Spaniards bankrupted them in the 16th century, recovering only slowly in the following century. While this was good for the industries and the arts, the new wealth created an inflation. Rome was known just as much for its new sumptuous churches as for its vagabonds, one of the first Roman structures to break with the Mannerist conventions exemplified in the Gesù, was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno. The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, central massing, there is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains rigor. These concerns are more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace. Probably the most well known example of such an approach is Saint Peters Square, the piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free standing columns centred on an Egyptian obelisk. Berninis own favourite design was his church of SantAndrea al Quirinale decorated with polychome marbles. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini based on plans by Maderno, Berninis rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive. Borrominis architectural spaces seem to expand and contract when needed, showing some affinity with the style of Michelangelo. A later work, the church of SantIvo alla Sapienza, displays the same playful inventiveness and antipathy to the flat surface, following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome
2.
Classicism
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Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
3.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Philip V of Spain
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Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a grandson of King Louis XIV. His father, Louis, the Grand Dauphin, had the strongest genealogical claim to the throne of Spain when it became vacant in 1700. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, Philip was the first member of the House of Bourbon to rule as king of Spain. The sum of his two reigns,45 years and 21 days, is the longest in modern Spanish history and he was a younger brother of Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the father of Louis XV of France. At birth, Philip was created Duke of Anjou, a title for younger sons in the French royal family. He would be known by name until he became the king of Spain. Philip was tutored with his brothers by François Fénelon, Archbishop of Cambrai, the three were also educated by Paul de Beauvilliers. In 1700 the King Charles II of Spain died childless and his will named the turning 17-year-old Philip, grandson of Charles half-sister Maria Theresa, the first wife of Louis XIV, as his successor. Upon any possible refusal, the crown of Spain would be offered next to Philips younger brother, Philip had the better genealogical claim to the Spanish throne, because his Spanish grandmother and great-grandmother were older than the ancestors of the Archduke Charles of Austria. However, the Austrian branch claimed that Philips grandmother had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and this was countered by the French branchs claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid. After the Royal Council decided to accept the provisions of the will of Charles II naming Philip king of Spain, the ambassador, along with his son, knelt before Philip and made a long speech in Spanish which Philip did not understand, although Louis XIV did. Philip only later learned to speak Spanish, on 2 November 1701 the almost 18 year old Philip married the 13-year-old Maria Luisa of Savoy, as chosen by his grandfather King Louis XIV, by then an old man of 63. She was the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, there was a proxy ceremony at Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, and another one at Versailles on 11 September. As queen of Spain, Maria Luisa proved very popular with her subjects and she served as regent for her husband on several occasions. Her most successful term was when Philip was away touring his Italian domains for nine months in 1702, in 1714, she died at the age of 26 from tuberculosis, a devastating emotional blow to her husband. The actions of Louis XIV heightened the fears of the English, the Dutch, however, a second act of the French king justified a hostile interpretation, pursuant to a treaty with Spain, Louis occupied several towns in the Spanish Netherlands. This was the spark that ignited the powder keg created by the issues of the War of the League of Augsburg. Almost immediately the War of the Spanish Succession began, inside Spain, the Crown of Castile supported Philip of France
6.
Filippo Juvarra
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Filippo Juvarra was an Italian architect and stage set designer, active in a late-Baroque style. He was born in Messina, Sicily, to a family of goldsmiths, after spending his formative years with his family in Sicily where he designed Messinas festive settings for the coronation of Philip V of Spain and Sicily, Juvarra moved to Rome in 1704. There he studied architecture with Carlo and Francesco Fontana, the first phase of his independent career was occupied with designs for ceremonies and celebrations, and especially with set designs for theatres. Juvarras set designs incorporate the scena per angolo, literally scenes at an angle, the exact origin of this style is unclear. Ferdinando Galli Bibiena claims to have invented it in his treatise Architettura Civile, however, the style was clearly in use before then, including in the works of Juvarra. A couple of early drawings by Juvarra, dated 1706, are associated with the Teatro S. Bartolomeo, Naples, the majority of his work in theatre and set design was in Rome under the patronage of Cardinal Ottoboni. He assisted in the rebuilding of the Cardinals private theatre in the Palazzo della Cancelleria, the first opera for which Juvarra designed all the sets was Costantino Pio. The libretto was by Cardinal Ottoboni and the music was by Carlo Francesco Pollarolli, the opera was premiered in 1709 and was one of the first operas to appear after the lifting of papal bans on secular theatre, it also inaugurated Ottoboni’s newly renovated private theatre. He also worked on set designs for performances sponsored by Ottoboni at the Teatro Capranica, in 1713 a theatre project took him to Genoa. In 1706 Juvarra won a contest for the new sacristy at the St. Peters, organized by Pope Clement XI, Juvarra was also an engraver, his book of engravings of sculpted coats-of-arms appeared in 1711, Raccolta di varie targhe fatte da professori primarii di Roma. He was engaged in projects in Lombardy, including a monumental altar for the Sanctuary Church of Caravaggio. He also designed the decorative belltower for the cathedral of Belluno, one of Juvarras masterworks, the basilica church of Superga, was built in 1731 and rises at the top of a mountain overlooking the city of Turin. It was part-picturesque monument and part-royal mausoloeum for the family of Savoy, construction was arduous, and took over fourteen years, including two years to flatten the mountaintop, and at incredible cost and effort to bring the stones and supplies to the peak. Behind the church was a monastery, the classical portico is appended to a centralized church with a highly vertical, seventy five meter, baroque dome, the latter creates a mountain atop a mountain effect. He also built in Turin the church of the Blessed Virgin of the Carmine and he also helped decorate the interior of many churches in Turin. He also built churches, including the bizarre, Borrominesque church of San Gregorio in Messina. In Mantua, he added a tall buttressed dome to the Alberti church of SantAndrea, the Palace of Stupinigi was built to be the royal hunting lodge some 6 miles outside of Turin, the huge layout and highly decorated interiors made this palace a grand setting for summer retreats. Juvarra fulfills the needs of his patron for classical grandeur, but with the urge to decorate
7.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
8.
Spanish Royal Family
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The House of Bourbon-Anjou is the current Spanish Royal Family. It consists of the present king, the consort, their children. The Spanish royal family belongs to the House of Bourbon, the membership of the Royal Family is defined by royal decree and consists of, the King of Spain, the monarchs spouse, the monarchs parents, and the heir to the Spanish throne. The Spanish Royal Family should not be confused with the Family of the King and he or She is styled His or Her Majesty. The Kings wife bears the title of Queen with the style Her Majesty, the husband of the Queen regnant bears the title of Prince and is styled His Royal Highness. The Kings heir apparent or heir presumptive bears the title Prince or Princess of Asturias with the style His or Her Royal Highness, the children of an Infante or Infanta have the rank of Grandees, and the style of His or Her Excellency. Spouses and widows/widowers of the sons and daughters, other than those of the Prince or Princess of Asturias, are entitled to the form of address. The sovereign may also grant the dignity of Infante or Infanta with the style of Highness. If the heirs of King Juan Carlos I were to be extinguished and it is incumbent for the monarch to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies. Royal patronage conveys a sense of credibility as the organization is scrutinized for suitability. Royalty make use of their celebrity to assist the organization to raise funds or to promote government policy. Additionally, members of the family may also pursue their own charitable. King Felipe also serves as chair of the Ministry of Culture National Awards Ceremonies. King Juan Carlos, Queen Sofia, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group, an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, line of succession to the Spanish Throne
9.
