1.
Indian Reorganization Act
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The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18,1934, or the Wheeler-Howard Act, was U. S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans. It was the centerpiece of what has often called the Indian New Deal. The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, the law did not apply to Hawaii, Alaska and Oklahoma was added under another law in 1936. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to an all time low of $23 million in 1933, and reaching $38 million in 1940. The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelts Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and he had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America and his proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Colliers proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior, the self-government provisions would automatically go into effect for a tribe unless a clear majority of the eligible Indians voted it down. When approved, a tribe would adopt a variation of the constitution drafted by BIA lawyers. Of the tribes that voted on the IRA,174 voted yes and 78 rejected it, before allotment, reservation territory was not owned in the usual European-American sense, but was reserved for the benefit of entire Indian tribes. The communal benefits were apportioned to members according to tribal law. Generally, Indians held the land in a communal fashion, non-Indians were not allowed to own land on reservations, a fact which limited the value of the land to the Indians. The process of allotment started with the General Allotment Act of 1887, by 1934, two thirds of Indian land had converted to traditional private ownership. Most of that had sold by Indian allottees, often because they had no means to pay local taxes on the lands. The IRA provided a mechanism for the recovery of land that had been sold—including land that had sold to tribal Indians. They would lose individual property under the law, John Collier was appointed Commissioner of the Indian Bureau in April 1933 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He had the support of his boss, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. The federal government held land in trust for many tribes, numerous claims cases had been presented to Congress because of failures in the governments management of such lands
Indian Reorganization Act
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Colonial era
Indian Reorganization Act
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Indian Reorganization Act
2.
Constitution of Canada
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The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty
Constitution of Canada
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A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the
British North America Act, 1867
3.
Constitutional history of Canada
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The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution patriated in 1982. Canadas constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history, on February 10,1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia, a year before, France had secretly signed a treaty ceding Louisiana to Spain to avoid losing it to the British. At the time of the signing, the French colony of Canada was already under the control of the British army since the capitulation of the government of New France in 1760. The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, the proclamation renamed Canada The Province of Quebec, redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions, the proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems, the requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire. When James Murray was commissioned as general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion and he officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established, on September 17,1764, the Courts of the Kings Bench and Common Pleas were constituted. Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray and they were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests, Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as licentious fanatics who would not be satisfied, the conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murrays removal, the merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec, in 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act. On October 29,1764,94 Canadian subjects submitted a petition demanding that the orders of the king be available in French, in May 1774 the British merchants trading in Quebec responded by submitting their case to the king
Constitutional history of Canada
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Robert Harris 's
Fathers of Confederation, an amalgamation of the
Charlottetown and
Quebec conferences.
Constitutional history of Canada
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A portion of eastern North America; the 1763 "Proclamation line" is the border between the red and the pink areas.
4.
Bill of Rights 1689
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The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment, furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they became popular in England. It also sets out—or, in the view of its drafters, restates—certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, a separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights, along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, during the early modern period, the power of the Parliament of England continually increased. Passage of the Petition of Right in 1628 and Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 established certain liberties for subjects, the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The English Civil War was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau to overthrow King James II of England. Williams successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France and this assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected, which convened on 22 January 1689. On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances and it passed the Commons without division. On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right, William replied for his wife and himself, We thankfully accept what you have offered us. They then went in procession to the gate at Whitehall. The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal and they were crowned on 11 April, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. They were also to maintain the laws of God, the profession of the Gospel. This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch, the previous oath required the monarch to rule based on the laws and customs. Granted by the Kings of England, the Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights 1689, in December 1689. The Act declared James flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne and it listed twelve of Jamess policies by which James designed to endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom. The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688 and this convention arises from the legal fiction that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed
Bill of Rights 1689
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The Bill of Rights (1689)
Bill of Rights 1689
5.
Act of Settlement 1701
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Her mother, Princess Elizabeth Stuart, had been born in Scotland but became famous in history as Elizabeth of Bohemia. The line of Sophia of Hanover was the most junior among the Stuarts, Sophia died on 8 June 1714, before the death of Queen Anne on 1 August 1714, at which time Sophias son duly became King George I and started the Hanoverian dynasty. The act played a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain, England and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, but had remained separately governed countries. The Scottish parliament was more reluctant than the English to abandon the House of Stuart, English pressure on Scotland to accept the Act of Settlement was one factor leading to the parliamentary union of the two countries in 1707. Under the Act of Settlement anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, the act also placed limits on both the role of foreigners in the British government and the power of the monarch with respect to the Parliament of England. Some of those provisions have been altered by subsequent legislation, the original documents are deposited in the Lower Saxon State Archives in Hanover, Germany. During the debate, the House of Lords had attempted to append Sophia and her descendants to the line of succession, mary II died childless in 1694, after which William III did not remarry. In 1700, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was the child of Princess Anne to survive infancy. Thus, Anne was left as the last remaining heir to the throne. The Bill of Rights excluded Catholics from the throne, which ruled out James II, however, it also provided for no further succession after Anne. Parliament thus saw the need to settle the succession on Sophia and her descendants, is are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish Religion or shall marry a Papist. Thus, those who were Roman Catholics, and those who married Roman Catholics, were barred from ascending the throne. Eight additional provisions of the act would only come into effect upon the death of both William and Anne, The monarch shall join in communion with the Church of England and this was intended to ensure the exclusion of a Roman Catholic monarch. If a person not native to England comes to the throne, England will not wage war for any dominions or territories which do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of Parliament. This provision has been dormant since Queen Victoria ascended the throne, no monarch may leave the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland, without the consent of Parliament. All government matters within the jurisdiction of the Privy Council were to be transacted there and this was because Parliament wanted to know who was deciding policies, as sometimes councillors signatures normally attached to resolutions were absent. This provision was repealed early in Queen Annes reign, as many councillors ceased to offer advice, subsequent nationality laws made naturalised citizens the equal of those native born, and this provision no longer applies. No person who has an office under the monarch, or receives a pension from the Crown, was to be a Member of Parliament and this provision was inserted to avoid unwelcome royal influence over the House of Commons
Act of Settlement 1701
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Facsimile of the Act of Settlement sent to Electress Sophia of Hanover
Act of Settlement 1701
Act of Settlement 1701
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Sophia, Electress of Hanover
6.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
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The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years War, known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe. Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World. The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra, while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal, and Colonia del Sacramento in South America. In the treaty, most of territories were restored to their original owners. France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal, Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France. In return, France ceded Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain, that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains. France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, in addition, while France regained its factories in India, France recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states, and pledged not to send troops to Bengal. Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras, but retained a logwood-cutting colony there, Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism. In turn France gained the return of its colony, Guadeloupe. Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as Quelques arpents de neige, A few acres of snow, the Treaty of Paris is frequently noted as the point at which France gave Louisiana to Spain. The transfer, however, occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau but was not publicly announced until 1764, the Treaty of Paris was to give Britain the east side of the Mississippi. New Orleans on the east side remained in French hands, the Mississippi River corridor in what is modern day Louisiana was to be reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. The 1763 treaty states in Article VII, While the war was all over the world. While the war had weakened France, it was still a European power, British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not aggravate France towards a second war. This explains why Great Britain agreed to return so much while being in such a strong position, though the Protestant British feared Roman Catholics, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France through expulsion or forced conversion. Also, it did not want French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America and this explains Great Britains willingness to protect Roman Catholics living in Canada. Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister the Duke of Choiseul expected a return to war, however, France needed peace to rebuild. French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, in Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown
Treaty of Paris (1763)
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"A new map of North America" - produced following the Treaty of Paris
7.
Quebec Act
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The Quebec Act of 1774, formally known as the British North America Act 1774, was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain setting procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. Reference to the Protestant faith was removed from the oath of allegiance and it guaranteed free practice of the Catholic faith. It restored the use of the French civil law for matters of law, except that in accordance with the English common law. It maintained English common law for matters of law, including administrative appeals, court procedure. It restored the Catholic Churchs right to impose tithes, the 1774 Act had wide-ranging effects, in Quebec itself, as well as in the Thirteen Colonies. In Quebec, English-speaking immigrants from Britain and the southern colonies objected to a variety of its provisions, Canadiens varied in their reaction, the land-owning seigneurs and ecclesiastics for example were generally happy with its provisions. The provisions of the Quebec Act were seen by the colonists as a new model for British colonial administration and it seemed to void the land claims of the colonies by granting most of the Ohio Country to the province of Quebec. After the Seven Years War, a victorious Great Britain and a defeated France formalized the peace with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of France ceded New France to Britain, choosing instead to keep the islands of Guadeloupe, Canada was considered less valuable, as its only significant commercial product at the time was beaver pelts. The territory found along the St. Lawrence River, called Canada by the French, was renamed Quebec by the British, non-military administration of the territories acquired by the British in the war was defined in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Under the terms of the treaty, Canadiens who did not choose to leave became British subjects. In order for them to serve in offices, they were required to swear an oath to the King that contained specific provisions rejecting the Catholic faith. Since many of the predominantly Roman Catholic Canadiens were unwilling to take such an oath, with unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support the growing rebellion. At that time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the population of the province of Quebec. To secure the allegiance of the approximately 90,000 Canadiens to the British crown, first Governor James Murray, there was also a need to compromise between the conflicting demands of the Canadien subjects and those of newly arrived British subjects. These efforts by the governors eventually resulted in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. Territory, The boundaries of the province were defined by the Act and this increased the size of the province threefold over the size of the French province. This enabled, for the first time, French Canadians to legally participate in the affairs of the government without formally renouncing their faith
Quebec Act
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The
Province of Quebec in 1774
Quebec Act
Quebec Act
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The British colonies in North America. Engraved and published by Royal Geographer
William Faden in 1777. The 13 colonies were tightly circumscribed by Quebec in this map.