Felipe VI
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Felipe VI is the King of Spain. He ascended to the throne on 19 June 2014 following the abdication of his father and he is the only son of Juan Carlos and his wife Sofía of Greece and Denmark. When Juan Carlos was chosen in 1969 to be Francisco Francos successor, Felipe became heir apparent when Juan Carlos succeeded Franco as head of state following his death in 1975. He was created Prince of Asturias in 1977, the title for the first in line. As Prince of Asturias, he worked to support philanthropic causes, in 2004, Felipe married TV presenter Letizia Ortiz with whom he has two daughters. Leonor, the elder, is his heir apparent and he succeeded his father as King of Spain when he abdicated in 2014. Felipe was born at Our Lady of Loreto Clinic in Madrid and he was baptised on 8 February 1968 at the Palace of Zarzuela by the Archbishop of Madrid, Casimiro Morcillo. His godparents were his paternal grandfather Juan and his paternal great-grandmother, shortly after his birth he was styled infante, although his father was not yet king. The ruling dictator General Francisco Franco died just over two months before Felipes eighth birthday, and Felipes father ascended the throne, in his first official appearance, Felipe attended his fathers proclamation as king on 22 November 1975. In 1977, Felipe was formally created Prince of Asturias, in May, nine-year-old Felipe was made an honorary soldier of the 1st Kings Immemorial Infantry Regiment. The occasion was marked on 28 May and was attended by the king, on 1 November the same year, he was ceremoniously paid homage as Prince of Asturias in Covadonga. In 1981 Felipe received the Collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece from his father, Felipe attended school at Santa María de los Rosales, which his daughters currently attend. As the heir to the throne, a regulated and structured plan was laid out for Felipes military training. In August 1985, a Royal Decree named Felipe as officer at the General Military Academy in Zaragoza and he began his military training there in September. He completed the first phase of his formation in October, in July 1986, he was promoted to Cadet 2nd Lieutenant. He was also named as Midshipman, on September 1986, he began his naval training at the Escuela Naval Militar in Pontevedra, joining the Third Brigade. In January 1987, he continued his training on board the training ship Juan Sebastián Elcano. In July, he was named as Student Ensign at the Academia General del Aire in Murcia, in September 1987, he began his air force training there
10.
Palace of Zarzuela
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The Palace of Zarzuela is the residence of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia and their family. The palace is on the outskirts of Madrid, near the Royal Palace of El Pardo, the complex also houses the official residence of the current King and his family in a nearby mansion. The palace is owned by the Spanish State and administered by an agency named the Patrimonio Nacional. During the 17th century, King Philip IV ordered a palace or hunting lodge to be built at La Zarzuela near Madrid. The name Zarzuela is thought to be derived from the word zarzas meaning brambles and it was a rectangular, slate-roofed building with two lateral arcades. Carlos IV had the building altered to adapt it to 18th century fashion, juan Carlos and his wife have lived in the palace since their marriage during 1962. The Royal Palace in the centre of Madrid, the principal residence of the Spanish kings, is the official residence of the King. During summer 2002, Felipe VI, then Prince of Asturias, relocated into a new residence, the palace theatre was the place of origin of the Spanish operetta style, zarzuela. Official webpage of the Spanish Monarchy
11.
Manzanares River
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The Manzanares is a river in central Spain, which flows from the Sierra de Guadarrama, passes through Madrid, and eventually empties into the Jarama river, which in turn is a tributary to the Tagus. The river Manzanares has its source near the Navacerrada mountain pass in the Guadarrama mountain range, the upper river basin is protected as the Parque Regional de la Cuenca Alta del Manzanares, a nature reserve which is recognised as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO. The river then takes a southern direction and enters the Monte del Pardo, the river is canalised where it passes through the built-up areas of the city. As at 2009 a project is in progress to provide river beaches and it is along this stretch that it passes next to Atlético Madrids football ground, the Vicente Calderón. The river leaves the city at its southernmost tip, the river Manzanares, although small and relatively unimportant geographically, has had a great historical importance due to its close relation to the city of Madrid. The city was founded by the Moors as a citadel overlooking the river in the ninth century, the Bridge of the French was of crucial importance because of its strategic location. There, nationalists forces were repelled and denied access to Madrid’s city center
12.
Madrid metro
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The Madrid Metro is a metro system serving the city of Madrid, capital of Spain. The system is the 7th longest metro in the world, having a length of 293 km. The Madrid Metro operates every day from 6 am until 1,30 am, a light rail system feeding the metro opened in 2007 called Metro Ligero. The Cercanias system works in conjunction with the metro servicing commuter train services to, some underground stations are large enough to hold public events, such as the three-day fitness festival in May 2011, which attracted 2,600 visitors. One station contains a 200-square-meter archaeological museum, the Madrid Metro has 1,698 escalators, the most of any system in the world. The first line of the Madrid metro opened on 17 October 1919 under the direction of the Compañía de Metro Alfonso XIII, the Madrid Metro is the first metro system in Spain and the second in the Spanish-speaking world after the Buenos Aires Underground. It was constructed in a section and the stations had 60 m platforms. The enlargement of this line and the construction of two others followed shortly after 1919, in 1924, traffic in Madrid switched from driving on the left, to driving on the right, but the lines of the Madrid Metro kept operating on the left hand side. In 1936, the network had three lines and a line between Opera and Norte railway station. All these stations served as air raid shelters during the Spanish Civil War, after the Civil war, the public works to extend the network went on little by little. In the 1960s, a railway was constructed between Plaza de España and Carabanchel, linked to lines 2 and 3. A fifth metro line was constructed as well with narrow section but 90 m platforms, shortly after opening the first section of line 5, the platforms in line 1 were enlarged from 60 to 90 m, closing Chamberí station since it was too close to Iglesia. Chamberí has been closed ever since and has recently opened as a museum. In the early 1970s, the network was expanded to cope with the influx of population. New lines were planned with large 115 m platforms, lines 4 and 5 were enlarged as well. In 1979, bad management led to a crisis, Works already started were finished during the 1980s and all remaining projects were abandoned. After all those projects,100 km of track had been completed. At the beginning of the 1990s, control of the network was transferred to a public enterprise, more large-scale expansion projects were carried out
13.
Moors
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Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
14.
Alfonso VI of Castile
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Alfonso VI, nicknamed the Brave or the Valiant, was the son of King Ferdinand I of León and Queen Sancha, daughter of Alfonso V and sister of Bermudo III. He became king of León and of Galicia, and then king of the reunited Castile, the son of Ferdinand I, King of León and Count of Castile and his wife, Queen Sancha, Alfonso was a Leonese Infante with Navarrese and Castilian blood. His paternal grandparents were Sancho Garcés III, king of Pamplona and his wife Muniadona of Castile, the year of Alfonsos birth is not recorded in medieval documentation. Bernard F. Reilly says he died at age 72, which would place his birth in 1037, the second child and eldest son, Sancho, would have been born in the second half of 1038 or in 1039. All of them, except Elvira, confirm a document in the monastery of San Juan Bautista de Corias on 26 April 1046, the cleric Raimundo was in charge of Alfonsos early education. Already king, Alfonso appointed him Bishop of Palencia and referred to him as magistro nostro, viro nobile et Deum timenti, as the second son of the king of León and Count of Castile, Alfonso would not have been entitled to inherit the throne. His elder brother, Sancho, was given the Kingdom of Castile, created by his father for him, the conflicts began after the death of their mother Queen Sancha on 7 November 1067, leading to seven years of war between the three brothers. The first skirmish was the Battle of Llantada, a trial by ordeal in which both agreed that the one who was victorious would obtain the kingdom of the defeated brother. This was the event where both decided to join forces to divide between themselves the Kingdom of Galicia that had been assigned to their younger brother García II. After eliminating their brother, Alfonso VI and Sancho II titled themselves kings of Galicia, the truce was broken with the Battle of Golpejera on 12 January 1072. However, during the siege, Sancho II was murdered, according to tradition, during the siege a nobleman named Vellido Dolfos appeared before the king, claiming to have changed his loyalty from Urraca to Sancho. Under the pretense of showing him the parts of the citys walls, Dolfos separated the king from his guard. The violent death of Sancho II, who had no descendants, allowed Alfonso VI to reclaim his throne as well as Sanchos and Garcias original inheritances of Castile and Galicia, respectively. Although Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, the standard-bearer and confidant of King Sancho II, was present at the siege of Zamora, neither can Sancho IIs death be blamed on Alfonso VI, who, when his brother was killed, was in exile far from the events. Nevertheless, the minstrels and ballads filled this void with beautiful literary creations devoid of any historical reality and it was at this time that the Leyenda de Cardeña concerning El Cid was born. He held him at the castle of Luna, for seventeen years, in 1072 he entitled himself rex Spanie. Alfonsos first movement was in 1076 after the death of King Sancho IV of Navarre and his great territorial expansion came at the expense of the Taifa Muslim kingdoms. In 1076, the Emir of Zaragoza, who wished to seize Valencia without being disturbed by Alfonso VI, one of the initiatives of these years, known as the Treason of Rueda, ended in failure
15.
Alfonso XI of Castile
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Alfonso XI of Castile, called the Avenger, was the king of Castile, León and Galicia. He was the son of Ferdinand IV of Castile and his wife Constance of Portugal, upon his fathers death in 1312, several disputes ensued over who would hold regency, which were resolved in 1313. Once Alfonso was declared adult in 1325, he began a reign that would serve to strengthen royal power and his achievements include solving the problems of the Gibraltar Strait and the conquest of Algeciras. Alfonso XI was the son of King Ferdinand IV of Castile and his father died when Alfonso was one year old. As soon as he took the throne, he began working hard to strengthen royal power by dividing his enemies and his early display of rulership skills included the unhesitant execution of possible opponents, including his uncle Juan el Tuerto in 1326. Once that conflict was resolved, he redirected all his Reconquista efforts to fighting the Moorish king of Granada and he is variously known among Castilian kings as the Avenger or the Implacable, and as He of Río Salado. Alfonso XI never went to the lengths of his son Peter of Castile. He killed for reasons of state without any form of trial and he openly neglected his wife, Maria of Portugal, and indulged a scandalous passion for Eleanor of Guzman, who bore him ten children. This set Peter an example which he failed to better, Alfonso XI first married Constanza Manuel in 1325, but had the union annulled two years later. His second marriage, in 1328, was to Maria of Portugal and they had, Ferdinand, Peter of Castile, King of Castile. King Alfonso was not very tall but well proportioned, and he was rather strong and had fair skin and hair. Chapman, Charles Edward and Rafael Altamira, A history of Spain and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Alphonso. Medieval Iberia, an encyclopedia, Ed. E. Michael Gerli and Samuel G. Armistead, Routledge,2003
16.
Philip II of Spain
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Philip II of Spain, called the Prudent, was King of Spain, King of Portugal, King of Naples and Sicily, and jure uxoris King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan, from 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spain as Felipe el Prudente, his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, during his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age, the expression, the empire on which the sun never sets, was coined during Philips time to reflect the extent of his dominion. During Philips reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1569,1575 and this was partly the cause of the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. The Ambassador went on to say He dresses very tastefully, the culture and courtly life of Spain were an important influence in his early life. He was tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo – the future Archbishop of Toledo, Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arms and letters alike. Later he would study with more illustrious tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella, Philip, though he had good command over Latin, Spanish and Portuguese, never managed to equal his father, Charles V, as a polyglot. Despite being also a German archduke from the House of Habsburg, Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish, he had been born in Spain and raised in the Castilian court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. This would ultimately impede his succession to the imperial throne, Philip was also close to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to his two pages, the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens, the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga. These men would serve Philip throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, Philips martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile. The practical lessons in warfare were overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars, Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542, but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his way back to Castile, Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. The king-emperors interactions with his son during his stay in Spain convinced him of Philips precocity in statesmanship, Philip, who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen. Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos, Philip was also left with extensive written instructions which emphasised piety, patience, modesty, and distrust. These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become grave, self-possessed, personally, Philip spoke softly, and had an icy self-mastery, in the words of one of his ministers, he had a smile that cut like a sword. After living in the Netherlands in the years of his reign. Although sometimes described as a monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority
17.
Royal Alcazar of Madrid
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The Royal Alcázar of Madrid was a fortress located at the site of todays Royal Palace of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. The structure was built in the second half of the ninth century, then extended and enlarged over the centuries. It was at time that the fortress was converted into a royal palace. Despite being a palace, the building kept its original title of Alcázar. The first extension to the building was commissioned by King Charles I and its exterior was constructed by the architect Juan Gómez de Mora in 1636 on a commission from King Philip IV. Many artistic treasures were lost, including over 500 paintings, other works, such as Las Meninas by Velázquez, were saved. There is much documentation on the layout and exterior between 1530 and 1734, when they were destroyed in a fire. However, images of the interior and references to its history are scarce. The first drawing of the Alcázar was done by Cornelius Vermeyen in 1534, the drawing shows a castle divided into two main parts, which may correspond, at least partially, to the structure of the Muslim fortress on which it is built. This original fortress was erected by the emir Muhammad I of Córdoba between 860 and 880. The building was the nucleus of the Islamic citadel of Mayrit, a walled district approximately 4 ha in size, incorporating not only the castle, but also a mosque. Its steep location is now the site of the Royal Palace and this was a key factor in the defence of Toledo, before the frequent incursions by the Christians into al-Andalus. The castle was probably the progression of other constructions in the same place – primarily as an observation point. Over the course of time, the old castle was extended and this is evident from seventeenth century engravings and paintings, in which semi-circular turrets—which do not match the general design of the building—can be seen on the western facade. It is thought that the facade belonged to the Muslim castle and was incorporated into the Alcázar, using the original fortress as a base for the new building. The Trastámara dynasty turned the Alcázar into its temporary residence, and by the end of the century it was one of the main fortresses in Castile. In keeping with its new function, the incorporated the word royal into its name. King Henry III of Castile instigated the construction of different towers which changed the look of the building, giving it a more palatial feel
18.
Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
19.