8.
Constitutional Act 1791
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The Clergy Endowments Act 1791, commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791, is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain. Quebec, with a population of 145,000 French-speaking Canadians, was divided in two when the Act took effect on 26 December 1791, the western half became Upper Canada and the eastern half Lower Canada. The names Upper and Lower Canada were given according to their location on the St. Lawrence River, representative governments were established in both colonies with the creation of respective legislative assemblies, Quebec had not previously had representative government. The Constitutional Act tried to create a church by creating clergy reserves. These reserves created many difficulties in later years, making economic development difficult and creating resentment against the Anglican church, the Family Compact, however, both groups preferred the act and the institutions it created to the Quebec Act which it replaced. The frustration of the French over the nature of Lower Canadian political, Constitutional history of Canada Act of Union Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester Constitutional Act of the Province of Lower Canada
Constitutional Act 1791
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The constitutional act in full.
Constitutional Act 1791
9.
Act of Union 1840
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The British North America Act,1840, commonly known as the Act of Union 1840, was enacted in July 1840 and proclaimed February 10,1841. It abolished the legislatures of Lower Canada and Upper Canada and established a new political entity and this act effected the political union of the Province of Canada, and was similar in nature and in goals to the other Acts of Union enacted by the British Parliament. The inspiration for the act is attributed to Lord Durhams Report on Canada. Lord Durham was sent to the colonies to examine the causes of the Rebellions of 1837 in both Upper and Lower Canada, Lord Durham wanted to re-instate peace throughout the colonies, and recommended a political union. The union was proposed to solve pressing financial issues in Upper Canada. These debts stemmed mostly from investments in canals connecting Upper Canada to the port of Montreal in Lower Canada via the Great Lakes. Due to Upper Canadas considerable debt and chronic budget shortfalls, it was hoped that its finances could be salvaged by merging it with the then-solvent Lower Canada. Upper Canada, with its British and Protestant majority, was growing more rapidly than Lower Canada, with the French-Canadian and it was hoped that by merging the two colonies, the French-Canadian cultural presence in North America would gradually disappear through assimilation. As such, the act also contained measures banning the French language from use in the Legislative Assembly. However, despite the amalgamation, the legal systems of the two colonies was retained with Upper Canada becoming referred to as Canada West and Lower Canada as Canada East. In Upper Canada, there was opposition to unionization from the Family Compact, while in Lower Canada political, the new, merged colony was named the Province of Canada and the seat of government was moved to Kingston by Lord Sydenham. Canada West, with its 450,000 inhabitants, was represented by 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly, the French-Canadian majority as well as numerous anglophones considered this an injustice. In Lower Canada, Louis-Joseph Papineau demanded representation by population and the recall of the union the minute he entered the new parliament of the united Canadas, the granting of responsible government to the colony is typically attributed to reforms in 1848. These reforms resulted in the appointment of the second Baldwin-Lafontaine government that removed many of the disabilities on French-Canadian political participation in the colony. By the late 1850s, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West changed the demographic imbalance between the English and French sections of the colony. Many politicians in Canada West began to lobby for representation by population as no longer considered the equal representation mandated by the Act of Union to be just. In the end, the Act of Union failed at shutting down French-Canadian political influence, by voting en bloc while the anglophones of Canada West were highly factionalized, the francophones of Canada East guaranteed a strong, unified presence in the legislative assembly. As a result, bills proposed by one of the anglophone Canada West factions required the support of the francophone Canada East votes to be passed and this was known as the double majority principle
Act of Union 1840
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Political organization under the Union Act (1840)
10.
Constitution Act, 1867
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The Constitution Act,1867, is a major part of Canadas Constitution. The British North America Acts, including this Act, were renamed in 1982 with the patriation of the Constitution, however, amendments were also made at this time, section 92A was added, giving provinces greater control over non-renewable natural resources. This description of the Constitution has proven important in its interpretation, in New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia, the leading Canadian case on parliamentary privilege, the Supreme Court of Canada grounded its 1993 decision on the preamble. Political scientist Rand Dyck has criticized the preamble, saying it is out of date. He claims the Constitution Act,1867 lacks an inspirational introduction, the preamble to the Constitution Act,1867 is not the Constitution of Canadas only preamble. The Charter also has a preamble, Part I consists of just two sections. Section 1 gives the title of the law as The British North America Act,1867. Section 2 indicates that all references to the Queen equally apply to all her heirs and successors, the British North America Act,1867 established the Dominion of Canada by fusing the North American British Provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Section 3 establishes that the union would take effect six months of passage of the Act. Section 5 lists the four provinces of the new federation, Section 7 confirms that the boundaries of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were not changed. And Section 8 provides that a census of all provinces must be held every ten years. Section 9 confirms that all executive powers remain with the Crown, as represented by a general or an administrator of the government. Section 11 creates the Queens Privy Council for Canada, Section 13 defines the Governor-General in Council as the governor-general acting with the advice of the privy council. Section 14 allows the general to appoint deputies to exercises his powers in various parts of Canada. The commander-in-chief of all armed forces in Canada continues with the Crown under Section 15. Section 16 declares Ottawa the capital of the new federation, the Parliament of Canada, composed of the Crown and two houses is created by section 17. Section 18 defines the powers and privileges of the parliament as being no greater than those of the British parliament, at the time of the Union, there were 72 senators, equally divided between three regions Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces. Section 23 lays out the qualifications to become a senator, senators are appointed by the governor general under section Section 24, and the first group of senators was proclaimed under section 25
Constitution Act, 1867
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Front page of a copy of the Act from 1867
Constitution Act, 1867
Constitution Act, 1867
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Professor
Peter Hogg lists rights within the Constitution Act, 1867, which he calls a "small bill of rights."
11.
British North America Acts
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The British North America Acts 1867–1975 are the original names of a series of Acts at the core of the constitution of Canada. They were enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Parliament of Canada, in Canada, some of the Acts were amended or repealed by the Constitution Act,1982. The rest were renamed in Canada as the Constitution Acts, in the United Kingdom, those Acts that were passed by the British Parliament remain under their original names. The term British North America refers to the British colonies in North America, Canada dates its history as a country to the British North America Act,1867, which came into effect on July 1,1867. However, Canada was not established as independent, since the United Kingdom retained legislative control over Canada. Canada did not have any foreign embassies until its first one was established in Washington, until 1949, changes to the British North America Acts could be made only by the British parliament. Because of this, all British North America Acts dated before 1949 were passed by the British Parliament, the fifteen BNA Acts enacted by the United Kingdom Parliament do not have official French-language versions. Only the English version is official, the five BNA Acts enacted by the Canadian Parliament do have official French-language versions, and the English-language and French-language versions are equally authoritative. The different Acts of this series are distinguished by appending the year of their enactment. BNA Acts were passed in 1867,1871,1886,1907,1915, 1916*,1930,1940, 1943*, 1946*,1949,1949 *, 1951* and those marked with have since been repealed. Five of the British North America Acts were enacted by the Parliament of Canada, namely those of 1952,1965,1974,1975, the other fifteen were enacted by the Imperial Parliament in London. The first Act, the British North America Act,1867 created the self-governing Dominion of Canada, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1867, with the patriation of the constitution. Amendments were also made at time, section 92A was added. This Act gave Canada the power to new provinces and territories. The act recognized the creation of the Province of Manitoba, and also the incorporation of Ruperts Land, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1871. This Act gave parliament the authority to allow the Territories of Canada to have representation in the Canadian Senate, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1886. This Act regulated transfer payments by the Federal government to the provinces to support their legislatures. The funds transferred were set at between C$100,000 and $250,000 depending on the population with an extra $100,000 a year for ten years to British Columbia
British North America Acts
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Canada
12.