Francesco Sabatini
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Francesco Sabatini, also known as Francisco Sabatini, was an Italian architect of the 18th century who worked in Spain. Born in Palermo, he studied architecture in Rome, when he was raised to the Spanish throne, he called Sabatini to Madrid in 1760, where he was positioned above the most outstanding Spanish architects of the time. Sabatinis works are all encompassed within the tradition, but he was not inspired fundamentally by ancient Greece and Rome. His talent as an architect and the kings support king resulted in many commissions, the Gardens of Sabatini were not designed by him, they were created in the 1930s on the site formerly occupied by the stables constructed by Sabatini. He died in Madrid in December 19,1797, among his numerous works the most important were, Works of the Royal Palace of Madrid until its conclusion. Planning of the system of Madrid, which was paved with stones. Royal Customs House in the Alcala Street, present seat of the Ministry of Property, tombs of Ferdinand VI of Spain and Bárbara de Braganza, located in the Church of Santa Barbara of the Convent of the Salesas Reales, with Francisco Gutiérrez. Convent of San Pascual, in Aranjuez, renovation of Cuesta de San Vicente. Prolongation of the Southeastern wing of the Royal Palace begins, reconstruction of the monastery of the Comendadoras of Santiago. Direction of works of the Basilica of San Francisco el Grande, casa de los Secretarios de Estado y del Despacho, also known as the Palace of the Marquess de Grimaldi and Palace of Godoy. Change of the direction of the stairs of the Royal Palace by desire of Charles IV of Spain. Reconstruction of the Plaza Mayor de Madrid after the 1790 fire, together with Juan de Villanueva
20.
Charles III of Spain
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Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. While he was the son of Philip V of Spain, he was the eldest son of Philips second wife. In 1731, the 15-year-old Charles became the Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I, following the death of his childless granduncle Antonio Farnese. In 1734, as Duke of Parma, he conquered the kingdoms of Naples and of Sicily, and was crowned king on 3 July 1735, reigning as Charles VII of Naples and Charles V of Sicily until 1759. In 1738 he married Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, daughter of Polish king Augustus III, Charles and Maria Amalia resided in Naples for 19 years. Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne on 10 August 1759, after the death of his half-brother King Ferdinand VI of Spain who left no heirs. As King of Spain Charles III made far-reaching reforms such as promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce and he also tried to reduce the influence of the Church and avoided costly wars. His previous experience as King of Naples and Sicily proved valuable as King of Spain and he did not achieve complete control over the States finances, and was sometimes obliged to borrow to meet expenses. Most of his reforms proved to be successful and his important legacy lives on to this day, historian Stanley Payne wrote that Charles III was probably the most successful European ruler of his generation. He had provided firm, consistent, intelligent leadership, personal life had won the respect of the people. In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht concluded the War of the Spanish Succession and reduced the political and military power of Spain, which the House of Bourbon had ruled since 1700. Moreover, the House of Savoy gained the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Great Britain gained the island of Minorca, in 1700, Charles father, originally a French prince, became King of Spain as Philip V. For the remainder of his reign, he attempted to regain the ceded territories. Elisabeth and Philip married on 24 December 1714, she proved a domineering consort. On 20 January 1716, Elisabeth gave birth to the Infante Charles of Spain at the Real Alcázar of Madrid and he was fourth in line to the Spanish throne, after three elder half-brothers, the Infante Luis, Prince of Asturias, the Infante Felipe, and Ferdinand. Because the Duke Francesco of Parma and his heir were childless, Elisabeth sought the duchies of Parma and she also sought for him the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, because Gian Gastone de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany was also childless. He was a distant cousin of hers, related via her great-grandmother Margherita de Medici, the birth of Charles encouraged the Prime Minister Alberoni to start laying out grand plans for Europe. In 1717 he ordered the Spanish invasion of Sardinia, in 1718, Alberoni also ordered the invasion of Sicily, which was also ruled by the House of Savoy
21.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
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Alfonso XIII was King of Spain from 1886 until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. Alfonso was monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year, Alfonsos mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902. With the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso impelled a return to the democratic normality with the intention of regenerating the regime, nevertheless, it was abandoned by all political classes, as they felt betrayed by the kings support of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. He left Spain voluntarily after the elections of April 1931. In exile, he retained his claim to the throne until 1941. Buried in Rome, his remains were not transferred until 1980 to the Pantheon of the Kings in the monastery of El Escorial, Alfonso was born in Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885. The French newspaper Le Figaro described the king in 1889 as the happiest. His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his 16th birthday, during the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War. When he came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls, by 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII, there he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the Scottish-born daughter of Edwards youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest, there were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic, Victorias brother Leopold was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Victoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition, in January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, in May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victorias cousins the Prince, the wedding was marred by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed or injured several bystanders and members of the procession, on 10 May 1907, the couples first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born
22.
Spanish Second Republic
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The Second Spanish Republic was the republican regime that existed in Spain from 1931 to 1939. Following the Provisional Government between April and December 1931, the 1931 Constitution established the Republic, the Spanish Republic can be divided in three eras, the First Biennium, the Dark Biennium, and the Popular Front government. The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed when King Alfonso XIII left the following municipal elections where anti-monarchist candidates won the majority of votes. Its government went into exile on 1 April 1939, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered to the rebel nacionales, the government in exile of the Second Spanish Republic had an embassy in Mexico City until 1976. After the restoration of democracy in Spain, the government formally dissolved the following year, on 28 January 1930 the military dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera was overthrown. This led various republican factions from a variety of backgrounds to join forces. The Pact of San Sebastián was the key to the transition from monarchy to republic, Republicans of all tendencies were committed to the Pact of San Sebastian in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The restoration of the royal Bourbons was rejected by large sectors of the populace who vehemently opposed the King, the pact, signed by representatives of the main Republican forces, allowed a joint anti-monarchy political campaign. The 12 April 1931 municipal elections led to a victory for republicans. Two days later, the Second Republic was proclaimed, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile, the kings departure led to a provisional government of the young republic under Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. Catholic churches and establishments in cities like Madrid and Sevilla were set ablaze on 11 May, in June 1931 a Constituent Cortes was elected to draft a new constitution, which came into force in December. The new constitution established freedom of speech and freedom of association, extended suffrage to women in 1933, allowed divorce and it also effectively disestablished the Roman Catholic Church, but the disestablishment was somewhat reversed by the Cortes that same year. Its controversial articles 26 and 27 imposed stringent controls on Church property, scholars have described the constitution as hostile to religion, with one scholar characterising it as one of the most hostile of the 20th century. José Ortega y Gasset stated, the article in which the Constitution legislates the actions of the Church seems highly improper to me, pope Pius XI condemned the Spanish governments deprivation of the civil liberties of Catholics in the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis. The legislative branch was changed to a chamber called the Congress of Deputies. The constitution established legal procedures for the nationalisation of public services and land, banks, the constitution provided generally accorded civil liberties and representation. Catholic churches in cities were again subject to arson in 1932. A Catholic church in Zaragoza saw arson in 1933, and the cathedral in Oviedo was destroyed by flames in 1934, the church of San Lorenzo in Gijon was set ablaze in this year as well
23.
Caravaggio
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Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, in scarcely a year or so’s sojourn in Naples, he rapidly established himself once more as the most prominent painter, exploiting high-ranking connections. It was not long before these connections gave him an opening to travel on in 1607 to Malta, governed by the Order of Knights Hospitallers, Caravaggio probably hoped that the Knights would provide a channel whereby he could obtain a pardon from the Papacy. Once more his talents made an instant impression, along with the support of noble patrons and his hopes dashed, he contrived to escape and flee once, which before the end of 1608 led to his cancellation from the rolls of the Order. He made for Syracuse in Sicily, where he was received as a guest by a friend from his Roman days, the painter’s face was disfigured and rumours started to circulate of his death. Various commentators have formulated opinions about his state from works supposedly executed at this period. In fact, Caravaggio’s end is shrouded in mystery, mystery that is rendered only denser by conflicting hypotheses, some speak of a natural death from a persistent fever, others of an assassination by emissaries of the Knights of Malta. The loss of the paintings put the deal and his future in doubt, there is evidence that dogged by a serious fever, he was tended by a local religious confraternity near Porto Ercole, then in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but succumbed. His death was certified by them as taking place on 18 July 1610, if the story to this point is exact, it is likely he was buried in a paupers’ common grave. As to the place, though this continues to be contested. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was forgotten almost immediately after his death, despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism was profound. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy claimed, What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting. Caravaggio was born in Milan where his father, Fermo, was an administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan, Caravaggios mother died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592 Caravaggio left Milan for Rome, in flight after certain quarrels, in Rome, where there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for an alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggios innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close observation with a dramatic, even theatrical
24.