Statute of Westminster 1931
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It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to the Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926. It was a step in the development of the Dominions as separate states. The Statute of Westminsters relevance today is that it sets the basis for the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown. The Statute of Westminster gave effect to certain political resolutions passed by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930, in particular, the Balfour Declaration of 1926. Both Canada and the Irish Free State pushed for the ability to amend the laws themselves. After the Statute was passed, the British parliament could no longer make laws for the Dominions, other than with the request, before then, the Dominions had legally been self-governing colonies of the United Kingdom. However, the Statute had the effect of making them sovereign nations once they adopted it, Ireland and South Africa are now republics and Newfoundland is part of Canada. Adopting section 4 clarified that Britain could legislate with effect on Australia as a whole only with Australias request, however, this capacity was never used. That authority remained in effect until the Constitution Act,1982, which transferred it to Canada and these disagreements were resolved only in time for the passage of the Canada Act 1982, thus completing the patriation of the Canadian constitution to Canada. At that time, the Canadian parliament also repealed sections 4 and 7 of the Statute of Westminster, the Statute of Westminster remains a part of the constitution of Canada by virtue of section 52 of the Constitution Act,1982. As a consequence of the adoption, the Parliament of Canada gained the ability to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, while civil appeals continued until 1949, the passage of the Statute of Westminster meant that changes in British legislation governing the succession to the throne no longer automatically applied to Canada. The Free States constitution gave the Oireachtas sole and exclusive power of making laws, originally, the UK government had wanted to exclude from the Statute of Westminster the legislation underpinning the 1921 treaty, from which the Free States constitution had emerged. President W. T. Cosgrave objected, although he promised the Executive Council would not amend the legislation unilaterally, the other Dominions backed Cosgrave and, when an amendment to similar effect was proposed at Westminster by John Gretton, parliament duly voted it down. He went on to present the Statute as largely the fruit of the Free States efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty. After Éamon de Valera led Fianna Fáil to victory in the Free State election of 1932, he began removing the elements of the constitution. De Valera initially considered invoking the Statute of Westminster in making these changes, abolishing the Oath of Allegiance in effect abrogated the 1921 treaty. Generally, the British thought that this was morally objectionable but legally permitted by the Statute of Westminster, however, the Free State had also abolished the right of appeal to the JCPC
Statute of Westminster 1931
13.
Canada Act 1982
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Annexed as Schedule B to the Act is the text of the Constitution Act,1982, in both of Canadas official languages. Canadas political history began with the British North America Act,1867 and this act created the modern state of Canada by combining the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a dominion within the British Empire. From this Canada adopted a Westminster style government with a Parliament of Canada, a Governor General fulfilled the constitutional duties of the British Sovereign on Canadian soil. Despite this, the United Kingdom still had the power to legislate for Canada, the Statute of Westminster 1931 removed this power of the British Parliament for Canada, as well as the other British Dominions, except where the Dominion consented to Imperial legislation. Also, the British North America Act,1949 was passed by the British Parliament, in effect, an Act of the British Parliament was required to make some amendments in the Canadian constitution. The Canada Act 1982 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in response to the request from the Parliament of Canada to take over authority for amending its own constitution. After unpromising negotiations with the governments, Pierre Trudeau proclaimed that the federal Parliament would unilaterally patriate the constitution. However, new research into documents of the Thatcher government indicate that Britain had serious concerns about the inclusion of the Canadian Charter of Rights, through section 2 of the Canada Act 1982, the United Kingdom ended its involvement with further amendments to the Canadian constitution. The procedure for amending the Constitution Act,1982 must comply with its Part V, Canadas Constitution Act,1982 was signed into law by Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada on April 17,1982 on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Queen Elizabeths constitutional powers over Canada were not affected by the Act, australia Act 1986 New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 Patriation Table of Constitutional Documents
Canada Act 1982
14.
List of Canadian constitutional documents
–
The Constitution of Canada is a large number of documents that have been entrenched in the constitution by various means. The oldest Canadian constitutional documents were enacted before Confederation, and originated from the English or British government and those documents were received—along with many subconstitutional laws—into the law of Canada and its provinces by means of section 129 of the Constitution Act,1867. During this time, Canada also passed a number of constitutional documents for itself. After patriation, all new constitutional documents were passed by the Parliament of Canada, the list of documents for the first two methods is well-established. For the next two, however, there is debate about which documents, or which parts of documents, are included in the constitution. In some cases, the Supreme Court of Canada has made definitive rulings regarding whether a given documents forms part of the constitution, the schedule, in turn, lists the following documents. Most were British North America Acts and were renamed as Constitution Acts in 1982, others include the Parliament of Canada Act,1875, the Statute of Westminster,1931, and acts that created new provinces or changed provincial borders. In addition to the acts listed here, six acts were listed as constitutional in §52 but were repealed at the same time. Part V of the Constitution Act,1982 described the process required for amending any constitutional document from then on, as of 2013, eleven amendments have been made under the 1982 amending formula, one of which was later repealed. A document can become entrenched in the Constitution if it is mentioned by a document that is already entrenched, there is no conclusive list of documents, or parts of documents, that are entrenched in this way, so courts may expand or restrict this list in the future. One notable example are agreements with the Aboriginal people of Canada, by referencing these agreements in a constitution act, these agreements are, themselves, given constitution-level authority. These rights include, the Proclamation of 1763, and existing or future land claim agreements, in some cases, only part of the document is affected by this. Two notable examples are the power to make changes to the office of the Governor General of Canada, although the documents creating those two institutions are not mentioned in §52 as constitutional documents, they may be partially entrenched by being included in the amending formula. Another subject specifically mentioned in the formula is the role of the Canadian monarchy. There are two key documents of the English parliament that continue to govern the powers and the line of succession of the Canadian monarch. In both cases, provisions with regard to the monarchy are to be taken literally, one section of the amending formula, section 41, says that the legislature of each province may exclusively make laws amending the constitution of the province. The preamble may therefore entrench key British documents like the Act of Settlement,1701, the English Bill of Rights,1689, and the Magna Carta. Some constitutional rules in Canada cannot be found in any of the above documents, there are three general sources of unwritten constitutional rules, conventions, royal prerogative, and unwritten principles
List of Canadian constitutional documents
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Canadians cannot claim rights mentioned in the Act of Settlement, 1701, but its rules about the monarchy cannot be changed without going through the 1982 amending formula, and it can be influential when interpreting the Constitution.
List of Canadian constitutional documents
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The Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes treaties between the Crown and Canada's Aboriginal people, such as these
Numbered Treaties.
List of Canadian constitutional documents
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Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf become the first same-sex couple to legally marry in Quebec after the Quebec Court of Appeal finds that sexual orientation is an unwritten protected ground in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in the case Hendricks and Leboeuf v Quebec.
15.
Canadian constitutional law
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Canadian constitutional law is the area of Canadian law relating to the interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the courts. All laws of Canada, both provincial and federal, must conform to the Constitution and any laws inconsistent with the Constitution have no force or effect, under the authority of section 52 of the Constitution Act,1982, courts may review all matters of law. Accordingly, the courts have a broad reaching scope of competence, Constitutional issues come before the court through disputes between parties as well as through reference questions. The court has the discretion to hear any Constitutional issues as long as there is a sufficient legal component, the US constitutional political questions doctrine was rejected and so a political dimension to the issue does not bar it from court. Courts must be careful when considering reference questions and they are required to be careful to only answer questions that are not speculative, of a purely political nature, or unripe. When answering the questions the court must retain its role within the constitutional framework. A party must have standing to bring a challenge to the courts. Those who wish to challenge a law can do so in one of several ways, a party who is directly affected by the law that purports to be unconstitutional has standing as of right. Likewise, rights holder may challenge any law that will limit any of their rights and those who are not protected by a right but are nonetheless prosecuted by that law may challenge it as well. Public interest groups may also gain standing if they satisfy the requirements of the Borowski test, in rare cases, the courts have developed substantive rules of constitutional law that are not expressly set out in constitutional texts but rather implied by a number of different principles. This development was criticized by at least one academic, in the Provincial Judges Reference, the Supreme Court found that there was an unwritten constitutional principle that protected a right to judicial salary commissions for provincial court judges. Since the 1929 ruling in Edwards v Canada, the courts have interpreted the Constitution within the context of society to ensure that it adapts and reflects changes. As Viscount Sankey stated, The British North America Act planted in Canada a living tree capable of growth, in Charter jurisprudence, the dialogue principle is where judicial review of legislation is said to be part of a dialogue between the legislatures and the courts. It specifically involves governments drafting legislation in response to court rulings, in 1982 the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was brought into effect. This was not meant to affect the workings of federalism, though some content was moved from section 91 to section 4 of the Charter. Mainly, the Charter is meant to decrease powers of both levels of government by ensuring both federal and provincial laws respect Charter rights, under section 32. The relationship between federalism and the Charter is directly dealt with in section 31, which declares that neither the federal nor provincial governments powers under the Charter. In R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd, it was found that legislation whose purpose is found to violate the Charter cannot be saved if its effects were found to be inoffensive
Canadian constitutional law
–
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Canadian constitutional law
–
Lord Haldane
16.
Patriation
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Patriation was the political process that led to full Canadian sovereignty, culminating with the Constitution Act,1982. That authority was removed from the UK by the passing of the Canada Act,1982 on March 29,1982, by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeths constitutional powers over Canada were not affected by the Act. She remained monarch and Head of State of Canada, separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms, hence, patriation is associated with the establishment of full sovereignty. The word patriation was coined in Canada as a back-formation from repatriation, prior to 1982, the Canadian constitution was held by, and modified by, the United Kingdom, hence some have felt that the term patriation was more suitable than the term repatriation. From 1867, the Constitution of Canada was primarily contained in the British North America Act,1867, and other British North America Acts, which were passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The British North America Act,1949, granted the Parliament of Canada limited power to amend the constitution in many areas of its own jurisdiction, the constitution was amended in this manner five times, in 1952,1965,1974, and twice in 1975. Negotiations continued sporadically between federal and provincial governments on the development of a new amending formula in which the United Kingdom would have no part, in 1968, Pearson was succeeded by Pierre Trudeau, who also advocated patriation. He made several attempts, including the Victoria Charter in 1971, at the 1978-79 conference, Trudeau prepared for the first time to provide some federal concessions with regard to the division of powers, including family law, fisheries, and resources. However, the other premiers balked, which led to speculation they were waiting to see if the more province-friendly Progressive Conservatives would win the federal election. In that campaign, the Liberals ran on constitutional change, including a speech at Maple Leaf Gardens in which Trudeau promised unilateral action if the premiers did not agree to patriation. Patriation was given a new impetus after the 1980 referendum on Quebec independence, Trudeau, when presented with the document, refused to accept it and reiterated his threat that he would seek the House of Commons approval to proceed with a unilateral amendment. Trudeau announced his belief that the premiers were dealing in bad faith, after offering a wide range of options and proposing full reform, a Quebec MP shouted Allons-y en Cadillac. Taking the proposal to Cabinet, some ministers suggested using the maneuver to increase federal power over the economy, on October 2,1980, he announced on national television his intention to proceed with unilateral patriation in what he termed the peoples package. However, there was disagreement over the charter, which the premiers of six provinces opposed as encroachments on their power, Manitoba, Newfoundland, and Quebec launched references to their respective courts of appeal asking if the Canada Bill was constitutional. Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan remained neutral, nova Scotia and Saskatchewan approved of this, prompting the press to now call the opposition premiers the Gang of Eight. Trudeau rejected the document out of hand and again threatened to take the case for patriation straight to the British parliament bothering to ask one premier. The gang soon appealed to the courts, judges, however, were not unanimous in their conclusions on the matter. The case was presented to the Supreme Court of Canada
Patriation
–
The
Supreme Court of Canada
Patriation
–
Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau (far left) with
Queen of Canada Elizabeth II (centre) at
Buckingham Palace, 1977
Patriation
–
Pierre Trudeau (left) and
Jean Chrétien (right) at a session of the 1981 constitutional talks
Patriation
–
Premier of Ontario
Bill Davis
17.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the Constitution Act,1982, the Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights, the Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April 17,1982 along with the rest of the Act. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960, however, the Bill of Rights is only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. As a federal statute, it can be amended through the legislative process and has no application to provincial laws. The Supreme Court of Canada also narrowly interpreted the Bill of Rights, the relative ineffectiveness of the Canadian Bill of Rights motivated many to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Charter, however, granted new powers to the courts to enforce remedies that are more creative, as a result, the Charter has attracted both broad support from a majority of the Canadian electorate and criticisms by opponents of increased judicial power. The Charter only applies to government laws and actions, and sometimes to the common law, under the Charter, people physically present in Canada have numerous civil and political rights. Most of the rights can be exercised by any legal person, the rights are enforceable by the courts through section 24 of the Charter, which allows courts discretion to award remedies to those whose rights have been denied. This section also allows courts to exclude evidence in trials if the evidence was acquired in a way that conflicts with the Charter, Section 32 confirms that the Charter is binding on the federal government, the territories under its authority, and the provincial governments. Every case in which a court discovers a violation of the Charter would therefore require a section 1 analysis to determine if the law can still be upheld, Section 1 has thus been used to uphold laws against objectionable conduct such as hate speech and obscenity. Section 1 also confirms that the rights listed in the Charter are guaranteed, in addition, some of these rights are also subjected to the notwithstanding clause. The notwithstanding clause authorizes governments to temporarily override the rights and freedoms in sections 2 and 7–15 for up to five years, the Canadian federal government has never invoked it, and some have speculated that its use would be politically costly. In the past, the clause was invoked routinely by the province of Quebec. The provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta have also invoked the clause, to end a strike and to protect an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage. The territory of Yukon also passed legislation once that invoked the notwithstanding clause, Section 4, the maximum duration of legislatures is set at five years. Section 5, a sitting of legislatures is required as a minimum
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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Printed copies of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau was a major advocate of the Charter.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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The building of the
Supreme Court of Canada, the chief authority on the interpretation of the Charter
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
–
The
United States Bill of Rights influenced the text of the Charter, but its rights provisions are interpreted more conservatively. Canadian civil-rights and constitutional cases as compared to American cases occasionally have dissimilar outcomes because the broader Charter rights are limited by the "savings clause" of
section 1 of the Charter as interpreted in
R. v. Oakes
18.
Canadian federalism
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Canadian federalism involves the current nature and historical development of federal systems in Canada. Canada is a federation with 11 jurisdictions of governmental authority, the country-wide federal Crown and 10 provincial Crowns, most sectors are under federal jurisdiction or that of the provinces, such as education and healthcare. The division of powers is outlined in the Constitution Act,1867, much about Canadian federalism has undoubtedly changed in the last fifteen years, although it is also true that much remains the same. The foundations of Canadian federalism were laid at the Quebec Conference of 1864, the Quebec Resolutions were a compromise between those who wanted sovereignty vested in the federal government and those who wanted it vested in the provinces. A protracted political process ensued before the Quebec Resolutions became the British North America Act of 1867 and this process was dominated by John A. Macdonald, who joined British officials in attempting to make the federation more centralized than that envisaged by the Resolutions. The complex resulting constitution was couched in more centralist terms than intended, as prime minister, Macdonald tried to exploit this discrepancy to impose his centralist ideal against chief opponent Oliver Mowat. In a series of battles and court cases from 1872 to 1896, Mowat reversed Macdonalds early victories. In 1888, Edward Blake summarized that view, a federal as distinguished from a legislative union, not fractions of a unit but units of a multiple. The Dominion is the multiple and each province is a unit of that multiple, the accession of Wilfrid Laurier as prime minister inaugurated a new phase of constitutional consensus, marked by a more-egalitarian relationship between the jurisdictions. The federal governments powers of disallowance and reservation, which Macdonald abused in his efforts to impose a centralised government. During World War I the federal Crowns power was extended with the introduction of taxes and passage of the War Measures Act. In 1926, the King–Byng Affair resulted in a crisis which was the impetus for changes in the relationship between the governor general and the prime minister. Although its key aspects were political in nature, its constitutional aspects continue to be debated, one result was the Balfour Declaration issued later that year, whose principles were eventually codified in the Statute of Westminster 1931. It, and the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865, gave the parliament the ability to make extraterritorial laws. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, but civil appeals continued until 1949, the last Privy Council ruling of constitutional significance occurred in 1954, in Winner v. S. M. T. After that, the Supreme Court of Canada became the court of appeal. In 1937, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta John C. Bowen refused to give Royal Assent to three Legislative Assembly of Alberta bills. All three bills were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference re Alberta Statutes, World War IIs broader scope required passage of the National Resources Mobilization Act to supplement the powers in the War Measures Act to pursue the national war effort
Canadian federalism
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Sir
John A. Macdonald
Canadian federalism
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Dominion-Provincial Conference, 1927
Canadian federalism
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Pierre Trudeau (left) and
Jean Chrétien (right) at a session of the 1981 constitutional talks
Canadian federalism
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The Queen
19.
Law of Canada
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The legal system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of private law, both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and these generally include interprovincial transport as well as interprovincial trade and commerce. Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, Canadas constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid. The Constitution Act,1982 stipulates that Canadas constitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to that act, and any amendment to any of those acts. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in their rulings, the Constitution Act,1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce, banking, the federal government also has the residual power to make laws necessary for Canadas peace, order and good government. Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, municipalities, education, and property, the Constitution Act,1867 also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges. It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any provincial or federal law, Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act,1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which level of government may legitimately enact legislation. Laws passed by the government are initially announced in the Canada Gazette. Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published in the Annual Statutes of Canada, from time to time, the federal government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada. The most recent federal consolidation was in 1985, laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are announced in a gazette, published annually. All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition, equally, courts have power under the provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity. As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of stare decisis, lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are bound. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British Columbia court, nonetheless, decisions made by a provinces highest court are often considered as persuasive even though they are not binding on other provinces. Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the country with a single ruling. S, law than English law in these areas
Law of Canada
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Cover of the Constitution Act, 1867
Law of Canada
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Copies of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Law of Canada
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Canadian Criminal Cases collection
20.