Francisco de Goya
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Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of late 18th and early 19th centuries and throughout his career was a commentator. Immensely successful in his lifetime, Goya is often referred to as both the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns and he was also one of the great portraitists of modern times. He was born to a modest family in 1746 in the village of Fuendetodos in Aragon and he studied painting from age 14 under José Luzán y Martinez and moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs. He married Josefa Bayeu in 1773, the couples life together was characterised by an almost constant series of pregnancies and miscarriages, Goya was a guarded man and although letters and writings survive, little is known about his thoughts. He suffered a severe and undiagnosed illness in 1793 which left him completely deaf, after 1793 his work became progressively darker and more pessimistic. His later easel and mural paintings, prints and drawings appear to reflect a bleak outlook on personal, social and political levels and he was appointed Director of the Royal Academy in 1795, the year Manuel Godoy made an unfavorable treaty with France. In 1799 Goya became Primer Pintor de Cámara, the then-highest rank for a Spanish court painter, in the late 1790s, commissioned by Godoy, he completed his La maja desnuda, a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez. In 1801 he painted Charles IV of Spain and His Family, in 1807 Napoleon led the French army into Spain. Goya remained in Madrid during the Peninsular War, which seems to have affected him deeply. Although he did not vocalise his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his Disasters of War series of prints and his 1814 paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808. Goya eventually abandoned Spain in 1824 to retire to the French city of Bordeaux, accompanied by his much younger maid and companion, Leocadia Weiss, there he completed his La Tauromaquia series and a number of other, major, canvases. Following a stroke left him paralyzed on his right side. His body was later re-interred in Spain, Francisco Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, on 30 March 1746 to José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. The family had moved that year from the city of Zaragoza, José was the son of a notary and of Basque origin, his ancestors being from Zerain, earning his living as a gilder, specialising in religious and decorative craftwork. He oversaw the gilding and most of the ornamentation during the rebuilding of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, Francisco was their fourth child, following his sister Rita, brother Tomás and second sister Jacinta. There were two sons, Mariano and Camilo. His mothers family had pretensions of nobility and the house, a modest brick cottage, was owned by her family and, perhaps fancifully, about 1749 José and Gracia bought a home in Zaragoza and were able to return to live in the city
25.
Juan de Flandes
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Jan Sallaert, who became a master in Ghent in 1480, has also been suggested. He was born around 1460 in Flanders and he evidently trained in his home country, most likely in Ghent, as his work shows similarities to that of Joos van Wassenhove, Hugo van der Goes and other Ghent artists. He is only documented after he became an artist at the court of Queen Isabella I of Castile and he is described as court painter by 1498 and continued in the queens service until her death in 1504. He mostly painted portraits of the family, but also the majority of a large series of small panels for a polyptych altarpiece for the queen. The panels have been dispersed and the largest number of panels is in the collection in Madrid. After Isabellas death in 1504 Juan de Flandes turned to ecclesiastical commissions from Spanish churches and he was later based in Palencia, where there is a large reredos in the Cathedral. In Palencia his wife was described as a widow in December 1519, the overwhelming majority of his work held in collections outside Spain dates from this later period during which he concentrated on religious themes. Panels from an altarpiece from a Palencian church are divided between the Prado and National Gallery of Art, Washington, who have four panels each. His works show the Early Netherlandish style of Ghent adapted to the Spanish taste and landscape, hand & M. van Elslande, Juan de Flandes met name Jan van der Straten, in, Brugs Ommeland, 26ste jg
26.
Corrado Giaquinto
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Corrado Giaquinto was an Italian Rococo painter. As a boy he apprenticed with a modest local painter Saverio Porta, Giaquinto followed a peripatetic career, with long sojourns in Naples, Rome, Turin, and Madrid. In 1723, he moved to Rome to work in the studio of Sebastiano Conca and he painted in San Lorenzo in Damaso, San Giovanni Calibita, and the ceiling at Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. In March 1727, with Giuseppe Rossi as an assistant, Giaquinto opened an independent studio near the Ponte Sisto, in 1734, he married Caterina Silvestri Agate. The first documented work by his hand is Christ crucified with the Madonna, Saint John Evangelist, the latest restoration confirms Giaquintos stylistic independence from Solimena, and reveals his stylistic dependence on Luca Giordano. In 1733, the architect and artistic director for the House of Savoy, Filippo Juvarra, invited Giaquinto to come to Turin, where he painted an altarpiece of Saint John Nepomuk. He then decorated the ceiling of a Villa della Regina with a Triumph of the House of Savoy, Death of Adonis and Apollo & Daphne, Giaquinto returned briefly to Rome in 1735, where his wife died soon after childbirth. A report of 1742 states that Pope Benedict XIV was taken to the church of San Giovanni Calabita, where he observed with much pleasure the restoration of that Church embellished with altarpieces from the Painter Signor Corrado Napolitano. In Madrid, he was patronized by Ferdinand VI, and was appointed director of the Academy of San Fernando. His influence there was felt by such as González Velázquez, José del Castillo. His paintings include A Kneeling Male Nude and he returned to Naples in 1762 to decorate the sacristy in San Luigi di Palazzo, the royal monastery. He died in Naples in 1765 and he is described by some as an Italian François Boucher. Pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600–1750, la pintura italiana del siglo XVIII en España. Italian Wikipedia entry Works of Corrado Giaquinto at www. Corrado-Giaquinto. org Works of Corrado Giaquinto at http, //www. the-athenaeum. org
27.
Royal Armoury of Madrid
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Among the most notable parts of the collection features armor and full tools that Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II used. The fact be a continuity of representation, more or less accurately of the different reigns, has conferred a dynastic character derived from its formation over time. The decision to grant preferential treatment to the Armory dates back at least to the death of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, which occurred on 21 September 1558. At the end of 1559 had already made known to the testamentaries of the Emperor the decision of the new King of take to him the Armory. The armory of the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, had come, mostly, from Brussels to Spain via the port of Laredo, in September 1556, from where it went to Valladolid. At his death his weapons are scattered between Valladolid and to an extent, in the Monastery of Yuste, and possibly in the Alcázar of Madrid. The establishment of the Court in Madrid said that in July 1562, Philip II had already decided that was done in Madrid, determination that could have been, earlier though. This building that is known as Antigüa Real Armería de Felipe II was decided, apparently, in 1553. The conception of it is due to Philip II himself judging by a sketch of his fist preserved in the Archivo General de Simancas. When works were completed, the king commanded to move the Armoury to the wing of the Stables that was in front of the facade of the Alcázar. The new site was structured around a hall of 63 meters long by 10 meters wide. Crowning the building a ledge of stone on which stood the roof truss and slate roof, downstairs, destined to stables, it had three naves, while the upper floor, where it settled the Armory, was completely clear. The interior of the hall was completed in 1565 and it was whitewashed and a large portion decorated with azulejos from Talavera de la Reina pottery by Juan Florez. The most characteristic element of its structure was the called Arc of the Armoury that connected the Alcázar with the outside, in 1884 a fire destroyed partially the Armory built by Philip II. No expense spared Alfonso XII ordered the construction of a new building which is its current headquarters, the early disappearance of the monarch prevented that he saw culminated his work, which was finally ended by the will of the Queen Maria Cristina. The main floor of the new building was conceived as a room decorated with tapestries weapons. The new facility, inaugurated in 1893, was a milestone, for all purposes, in the history of the collection, conditioning, since, at present, the image of it. The current Royal Armoury of Madrid is located on the floor of the Royal Palace of Madrid
28.