Canadian Bill of Rights
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The Canadian Bill of Rights is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by Parliament of Canada on August 10,1960. It provides Canadians with certain quasi-constitutional rights at Canadian federal law in relation to federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human law at the federal level in Canada. In 1947, Saskatchewan passed into law a bill of rights which was unique, the Saskatchewan Bill of Rights covered both fundamental freedoms and equality rights. Saskatchewans Bill of Rights is considered to have had influence on John Diefenbaker. Thirteen years later, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights, in 1936, four years before being elected to Parliament, John Diefenbaker began drafting his Bill of Rights. As a young boy, he saw injustice first-hand in the form of discrimination against French-Canadians, natives, Metis, as a lawyer, he would have been aware of the Jehovahs Witnesses cases being tried in the courts. On March 16,1950, a decade before the Canadian Bill of Rights became law, Diefenbaker, then a Saskatchewan MP, individuals freedoms of religion, press, speech and association are threatened by the state, he said. A Bill of Rights was needed to take a stand against discrimination based on colour. In 1960, as minister, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights. The Canadian Bill of Rights protects numerous rights, most of which were included in the Charter. Section 2 of the Bill of Rights reads as follows,2, the notwithstanding wording of section 2 is a precursor to the notwithstanding clause of the Charter. This section reads as follows,3, criticism of the Bill of Rights has mostly centered on its limited effect. The ineffectiveness of the Bill of Rights in achieving its aim was the main reason that. The Bill of Rights was limited in several ways, first, it does not explicitly amend any conflicting statutes, either to remove conflicts or to insert explicit allowances for the statutes to operate notwithstanding the Bill of Rights. When called upon to apply conflicting laws, the courts typically sought to interpret a statute as creating a minimal disturbance of earlier law. In practice this meant that the courts relied on Parliament to repeal or amend any laws contrary to the Bill of Rights, disappointments for those who wanted courts to enforce rights vigorously included Bliss v. Canada and Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell. A notable exception was R. v. Drybones, second, since the Bill of Rights was not a constitutional amendment, there was some debate as to whether it was binding on future Parliaments
Canadian Bill of Rights
–
Canadian Bill of Rights
Canadian Bill of Rights
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John G. Diefenbaker, M.P., speaking in the House of Commons, Ottawa, Canada.
21.
Canadian Human Rights Act
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In 2016, An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code has been introduced to the Canadian House of Commons, to add and include gender identity or expression to the legislation. The Canadian Human Rights Act created the Canadian Human Rights Commission that investigates claims of discrimination as well as the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal to judge the cases, before a case can be brought to the Tribunal it must go through several stages of investigation and remediation by the Commission. After this process has completed, if the parties are not satisfied. If a complainant can show a case of discrimination the defendant can rebuke it by showing that their practice was for a justified reason. The process is known as the Meiorin test which is similar to the Oakes test justification in a Charter challenge. In June 2012, the House of Commons voted to repeal Section 13 of the Canadian Human Rights Act regarding communication of hate messages, on June 26,2013, Section 13 was finally repealed after a vote in the Senate. Royal Assent was given to the bill on July 1,2013
Canadian Human Rights Act
–
Canadian Human Rights Act
22.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
George III of the United Kingdom
–
Coronation portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
George III of the United Kingdom
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George (right) with his brother
Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany, and their tutor,
Francis Ayscough, later
Dean of
Bristol, c. 1749
George III of the United Kingdom
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Pastel portrait of George as
Prince of Wales by
Jean-Étienne Liotard, 1754
George III of the United Kingdom
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George III by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
23.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Lord Clive meeting
Mir Jafar after the
Battle of Plassey, by
Francis Hayman (c. 1762)
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Flag
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
Pitt addressing the
Commons in 1793
24.
New France
–
The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
New France
–
A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain in 1612.
New France
–
Flag
New France
–
Champlain's Habitation c. 1608
New France
–
A map of western New France, including the
Illinois Country, by
Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688.
25.
French and Indian War
–
The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
–
Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
–
French and Indian War
French and Indian War
–
Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
–
Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
26.
Appalachian Mountains
–
The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period and it once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines, definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft. The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet, the term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the mountain range with its surrounding hills. The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, the name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváezs expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15,1528, now spelled Appalachian, it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US. After the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrezs map of 1562, the name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the Allegheny Mountains, Alleghenies, in the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In U. S. dialects in the regions of the Appalachians. In northern parts of the range, it is pronounced /ˌæpəˈleɪtʃᵻnz/ or /ˌæpəˈleɪʃᵻnz/, the third syllable is like lay. There is often debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is /ˌæpəˈlætʃiən/, the whole system may be divided into three great sections, Northern, The northern section runs from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador to the Hudson River. The Monteregian Hills, which cross the Green Mountains in Quebec, are also unassociated with the Appalachians, Central, The central section goes from the Hudson Valley to the New River running through Virginia and West Virginia. Southern, The southern section runs from the New River onwards and it consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, which is divided into the Western Blue Ridge Front and the Eastern Blue Ridge Front, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau
Appalachian Mountains
–
View from the slopes of
Back Allegheny Mountain, looking east; visible are
Allegheny Mountain (in the
Monongahela National Forest of
West Virginia, middle distance) and
Shenandoah Mountain (in the
George Washington National Forest of
Virginia, far distance)
Appalachian Mountains
–
Detail of Diego Gutiérrez's 1562 map of the Western Hemisphere, showing the first known use of a variation of the place name "Appalachia" ("Apalchen") - from the map Americae sive qvartae orbis partis nova et exactissima descriptio
Appalachian Mountains
–
Shaded relief map of the
Cumberland Plateau and
Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians on the
Virginia –
West Virginia border
Appalachian Mountains
–
Old
fault exposed by roadcut near
Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania, along
Interstate 81, such faults are common in the folded Appalachians
27.
First Nations
–
The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
First Nations
First Nations
–
Squamish woman
First Nations
First Nations
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
28.
Drainage divide
–
A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
Drainage divide
–
European drainage divides (red lines) separating drainage basins (grey regions)
29.
Theater (warfare)
–
In warfare, a theater or theatre is an area or place in which important military events occur or are progressing. A theater can include the entirety of the air space, land, such a clearly defined idea as this is not capable of universal application, it is here used merely to indicate the line of distinction. Theater of operations is a sub-area within a theater of war, the boundary of a TO is defined by the commander who is orchestrating or providing support for specific combat operations within the TO. Theater of operations are divided into strategic directions or military regions depending whether its a war or peace time, the United States Armed Forces split into Unified Combatant Commands that are assigned to a particular theater of military operations. Strategic direction is a group of armies also known as task forces or battlegroups, also in the US Armed Forces the term of strategic is often associated with missile command dropping word missile out of use such as the United States Strategic Command. However it is an important strategic command that could be deployed in any theater of military operations. A strategic command or direction in general essence would combine a number of military formations or operational command. In modern military, a command is better known as a combat command that may be a combination of army groups. In a peacetime due to loss of a strategic direction fronts were transformed into military regions responsible for a section of operations. The Russian term is театр военных действий, teatr voennykh deistvii, abbreviated ТВД, as the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control
Theater (warfare)
–
Unified Combatant Command
30.
Mississippi River
–
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
Mississippi River
–
Mississippi River near Fire Point in
Effigy Mounds National Monument, Iowa
Mississippi River
–
Detailed map of Mississippi River tributary structure
Mississippi River
–
The beginning of the Mississippi River at
Lake Itasca (2004)
Mississippi River
–
Mississippi head of navigation, Coon Rapids Dam
31.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
–
It is the only remnant of the former colonial empire of New France that still remains under French control, with an area of 242 km2 and a population of 6,080 at the January 2011 census. The islands are situated at the entrance of Fortune Bay, which extends into the southwestern coast of Newfoundland and they are 3,819 kilometres from Brest, the nearest point in Metropolitan France, but only 25 kilometres from the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland. Saint-Pierre is French for Saint Peter, the saint of fishermen. The present name of Miquelon was first noted in the form of Micquelle in the Basque sailor Martin de Hoyarçabals navigational pilot for Newfoundland and it has been claimed that the name Miquelon is a Basque form of Michael, Mikel and Mikels are usually named Mikelon in the Basque Country. Therefore, from Mikelon it may have written in the French way with a q instead of a k. It appears that this is a common form in that language. The adjoined islands name of Langlade is said to be an adaptation of lîle à lAnglais, the first European encounter with Saint-Pierre and Miquelon was in 1520, by the Portuguese João Álvares Fagundes. They were made a French possession in 1536 by Jacques Cartier on behalf of the King of France, in 1670, during Jean Talons tenure as Intendant of New France, a French officer annexed the islands when he found a dozen French fishermen camped there. The British Royal Navy soon began to harass the French, pillaging their camps and ships, by the early 1700s, the islands were again uninhabited, and were ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, which put an end to the Seven Years War, France ceded all its North American possessions, France also maintained fishing rights on the coasts of Newfoundland. With France being allied with the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, Britain invaded and razed the colony in 1778, in 1793, the British landed in Saint-Pierre and, the following year, expelled the French population, and tried to install British settlers. The British colony was in turn sacked by French troops in 1796, the Treaty of Amiens of 1802 returned the islands to France, but Britain reoccupied them when hostilities recommenced the next year. The Treaty of Paris gave them back to France, though Britain occupied them yet again during the Hundred Days War, France then reclaimed the then uninhabited islands in which all structures and buildings had been destroyed or fallen into disrepair. The islands were resettled in 1816, the settlers were mostly Basques, Bretons and Normans, who were joined by various other elements, particularly from the nearby island of Newfoundland. Only around the middle of the century did increased fishing bring a certain prosperity to the little colony, during the early 1910s, the colony suffered severely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large numbers of its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec. The draft imposed on all inhabitants of conscript age after the beginning of World War I crippled the fisheries, which could not be processed by the older people. About 400 men from the served in the French military during World War I. The increase in the adoption of steam trawlers in the fisheries also contributed to the reduction in employment opportunities, smuggling had always been an important economic activity in the islands, but it became especially prominent in the 1920s with the institution of prohibition in the United States
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
–
Saint-Pierre aerial photo, 2013.
Saint-Pierre Airport is at lower right. Original photo has extensive annotations.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
–
Unofficial flag
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
–
St Pierre, Le Quai La Roncière, 1887
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
–
Saint-Pierre in 1921
32.
Haiti
–
Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti and formerly called Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic, the region was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people. Spain discovered the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic, when Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia. On Christmas Day 1492, Columbus flagship the Santa Maria ran aground north of what is now Limonade, the island was named La Española and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the portion of the island being ceded to France. The development of plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years, and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas, Henri Christophe – former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I – built it to withstand a possible foreign attack. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas, most recently, in February 2004, a coup détat originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, the name Haïti comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, land of high mountains. The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately. In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, the name Haïti was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. The Taíno name for the island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America, genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America, after migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of organization was led by a cacique, or chief. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests, Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions
Haiti
–
Burning of the town of
Cap-Français
Haiti
–
Flag
Haiti
–
Battle between
British troops in French service and the
Haitian rebels.
Haiti
–
Pétion and Dessalines swearing allegiance to one another before God; painting by
Guillon-Lethière
33.
Guadeloupe
–
Guadeloupe is an insular region of France located in the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Administratively, it is a region consisting of a single overseas department. With a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,132 as of January 2015. Guadeloupes two main islands are Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, which are separated by a strait that is crossed with bridges. They are often referred to as a single island, the department also includes the Dependencies of Guadeloupe, which include the smaller islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes. Guadeloupe, like the other departments, is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, as an overseas department, however, it is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture of Guadeloupe is the city of Basse-Terre, which lies on the island of the same name, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population except recent arrivals from metropolitan France also speak Antillean Creole. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, the island was called Karukera by the Arawak people, who settled on there in 300 AD/CE. During the 8th century, the Caribs came and killed the population of Amerindians on the island. During his second trip to the Americas, in November 1493, Christopher Columbus became the first European to land on Guadeloupe, while seeking fresh water. He called it Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, the expedition set ashore just south of Capesterre, but left no settlers behind. Columbus is credited with discovering the pineapple on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and he called it piña de Indias, which can be correctly translated as pine cone of the Indies. During the 17th century, the Caribs fought against the Spanish settlers, after successful settlement on the island of St. Due to Martiniques inhospitable nature, the duo resolved to settle in Guadeloupe in 1635, took possession of the island and it was annexed to the kingdom of France in 1674. Over the next century, the British seized the island several times, the economy benefited from the lucrative sugar trade, which commenced during the closing decades of the 17th century. Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, worth about £6 million a year, the British captured Guadeloupe in 1759. The British government decided that Canada was strategically important and kept Canada while returning Guadeloupe to France in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War
Guadeloupe
–
The
Battle of the Saintes fought near Guadeloupe between France and Britain, 1782.
Guadeloupe
–
Flag
Guadeloupe
–
A bust of French abolitionist
Victor Schoelcher.
Guadeloupe
–
A satellite photo of Guadeloupe.
34.
West Florida
–
West Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. The province was established by the British in 1763 out of lands ceded from the Spanish, as its name suggests, it was formed out of the Western part of formerly Spanish Florida, along with lands taken from French Louisiana, West Floridas capital was Pensacola. The colony included most of what is now the Florida Panhandle, plus parts of the modern U. S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Great Britain established West and East Florida out of land taken from France and Spain after the French and Indian War. As the newly acquired territory was too large to govern from one administrative center, British West Floridas government was based in Pensacola, and the colony included the part of formerly Spanish Florida which lay west of the Apalachicola, plus parts of formerly French Louisiana. It thus comprised all territory between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with a boundary which shifted several times over the subsequent years. Both West and East Florida remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution, Spain invaded West Florida and captured Pensacola in 1781, and after the war Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain. However, the lack of defined boundaries led to a series of disputes between Spanish West Florida and the fledgling United States known as the West Florida Controversy. Disagreements with the Spanish government led American and English settlers between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers to declare that area the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819 the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory. The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of La Florida, in 1698 the settlement of Pensacola was established in order to check French expansion into the area. Beginning in the late 17th century the French established settlements in the region as part of colonial Louisiana, notably including Mobile, after years of contention the Perdido River was agreed upon as the boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Florida. Before 1762 France had owned and administered the land west of the Perdido River as part of La Louisiane. A secret treaty in 1762 had effectively, upon being revealed in 1764, ceded to Spain all of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, notably, Spain failed to make good by occupancy its title to Louisiana until 1769, when it took formal possession. Spain also ceded to Great Britain its territory of La Florida, in exchange for Cuba, as a result, for the next two decades, the British controlled nearly all of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Most of the Spanish population left Florida at that time, and its colonial government records were relocated to Havana, East Florida consisted of most of the formerly Spanish Florida, and retained the old Spanish capital of St. Augustine. West Florida comprised the land between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with Pensacola designated as its capital, the northern boundary was arbitrarily set at the 31st parallel north. Many English Americans and Scotch-Irish Americans moved to the territory at this time, the Governor of West Florida in November 1763 was George Johnstone, his lieutenant governor, Montfort Browne, was a major landowner in the province who heavily promoted its development. Seven General Assemblies were convoked between 1766 and 1778, in 1764, the British moved the northern boundary to the 32° 22′ north latitude, extending from the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River, which included the Natchez District and the Tombigbee District
West Florida
–
British West Florida in 1767.
West Florida
–
The
Bonnie Blue Flag of the Republic of West Florida.
West Florida
–
A 1903 map showing the territorial changes of "West Florida"
35.
East Florida
–
East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763, it consisted of peninsular Florida and its capital was St. Augustine, which had been the capital of Spanish Florida. Britain formed East and West Florida out of territory it had received from Spain and France following the French, finding its new acquisitions in the southeast too large to administer as a single unit, the British divided them into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. East Florida comprised the bulk of what had previously been the Spanish territory of Florida, Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain following the American Revolutionary War. Spain maintained them as separate colonies, although the majority of West Florida was gradually occupied and annexed by the United States from 1810 to 1813, Spain ceded East Florida and the remainder of West Florida to the US in the Adams–Onís Treaty. In 1822 the United States organized them as a single unit, under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War, Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London with the interests that controlled Nova Scotia. Perhaps it is strange to think of such dissimilar geographic areas with such opposing climates as having much in common, but if one considers naval and military strategy, one can see that these areas have a common significance, especially when viewed from London by the ministry. Halifax was the command post for both the admiral and general in charge of the American forces, St. Augustine evoked the same strategic considerations. These posts have described as the two centers of strength to which the British army was withdrawn in the late 1760s. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada show that the fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincolns Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, other aristocrats, nobles and merchants did the same. The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham and it was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature. Both Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American War of Independence, Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north. Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces, the Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several disputes between the US and Spain, some resulting in military action
East Florida
–
East Florida and West Florida in British period, (1767).
36.