Stradivarius
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According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. The name Stradivarius has become a superlative often associated with excellence, the fame of Stradivarius instruments is widespread, appearing in numerous works of fiction. The wood used included spruce for the top, willow for the blocks and linings, and maple for the back, ribs. Stradivari made his instruments using a form, unlike the French copyists, such as Vuillaume. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments and these results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments, a Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivaris Long Pattern period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U. S. dollars at todays prices. The 1697 Molitor Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to Napoleon, sold in 2010 at Tarisio Auctions to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers for $3,600,000, at the time a world record. Depending on condition, instruments made during Stradivaris golden period from 1700 to about 1725 can be millions of dollars. In 2011, his Lady Blunt violin from 1721, which is in condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million. It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the Japanese earthquake, the auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold. Vice magazine reported in May 2013 that in recent years, Stradivarius investment funds have started to appear, Stradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. However, stolen instruments are often recovered, even after being missing for many years and they are difficult to sell illicitly as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. In recent years, the General Kyd Stradivarius was stolen in 2004 and it was returned three weeks later by a woman who found it and handed it over to the police. The Sinsheimer/Iselin was stolen in Hanover, Germany in 2008 and recovered in 2009, the Lipinski Stradivarius was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The Ames Stradivarius was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015, however a number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the Davidoff-Morini, stolen in 1995, the Le Maurien, stolen in 2002 and the Karpilowsky, stolen in 1953. Above all, these instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce, the two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments, two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius. The majority of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius. none of them sounded substantially weaker than the others While many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions
29.
Umayyad
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The Umayyad Caliphate, also spelled Omayyad, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca, Syria remained the Umayyads main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 and 62 million people, the Umayyad Caliphate was secular by nature. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims, Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups, should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued, financed by the zakat tax levied only on Muslims. Muawiyas wife Maysum was also a Christian, the relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments, the employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiyas popularity and solidified Syria as his power base, the rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of AD 680–692 and the Berber Revolt of 740–743. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, according to tradition, the Umayyad family and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, and they originally came from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, the two families are therefore considered to be different clans of the same tribe. However Muslim Shia historians suspect that Umayya was a son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family, Sunni historians disagree with this and view Shia claims as nothing more than outright polemics due to their hostility to the Umayyad family in general. While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan killed by Hashimites in a three-on-three melee and this fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr and he did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans
30.
Henry III of Castile
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Henry III of Castile, called the Mourner, was the son of John I and Eleanor of Aragon. He succeeded his father as King of Castile in 1390, Henry was born in Burgos, the capital of Castile. He was the child of the recently crowned king John I of Castile. His younger brother Ferdinand grew up to king of Aragon. His upbringing was entrusted to Inés Lasso de la Vega, the wife of John Niño, as a child he was educated by Diego de Anaya Maldonado, Bishop of Tui-Vigo, who later became Archbishop of Seville. His tutor was Juan Hurtado de Mendoza el Limpio and his confessor was the Dominican Alonso de Cusanza, shortly after his birth, he was promised to be married to Beatrice of Portugal, the heir to the Portuguese throne. This was part of a treaty between Castile and Portugal, who had signed a truce after the Ferdinand Wars. But this marriage did not happen, instead, Beatrice married his father, who would instigate a war of succession with John of Aviz. In 1388, as part of the Treaty of Bayonne, he married Catherine of Lancaster in Palencia Cathedral and she was the daughter of John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, and Constance of Castile, a daughter of Peter the Cruel. This solved the conflict that had raged since the death of Peter the Cruel, secured the House of Trastámara. At the time of his wedding, he received the title Prince of Asturias with the approval of the court of Briviesca and this title designated him as the heir apparent. He was the first person to hold this title, with earlier heirs to the throne being known as infantes mayores, in 1390, his father considered abdicating in his favour to gain the recognition of the Portuguese, but he was dissuaded from this plan by his council. They were against it because of the damage caused to the kingdom by earlier similar decisions, however, in October of the same year, King John died in Alcalá de Henares by falling off his horse, and Henry was proclaimed king. He assumed power on 2 August 1393, at the age of 13, despite his nickname, he engaged in a vigorous foreign policy and manoeuvres during the first few years of the 15th century. He was able to pacify the nobility and restore royal power and he was supported by the aristocracy and displaced their most powerful relatives. He repealed privileges granted by his predecessors at the Court of Castile, such as the alcabala and he increased the number of city magistrates and cleaned up the kingdoms economy. He reduced persecution of the Jews and passed various bills against the violence, during his reign, the Castilian fleet won several victories against the English, Henry sent a naval fleet in 1400 that destroyed Tétouan in North Africa, a pirate base. In 1402, Henry began the colonisation of the Canary Islands and he deflected a Portuguese invasion with an attack on Badajoz in 1396, finally signing a peace treaty with John I of Portugal on 15 August 1402
31.
John II of Castile
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John II of Castile was King of Castile and León from 1406 to 1454. John was the son of King Henry III and his wife and his mother was the granddaughter of King Peter, who was ousted by Henry IIIs grandfather, King Henry II. John succeeded his father on 25 December 1406, and united in his person the claims of both Peter and Henry II and his mother and his uncle, King Ferdinand I of Aragon, were co-regents during his minority. When Ferdinand died in 1416, his mother governed alone until her death in 1418, John IIs reign, lasting 49 years, was one of the longest in Castilian history, but John himself was not a particularly capable monarch. He spent his time verse-making, hunting, and holding tournaments and his favourite, Álvaro de Luna, heavily influenced him until his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her instigation, he dismissed his faithful and able servant, John IIs Regents declared the Valladolid laws in 1411, which restricted the social activity of Jews. Among the most notable of the provisions were outlining that Jews must wear distinctive clothes, in 1431 John placed Yusuf IV on the throne as the Sultan of Granada in the Moorish Emirate of Granada, in exchange for tribute and vassal status to Castile. This exchange is depicted in the ballad the Romance of Abenamar. He was all and handsome, fair-skinned and slightly ruddy and his hair was the color of a very mature hazelnut, the nose a little snub, the eyes between green and blue. He had very graceful legs and feet and hands, John II died on 20 July 1454, at Valladolid. In 1418, John married Maria of Aragon, the oldest daughter of his paternal uncle, Ferdinand I of Aragon
32.