Grenada
–
Grenada is an island country consisting of Grenada itself and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent, Grenada is also known as the Island of Spice because of the production of nutmeg and mace crops, of which it is one of the worlds largest exporters. Its size is 344 square kilometres, with a population of 110,000. The national bird of Grenada is the critically endangered Grenada dove, before the arrival of Europeans, Grenada was inhabited by indigenous Arawaks and, subsequently, Island Caribs. Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada in 1498 during his voyage to the Americas. Although it was deemed the property of the King of Spain, French settlement and colonisation began in 1650 and continued for the next century. On 10 February 1763 Grenada was ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris, British rule continued, except for a period of French rule between 1779 and 1783, until 1974. From 1958 to 1962 Grenada was part of the Federation of the West Indies, on March 3,1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs as an Associated State. Herbert Blaize was the first Premier of the Associated State of Grenada from March to August 1967, Eric Gairy served as Premier from August 1967 until February 1974. Independence was granted on February 7,1974, under the leadership of Eric Gairy, Bishop was later freed by popular demonstration and attempted to resume power, but was captured and executed by soldiers. On October 25,1983, combined forces from the United States, the invasion was highly criticised by the governments of Britain, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, along with the United Nations General Assembly. Elections were held in December 1984 and were won by the Grenada National Party under Herbert Blaize who served as minister until his death in December 1989. On September 7,2004, after being hurricane-free for 49 years, the island was hit by Hurricane Ivan. On July 14,2005, Hurricane Emily struck the northern part of the island, the origin of the name Grenada is obscure, but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name Grenada, on his third voyage to the region in 1498, Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada and named it La Concepción in honour of the Virgin Mary. It is said that he may have named it Assumpción. However, history has accepted that it was Tobago he named Assumpción, in 1499, the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci travelled through the region with the Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda and mapmaker Juan de la Cosa. Vespucci is reported to have renamed the island Mayo, which is how it appeared on maps for around the next 20 years, in the 1520s the Spanish named the islands to the north of Mayo as Los Granadillos, presumably after the mainland Spanish town
Grenada
Grenada
Grenada
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St. George's, Grenada's capital.
Grenada
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Maurice Bishop visiting East Germany, 1982.
37.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
38.
Great Lakes region
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The region borders the Great Lakes and forms a distinctive historical, economic, and cultural identity. A portion of the region encompasses most of the Great Lakes Megalopolis. The Commissions authorities are confirmed by the Canadian and American federal governments, the states and provinces are represented in the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers. To the east, the rivers of St. Lawrence, Richelieu, Hudson, Mohawk, beyond the region, North American claims remained disputed among Britain, France, Spain and Russia. During the American Revolution, the region was contested between Britain and rebellious American colonies, Britain, which may have entertained ambitions to repossess the area if America failed to govern it, retained control over its forts and licensed fur trade for fifteen years. During the Confederacy Period of 1781–1789, the Continental Congress passed three ordinances whose authority was unclear regarding the regions governance on the American side, the Land Ordinance of 1784 established the broad outlines of future governance. The territory would be divided into six states, which would be given powers of constitutional instituting. The Land Ordinance of 1785 specified the manner in which land would be distributed in the Territory, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 defined the political protocols by which American states south of the lakes would enter the union as political equals with the original thirteen colonies. The ordinance prohibited the establishment of religion and established civic rights that foreshadowed the United States Bill of Rights. Civil rights included freedom from cruel and unusual punishment, trial by jury, States were authorized to organize constitutional conventions and petition for admission as states equal to the original thirteen. Five states evolved from its provisions, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, the northeastern section of Minnesota, from the Mississippi to St. Croix River, also fell under ordinance jurisdiction and extended the constitution and culture of the Old Northwest to the Dakotas. The surge of settlement generated tension culminating in the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, the region on both sides of the border became a vast research and design laboratory for agricultural machinery and techniques. Owner-operator family farms transformed both demographics and ecology into a vast terrain of farmlands, producing wheat and corn. In western New York and northeast Ohio, the St. Mining, primarily soft metals of copper, zinc, and lead, the regions alliance of antislavery with free soil movements contributed troops and agricultural goods that proved critical in the Unions victory. The Homestead and Morrill Acts, donating land to extend the agrarian economic franchise. Like the provisions of the ordinance, Ontario prohibited slavery, made provisions for land distribution to farmers who owned their own land, Industrial production, organization, and technology have made the region among the worlds most productive manufacturing centers. The region hosted the worlds greatest concentrations of production for oil, coal, steel, automobiles, synthetic rubber, agricultural machinery, agronomy industrialized as well, in meat processing, packaged cereal products, and processed dairy products. State universities, professional work, and unemployment and workers compensation were some of the regions permanent contributions to American social policy
Great Lakes region
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Ford's River Rouge assembly plant 1941
Great Lakes region
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The Great Lakes Region includes portions of the area shown in red.
Great Lakes region
Great Lakes region
39.
Canada (New France)
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Canada was a French colony within New France discovered and named during Jacques Cartier second voyage in 1535. French explorations continued unto the Countreys of Canada, Hochelaga, even though a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac in 1600, it was under a trade monopoly and thus not constituted as an official French colonial settlement. As a result, the first official settlement was not established within Canada until the founding of Quebec by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. The other four colonies within New France were Hudsons Bay to the north, Acadia and Newfoundland to the east, Canada, the most developed colony of New France, was divided into three districts, Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montréal, each with its own government. The governor of the District of Quebec was also the governor-general of all New France, after the Treaty of Paris of 1763, when France ceded Canada to Great Britain, the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec. A1740 survey of the population of the St. Lawrence River valley counted about 44,000 colonists, of those,18,000 lived under the Government of Quebec,4,000 under the Government of Trois-Rivières and 22,000 under the Government of Montreal. The population was rural, Quebec had 4,600 inhabitants, Trois-Rivières had 378. Also, Île Royale had 4,000 inhabitants, and Île Saint-Jean had 500 inhabitants, before 1717, when it ceded territory to the new colony of Louisiana, it stretched as far south as the Illinois Country. North of the Great Lakes, a mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, was established in 1639, following the destruction of the Huron homeland in 1649 by the Iroquois, the French destroyed the mission themselves and left the area. In what are today Ontario and the prairies, various trading posts and forts were built such as Fort Kaministiquia, Fort Frontenac, Fort Saint Pierre, Fort Saint Charles. The mission and trading post at Sault Ste, marie would later be split by the Canada–US border. Today, the term Les Pays-den-Haut refers to a county municipality in the Laurentides region of Quebec, north of Montreal. In its civil law, customs and the aspects of the great majority of its population. The term Canada may also refer to todays Canadian federation created in 1867, or the historical Province of Canada, a British colony comprising southern Ontario and southern Quebec
Canada (New France)
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Pays d'en Haut in pink around the Great Lakes in 1748.
Canada (New France)
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Flag
40.
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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It forms part of the Canada–United States border in two different places along its length. The river drains an area of approximately 55,000 square kilometres and it has been nicknamed the Rhine of North America for its scenery. The river is regulated by hydro power dams located at Mactaquac, Beechwood, the Baker Branch of the Saint John River rises in the Saint John Ponds of Somerset County in northwestern Maine. The branches combine to form the river flowing northeastward through western Aroostook County. The Lacroix road built in 1923 from Lac-Frontière crosses the river at Ninemile Bridge, near Seven Islands the river was crossed by an 18th century trail from the St. Lawrence River. There is an Abenaki burial site containing a number of graves where the Big Black River joins the Saint John in township 18, range 13. Local legend maintains the confluence is haunted by the spirits of Abenaki killed by an epidemic of European disease, near Allagash, the Saint John is joined by the Allagash River. Below St. Francis, the Saint John begins to part of the international boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. At Perth-Andover, the river is joined by the Aroostook and the Tobique rivers, at Hartland, it is crossed by the longest covered bridge in the world. Further south at Woodstock, the leaves the Upper Valley and turns east. It is joined by Nackawic Stream at Nackawic and passes small communities such as Bear Island, the Maliseet capital of Meductic was located along the Saint John River in the 17th and into the mid-18th century. This site was flooded in 1965 after completion of the Mactaquac Dam with the waterline level 133 feet above sea level, the river continues eastward until it reaches New Brunswicks capital city Fredericton and then the military town of Oromocto. Turning south from Oromocto, the river is joined by the short Jemseg River which empties New Brunswicks largest lake and this part of the river valley becomes broad and shallow. The river is dotted by many low islands used for pastureland during dry periods in the summer, south of the Jemseg, the Saint John River is surrounded by the low hills of the St. Croix Highlands. It is joined by several bays, including Belleisle Bay, the Nerepis River. The Saint John River finally discharges into the Bay of Fundy at the city of Saint John. Near the rivers mouth is the site of the Reversing Falls and these tides are the highest in the world and cause the river to reverse its flow twice a day in a narrow gorge in the citys centre. The Saint John River has a depth of 50 metres above the Mactaquac Dam
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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Saint John River in
Fredericton, NB
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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Mactaquac Dam
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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St. John River Campaign: Raid on Grimrose (present day
Gagetown, New Brunswick). Made in 1758, this is the only contemporaneous image of the
Expulsion of the Acadians.
Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)
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Spring freshet and ice break up near
Westfield on the Saint John River, 1936
41.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
Labrador
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Innu making canoes ca. 1920
Labrador
Labrador
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Model of
Basque whale oil melting factory at
Red Bay
42.
Newfoundland Colony
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This followed decades of sporadic English settlement on the island, at first seasonal rather than permanent. It was made a Crown colony in 1854 and a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907, in 1949 it joined the Canadian confederation as the Province of Newfoundland. In 2001 that was changed to the current jurisdiction, the English encountered the Beothuk indigenous people on the island of Newfoundland and in the region. From 1610 to 1728, proprietary governors were appointed to establish settlements on the island. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cupers Cove, other settlements were Bristols Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, which was organized as a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638, during this period, France had also established settlements in the region, particularly to the west in what is now Quebec. It had strong trading ties to many of the First Nations along the Atlantic Coast, including the Mikmaq, the rivalry between England and France in Europe was played out in conflicts in North America, where they struggled for predominance. The Newfoundland colony was nearly obliterated during the Avalon Peninsula Campaign of King Williams War, in 1696 the French and allied Mikmaq armed forces wiped out all but a handful of English settlements on the island of Newfoundland. Over the next year, the English repopulated and rebuilt the colony, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ceded all of Newfoundland to the British Crown. Given the Newfoundland colonys isolation from the more southern British Thirteen Colonies in North America, after the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783 with the independence of the United States, Newfoundland Colony became part of British North America. The Crown resettled some Loyalists in Newfoundland, but most were given land in Nova Scotia and it became an official Crown colony in 1825, and Thomas John Cochrane, an officer of the Royal Navy, was appointed as its first governor. He directed the construction of Government House, which is located between Fort William and Fort Townshend and it has been designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. The colony was granted a constitution in 1832, and Cochrane became its first civil governor, the colony was granted self-governing status in 1854. Philip Francis Little was the first Premier of Newfoundland Colony between 1855 and 1858, the colony rejected confederation with Canada in the period of 1864-69. In 1907, Newfoundland became the Dominion of Newfoundland, a Dominion of the British Empire, due to economic hardship in 1934 it suspended its self-government and accepted temporary rule by a royal commission. Together with Labrador, an area on the mainland, it confederated with Canada in 1949 as the province of Newfoundland, in 2001 that was amended to rename the province Newfoundland and Labrador. British Empire Dominion of Newfoundland History of Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador List of lieutenant governors of Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland Colony
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Flag (1862-1870)
43.
Indian Reserve (1763)
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The Royal Proclamation of 1763 organized on paper much of the new territorial gains in three colonies in North America—East Florida, West Florida, and Quebec. The rest of the expanded British territory was left to American Indians, the delineation of the Eastern Divide, following the Allegheny Ridge of the Appalachians, confirmed the limit to British settlement established at the 1758 Treaty of Easton, before Pontiacs War. Additionally, all European settlers in the territory were supposed to leave the territory or get official permission to stay. Many of the moved to New Orleans and the French land on the west side of the Mississippi. However, many of the settlers remained and the British did not actively attempt to evict them. In 1768, lands west of the Alleghenies and south of the Ohio were ceded to the colonies by the Cherokee at the Treaty of Hard Labour and by the Six Nations at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. However, several other Indian nations, particularly Shawnee and Mingo, continued to inhabit and this conflict led to Dunmores War in 1774, ended by the Treaty of Camp Charlotte where these tribes agreed to accept the Ohio River as the new boundary. Restrictions on settlement were to become a point in the American Revolutionary War. The renegade Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe did not agree to the sale, nor did the Royal Government in London, which forbade settlement in this region. As an act of Revolution in defiance of the crown, white settlers began pouring into Kentucky in 1776, opposed by Dragging Canoe in the Cherokee–American wars. Washingtons militia ambush the French unit, and one account has it that Jumonville is killed by Seneca nation chief Tanacharison while in custody of Washington, igniting the French and Indian War. 1754 – Washington surrenders to Jumonvilles half brother Louis Coulon de Villiers in the Battle of the Great Meadows in Fayette County and it is the only time Washington is to ever surrender in battle. He signs a document taking responsibility for the assassination of Jumonville and is released, the document is to be used to widen the war into the global Seven Years War. 1762 – Following massive French defeats, the French secretly cede Louisiana on the west side of the Mississippi to its ally Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau,1763 – France cedes all lands in modern Canada and all lands east of the Mississippi in the Treaty of Paris. Terms call for tolerance in Quebec and unrestricted emigration from French Canada for 18 months. 1764 – Announcement that Spain has acquired the west bank of the Mississippi in Louisiana,1768 – Treaty of Fort Stanwix creates the Line of Property and Purchase Line in which the Iroquois cede much of Kentucky, West Virginia, and sections of western Pennsylvania and New York. 1772 – The Grand Ohio Company gets charter to settle the Vandalia colony south of the Ohio River much of which is now West Virginia, the act is considered one of the Intolerable Acts that contribute to the American Revolutionary War. 1775 – Transylvania founded in what is now Kentucky by Richard Henderson, daniel Boone blazes Wilderness Trail through Cumberland Gap and founds Boonesborough
Indian Reserve (1763)
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Flag
44.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
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The Treaty of Fort Stanwix was a treaty between Native Americans and Great Britain, signed in 1768 at Fort Stanwix, in present-day Rome, New York. It was negotiated between Sir William Johnson, his deputy George Croghan, and representatives of the Six Nations. The treaty established a Line of Property following the Ohio River that ceded the Kentucky portion of the Colony of Virginia to the British, the treaty also settled land claims between the Six Nations and the Penn family. The lands thereby acquired by the British in Pennsylvania were known as the New Purchase, the purpose of the conference was to adjust the boundary line between Indian lands and British colonial settlements set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The British government hoped a new line might bring an end to the rampant frontier violence which had become costly. Indians hoped a new, permanent line might hold back British colonial expansion, the Native American nations present received gifts and cash totaling £10,460 7s. Sterling, the highest payment ever made from colonists to American Indians, the treaty established a Line of Property which extended the earlier proclamation line of the Alleghenies, much farther to the west. The British had recently confirmed the lands south and west of the Kanawha to the Cherokee by the Treaty of Hard Labour, in addition, the Shawnee did not agree to this treaty, contesting colonial Virginian settlements between the Alleghenies and Ohio until the 1774 Treaty of Camp Charlotte. They had reserved this territory for decades as a hunting ground and they still considered the Tennessee their boundary with the Cherokee and other Southern tribes. The Iroquois hoped that by releasing Ohio lands, they could take pressure off their own home territories in the New York and Pennsylvania areas. The treaty also settled claims between the Six Nations and the Penn family, the proprietors of Pennsylvania, where the lands acquired in 1768 were called the New Purchase. Due to disputes about the boundaries of the settlement, however. The press of British colonial population growth and economic development turned the attention of investors, in response to demands by settlers and speculators, British authorities sought cessions by the Iroquois and Cherokee for land in Indian country. At one time, historians believed that the Treaty of Fort Stanwix was an example of Native Americans being forced to accept unreasonable cessions, the Fort Stanwix Treaty of 1768, New York History, 25#2 pp. 182-194 in JSTOR Halsey, Francis Whiting. The Old New York Frontier, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1901 Marshall, Sir William Johnson and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix,1768. Journal of American Studies 1#2 pp 149-179, the Divided Ground, Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution. Complete Text of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix,1768 The Documentary History of the State of New York, oCallaghan, M. D. Albany, Weed, Parsons & Co.18501768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
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A portion of the 1768 Fort Stanwix Treaty line, showing the boundary in New York
45.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
Kentucky
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Narrow country roads bounded by stone and wood plank fences are a fixture in the Kentucky
Bluegrass region.
Kentucky
Kentucky
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Kentucky's regions (click on image for color-coding information.)
Kentucky
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The
Eastern Kentucky Coalfield is known for its rugged terrain.
46.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
West Virginia
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Thomas Lee, the first manager of the
Ohio Company of Virginia.
West Virginia
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Flag
West Virginia
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A celebration at a slave wedding in Virginia, 1838
West Virginia
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On October 24, 1861, when voters from 41 counties voted to form a new state, voter turnout was 34%. The name was subsequently changed from Kanawha to West Virginia.
47.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis, although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are pejorative. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas, projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, the Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada, Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first peoples communities. National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to peoples of Canada. The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations, as they include Inuit, Métis, First Nations has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity, in conversation this would be I am Haida, or we are Kwantlens, in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. In this Act, Aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit, Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive, Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of Aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo, the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the area inhabited by the Inuit. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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An aboriginal community in
Northern Ontario
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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A
Clovis point created using
bi-facial percussion flaking. (that is, each face is flaked on both edges alternatively with a percussor) – Image courtesy of the Virginia Dept. of Historic Resources.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Thule site (
Copper Inuit) near the waters of Cambridge Bay (
Victoria Island)
.JPG)