War of the Castilian Succession
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France intervened in support of Portugal, as they were rivals with Aragon for territory in Italy and Roussillon. The newly gained prestige was used to win support from their allies …. The war between Castile and Portugal alone continued and this included naval warfare in the Atlantic, which became more important, a struggle for maritime access to the wealth of Guinea. In 1478, the Portuguese navy defeated the Castilians in the decisive Battle of Guinea, Joanna lost her right to the throne of Castile and remained in Portugal until her death. This conflict has also called the Second Castilian Civil War. Some authors refer to it as the War of Portugal, however, at other times the term Peninsular War has been used, but it is easily confused with the Peninsular War of 1808–1814, part of the Napoleonic Wars. Some authors prefer the neutral expression War of 1475–1479, Joanna la Beltraneja, born in 1462, the first and only daughter of King Henry IV of Castile, was of Asturias. A rumour spread that Princess Joanna was not actually the daughter of King Henry but rather of Beltrán de la Cueva, Joanna was thus nicknamed la Beltraneja, as a mocking reference to her assumed father. Pressure from members of the nobility forced the King to strip her of the title and name his half-brother Alfonso as heir, in 1465, a group of nobility assembled in Ávila and overthrew King Henry, replacing him with Alfonso. That led to a war that ended in 1468 with the death of the 14-year-old Alfonso, Henry IV regained the throne, but the title of heir became disputed between Joanna, his daughter, and Isabella, his half-sister. That was resolved via the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando, Isabella secretly married Ferdinand in 1469 at the age of 17, ignoring Henry IVs wishes. When Henry IV died in December 1474, both candidates for the throne were proclaimed Queen of Castile by their respective supporters, the Kingdom of France and the Crown of Aragon maintained a long-held rivalry for the control of Roussillon and, more recently, for hegemony in Italy. In June 1474, French troops invaded Roussillon and the Aragonese were forced to retreat, on the possibility that the heir to the throne of Aragon would also become King of Castile, Louis XI of France officially positioned himself on the side of Joanna and Afonso in September 1475. France was simultaneously at war with the Duchy of Burgundy and that made Burgundy into theoretical allies of Isabellas supporters, but in practice, it continued its war against France without coordinating their actions with the Isabella alliance. Edward IV accepted a truce of nine years, in exchange for significant economic compensation, the Kingdom of Navarre was experiencing an intermittent civil war, and the Muslim Kingdom of Granada remained neutral despite Portuguese efforts to draw it into the war. Throughout the 15th century, merchants, explorers and fishermen of Portugal, the possession of the Canary Islands was a point of contention between the two Crowns. Later on, the control of commerce with the territories of Guinea and Elmina, rich in gold and slaves, grew to a dispute of even greater importance. During the first half of the century, Castile staged the conquest of a few of the Canary Islands by feudal pacts, first with Norman knights, Portugal opposed Castilian authority on the islands and continued the exploration of Guinea, with significant commercial benefits
33.
Joanna la Beltraneja
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Joanna la Beltraneja was a claimant to the throne of Castile, and queen of Portugal as the wife of King Afonso V, her uncle. Henry IV of Castile married Joan of Portugal, the youngest sister of King Afonso V of Portugal, seven years later, a daughter, Joanna, was born. Henry had previously married to Blanche of Navarre. After thirteen years, that marriage was annulled on the grounds that it had never been consummated and this was attributed to a curse, which only affected the kings relationship with his wife, a number of prostitutes from Segovia testified that they had noticed no impairment. The king had no children and was rumoured to be impotent. Whether true or not, it was circulated by Henrys opponents that the little infanta was the child of Beltrán de la Cueva. They called her la Beltraneja, a reference to her supposed illegitimacy. Her mother was banished to Bishop Fonsecas castle where she fell in love with Fonsecas nephew, on 9 May 1462, Joanna was officially proclaimed heir to the throne of Castile and created Princess of Asturias. Henry had the nobles of Castile swear allegiance to her and promise that they would support her as monarch, many of the more prominent nobles, seeking to increase their own power, refused to recognize Joanna, preferring that Henry name as heir his younger half-brother, Infante Alfonso. Armed conflict broke out and in 1464 the league of nobles forced Henry to repudiate Joanna, Alfonso then became Prince of Asturias, a title traditionally held by the heir apparent. Henry agreed to compromise with the stipulation that Infante Alfonso would marry Joanna. But in 1468, Infante Alfonso died, and also Joannas parents separated and this resulted to her displacement in the succession. Her half-aunt, Infanta Isabella, was placed before her in the succession, Joanna was held in custody by the Mendoza family in 1465–1470, and by Juan Pacheco in 1470–1475. There were many negotiations for a marriage to someone who could defend her succession, on 26 October 1470, she was engaged and then married by proxy to Charles, Duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI of France, and again proclaimed as legitimate heir to the throne. When Henry died in 1474, she was recognized as Queen by some noble factions and this began the four-year War of the Castilian Succession. On 10 May 1475 Afonso V of Portugal invaded Castile and married Joanna in Plasencia,15 days later, Joanna and Afonso held court at Toro, and she was considered a promising ruler by her courtiers, though too young. Joanna sent a letter to the cities of Castile, expounding the wish of her father that she should rule, however, Joanna found fewer supporters than expected. Isabella Is husband Ferdinand led her forces against the Juanista army, Afonso V was beaten by the left and center of Ferdinand’s army, and fled from the battlefield
34.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
35.
Habsburg Spain
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Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries, when it was ruled by kings from the House of Habsburg. The Habsburg rulers reached the zenith of their influence and power and this period of Spanish history has also been referred to as the Age of Expansion. The Habsburg years were also a Spanish Golden Age of cultural efflorescence, in some cases, these individual kingdoms themselves were confederations, most notably, the Crown of Aragon. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of Most Catholic Monarchs by Pope Alexander VI in 1496, the Habsburg period is formative of the notion of Spain in the sense that was institutionalized in the 18th century. Her husband Philip I was the Habsburg son of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, though how mentally ill she actually was the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I was declared jure uxoris king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II. Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joannas father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the regent of Joanna, Spain was now in personal union under Ferdinand II of Aragon. He also attempted to enlarge Spains sphere of influence in Italy, as ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and the Republic of Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. The war was less of a success than that against Venice, Ferdinand would die later that year. Ferdinands death led to the ascension of young Charles to the throne as Charles I of Castile and Aragon and his Spanish inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the New World and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the Netherlands and Franche-Comté, in 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I, Charles inherited the Habsburg territories in Germany, and was duly elected as Holy Roman Emperor that year. At that point, Emperor and King Charles was the most powerful man in Christendom, the accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned Francis I of France, who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy and Navarre, the war was a disaster for France, which suffered defeats at Biccoca, Pavia, and Landriano before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Charless victory at the Battle of Pavia surprised many Italians and Germans, Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in the War of the League of Cognac. Henry VIII of England, who bore a grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce. Although the Spanish army was defeated at the Battle of Ceresole, in Savoy Henry fared better. The Austrians, led by Charless younger brother Ferdinand, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east, with France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem, the Schmalkaldic League. The Protestant Reformation had begun in Germany in 1517, the German Peasants War broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged the country until it was brutally put down in 1526, Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order
36.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556, through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four square kilometers and were the first to be described as the empire on which the sun never sets. Charles was the heir of three of Europes leading dynasties, the Houses of Valois-Burgundy, Habsburg, and Trastámara and he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and he was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I, as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, the personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish Empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy since the death of Louis the Pious. France recovered and the wars continued for the remainder of Charless reign, enormously expensive, they led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean, after seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, in the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by religious and political opposition to him. Once the rebellions were quelled the essential Castilian and Burgundian territories remained mostly loyal to Charles throughout his rule, Charles’s Spanish dominions were the chief source of his power and wealth, and they became increasingly important as his reign progressed. In the Americas, Charles sanctioned the conquest by Castillian conquistadors of the Aztec, Castillian control was extended across much of South and Central America. The resulting vast expansion of territory and the flows of South American silver to Castile had profound long term effects on Spain. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery. Upon Charles’s abdications, the Holy Roman Empire was inherited by his younger brother Ferdinand, the Spanish Empire, including the possessions in the Netherlands and Italy, was inherited by Charles’s son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century, Charles was born in 1500 as the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile in the Flemish city of Ghent, which was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life and he was tutored by William de Croÿ, and also by Adrian of Utrecht. He also gained a decent command of German, though he never spoke it as well as French, a witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is, I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse
37.
Alonso de Covarrubias
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Alonso de Covarrubias was a Spanish architect and sculptor of the Renaissance, active mainly in Toledo. Covarrubias works includes, His first work was associated with Antón Egas and Juan Guas, in the first years of his career he worked principally as a sculptor. First works as architect, At Sigüenza Cathedral, he is credited with designing the retables of Saint Librada and Fadrique de Portugal, in the Hospital de Santa Cruz, the courtyard and the plateresque stairway. In 1532 worked in the sacristy of Sigüenza Cathedral, in Toledo, In 1534 he was named superintendent of the building program at Toledo Cathedral where planned the New Kings chapel. In 1537 Covarrubias and Luis de Vega were named architects of the Alcázar, Covarrubias built the main façade and the courtyard. Designed and built the Tavera Hospital, one of his principal buildings, 154_ The façade of Episcopal palace of Toledo Rebuilt the Puerta de Bisagra Nueva. Other important Works, In the 1530s built the cloister of the Lupiana Monastery and he also worked in the Archbishops Palace of Alcalá de Henares where he built the façade and the lost courtyard. Arquitectura y orfebrería españolas del siglo XVI
38.
Philip III of Spain
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Philip III of Spain was King of Spain and Portugal. A member of the House of Habsburg, Philip III was born in Madrid to King Philip II of Spain and his wife and niece Anna. Philip III later married his cousin Margaret of Austria, sister of Ferdinand II, V. Wedgwood, R. Stradling and J. H. Elliott. In particular, Philips reliance on his chief minister, the Duke of Lerma, drew much criticism at the time. For many, the decline of Spain can be dated to the difficulties that set in during the early years of his reign. After Philip IIIs older brother Don Carlos died insane, Philip II had concluded that one of the causes of Carlos condition had been the influence of the factions at the Spanish court. Philip II appointed Juan de Zúñiga, then Prince Diegos governor, to continue this role for Philip and they were joined by Cristóbal de Moura, a close supporter of Philip II. In combination, Philip believed, they would provide a consistent, stable upbringing for Prince Philip, nonetheless, Philip does not appear to have been naive – his correspondence to his daughters shows a distinctive, cautious streak in his advice on dealing with court intrigue. Philip first met the Marquis of Denia – the future Duke of Lerma – then, Lerma and Philip became close friends, but Lerma was considered unsuitable by the King and Philips tutors. Lerma was dispatched to Valencia as a Viceroy in 1595, with the aim of removing Philip from his influence, the prince received a new, conservative Dominican confessor. The following year, Philip II died after an illness, leaving the empire to his son. Philip married his cousin, Margaret of Austria, in 1599, Margaret, the sister of the future Emperor Ferdinand II, would be one of three women at Philips court who would apply considerable influence over the king. Margaret continued to fight a battle with Lerma for influence up until her death in 1611. Philip had an affectionate, close relationship with Margaret, and paid her additional attention after she bore him a son in 1605 and they were successful, for example, in convincing Philip to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onwards. Philip steadily acquired other religious advisors, similarly Mariana de San Jose, a favoured nun of Queen Margarets, was also criticised for her later influence over the Kings actions. The Spanish crown at the time ruled through a system of royal councils and these councils were then supplemented by small committees, or juntas, as necessary, such as the junta of the night through which Philip II exercised personal authority towards the end of his reign. As a matter of policy, Philip had tried to avoid appointing grandees to major positions of power within his government and relied heavily on the lesser nobles, the so-called service nobility. To his contemporaries, the degree of personal oversight he exercised was excessive, Philip first started to become engaged in practical government at the age of 15, when he joined Philip IIs private committee
39.
Palace of Versailles
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The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
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Teodoro Ardemans
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Teodoro de Ardemans or Ardmans was a Spanish architect and painter. Ardemans was born in Madrid to a German father and he was a disciple of the painter Claudio Coello, although he mainly practiced architecture, the municipality of Toledo named him master of the Cathedral of Toledo. In 1702, King Philip V of Spain named him to succeed José del Olmo as the master for Royal works and he worked on the extensive renovations of the Palace of Aranjuez, including completing the facade to a design of Francisco Herrera. He also helped in the decoration of the Palace of la Granja de San Ildefonso, noticias de los arquitectos y arquitectura de España desde su restauración. Eugenio Llaguno y Amirola y Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez, Madrid 1829, digital version Aterido Fernández, Ángel, Teodoro Ardemans, pintor, Anuario del Departamento de Historia y Teoría del Arte, vol
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Maria Luisa of Savoy
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Maria Luisa of Savoy was a Savoyard princess and the first wife of Philip V of Spain. She acted as Regent of Spain and had influence over her husband. She is closely associated with Princesse des Ursins, throughout her life, Maria Luisa remained close to her older sister Maria Adelaide who later married Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the eldest grandson of Louis XIV. In her youth, Maria Luisa was described as playful and fun loving and had received a good education, Philip V of Spain, a French prince, was recently crowned King of Spain upon the death of childless Charles II. In order to enforce his authority over Spain due to his French birth, Philip V decided to maintain ties with Victor Amadeus II. Maria Luisa was wed by proxy to Philip V on 12 September 1701 at the age of thirteen and was escorted to Nice. While in Nice, she was greeted by Pope Clement XI who gave her the Golden Rose on 20 September as a gift for the young princess. Within a week, she sailed from Nice for Antibes and was taken to Barcelona, the official marriage took place on 2 November 1701. The Princesse des Ursins was a member of the household of the Queen and she would maintain great influence over Maria Luisa as her Camarera mayor de Palacio, chief of the household to the young queen, who was still a child. As Philip V, contrary to the custom of the time, actually shared a bedroom with Maria Luisa and she was also said to be very beautiful and intelligent. Unlike what was normal for a Spanish monarch, he slept in her bed the entire night. In 1702, Philip V was obliged to leave Spain to fight in Naples as part of the ongoing War of Spanish Succession, during her husbands absence, Maria Luisa acted as Regent from Madrid. She was praised as a ruler, having successfully implemented various changes in government and insisted upon all complaints being investigated. Her leadership encouraged the reorganization in the junta and, in doing this, inspiring people, despite being only fourteen at that time, Maria Luisas effective regency made her admired in Madrid and throughout Spain. After her husbands return in 1703, she resumed her role as queen consort, in 1704, the Princesse des Ursins was exiled at the order of Louis XIV, devastating Maria Luisa. However, in 1705, the Princesse returned to Madrid, much to the joy of the young queen, Maria Luisa gave birth to the couples first child, Infante Luis Felipe in 1707. Maria Luisa gave birth to three children, two of whom would survive infancy. Towards the end of her life, the Queen became ill and she eventually died from the effects of tuberculosis on 14 February 1714
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