1.
Indian Reorganization Act
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The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18,1934, or the Wheeler-Howard Act, was U. S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans. It was the centerpiece of what has often called the Indian New Deal. The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, the law did not apply to Hawaii, Alaska and Oklahoma was added under another law in 1936. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to an all time low of $23 million in 1933, and reaching $38 million in 1940. The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelts Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and he had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America and his proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Colliers proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior, the self-government provisions would automatically go into effect for a tribe unless a clear majority of the eligible Indians voted it down. When approved, a tribe would adopt a variation of the constitution drafted by BIA lawyers. Of the tribes that voted on the IRA,174 voted yes and 78 rejected it, before allotment, reservation territory was not owned in the usual European-American sense, but was reserved for the benefit of entire Indian tribes. The communal benefits were apportioned to members according to tribal law. Generally, Indians held the land in a communal fashion, non-Indians were not allowed to own land on reservations, a fact which limited the value of the land to the Indians. The process of allotment started with the General Allotment Act of 1887, by 1934, two thirds of Indian land had converted to traditional private ownership. Most of that had sold by Indian allottees, often because they had no means to pay local taxes on the lands. The IRA provided a mechanism for the recovery of land that had been sold—including land that had sold to tribal Indians. They would lose individual property under the law, John Collier was appointed Commissioner of the Indian Bureau in April 1933 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He had the support of his boss, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. The federal government held land in trust for many tribes, numerous claims cases had been presented to Congress because of failures in the governments management of such lands
2.
Library and Archives Canada
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Library and Archives Canada is a federal institution tasked with acquiring, preserving and making Canadas documentary heritage accessible. LAC reports to Parliament through Mélanie Joly, the Minister of Canadian Heritage since November 4,2015, the National Library of Canada was founded in 1953. Freda Farrell Waldon contributed to the writing of the brief which led to the founding of the National Library of Canada, in 2004, Library and Archives Canada combined the functions of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. It was established by the Library and Archives of Canada Act, a subsequent Order in Council dated May 21,2004 united the collections, services and personnel of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. Since inception LAC has reported to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage, LAC is expected to maintain effective recordkeeping practices that ensure transparency and accountability. Some of this content, primarily the collection, university theses. Many items have not been digitized and are available in physical form. As of May 2013 only about 1% of the collection had been digitized, representing about 25 million of the more popular, genealogists account for 70% of LACs clients. The building at 395 Wellington Street in downtown Ottawa is the physical location where the public may access the collection in person. The building was opened on June 20,1967. With the de-emphasis on physical visits, in-person services have been curtailed, for example since April 2012 reference services are by appointment only, there are also administrative offices in Gatineau and preservation and storage facilities throughout Canada for federal government records. It was built at a cost of CDN$107 million, and the opening took place on June 4,1997. It is a building containing 48 climate-controlled preservation vaults and state-of-the-art preservation laboratories. In 2000, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada named it one of the top 500 buildings constructed in Canada during the last millennium. A Nitrate Film Preservation Facility on the Communications Research Centre campus in Shirleys Bay, on the outskirts of Ottawa, the collection contains 5,575 film reels dating back to 1912, including some of the first Canadian motion pictures and photographic negatives. The film material is sensitive and requires precise temperatures for its preservation. The facility will feature a high bay metal shelving system with an environment to better protect Canadas published heritage. RSS feeds provide links to new content on the LAC website, a new modernized website is being developed and is scheduled for completion in 2013, with both new and old websites accessible during the transition period. e
3.
Constitution of Canada
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The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty
4.
Constitutional history of Canada
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The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution patriated in 1982. Canadas constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history, on February 10,1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia, a year before, France had secretly signed a treaty ceding Louisiana to Spain to avoid losing it to the British. At the time of the signing, the French colony of Canada was already under the control of the British army since the capitulation of the government of New France in 1760. The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, the proclamation renamed Canada The Province of Quebec, redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions, the proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems, the requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire. When James Murray was commissioned as general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion and he officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established, on September 17,1764, the Courts of the Kings Bench and Common Pleas were constituted. Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray and they were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests, Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as licentious fanatics who would not be satisfied, the conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murrays removal, the merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec, in 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act. On October 29,1764,94 Canadian subjects submitted a petition demanding that the orders of the king be available in French, in May 1774 the British merchants trading in Quebec responded by submitting their case to the king
5.
Bill of Rights 1689
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The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment, furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they became popular in England. It also sets out—or, in the view of its drafters, restates—certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, a separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights, along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, during the early modern period, the power of the Parliament of England continually increased. Passage of the Petition of Right in 1628 and Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 established certain liberties for subjects, the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The English Civil War was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau to overthrow King James II of England. Williams successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France and this assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected, which convened on 22 January 1689. On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances and it passed the Commons without division. On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right, William replied for his wife and himself, We thankfully accept what you have offered us. They then went in procession to the gate at Whitehall. The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal and they were crowned on 11 April, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. They were also to maintain the laws of God, the profession of the Gospel. This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch, the previous oath required the monarch to rule based on the laws and customs. Granted by the Kings of England, the Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights 1689, in December 1689. The Act declared James flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne and it listed twelve of Jamess policies by which James designed to endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom. The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688 and this convention arises from the legal fiction that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed
6.
Act of Settlement 1701
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Her mother, Princess Elizabeth Stuart, had been born in Scotland but became famous in history as Elizabeth of Bohemia. The line of Sophia of Hanover was the most junior among the Stuarts, Sophia died on 8 June 1714, before the death of Queen Anne on 1 August 1714, at which time Sophias son duly became King George I and started the Hanoverian dynasty. The act played a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain, England and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, but had remained separately governed countries. The Scottish parliament was more reluctant than the English to abandon the House of Stuart, English pressure on Scotland to accept the Act of Settlement was one factor leading to the parliamentary union of the two countries in 1707. Under the Act of Settlement anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, the act also placed limits on both the role of foreigners in the British government and the power of the monarch with respect to the Parliament of England. Some of those provisions have been altered by subsequent legislation, the original documents are deposited in the Lower Saxon State Archives in Hanover, Germany. During the debate, the House of Lords had attempted to append Sophia and her descendants to the line of succession, mary II died childless in 1694, after which William III did not remarry. In 1700, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was the child of Princess Anne to survive infancy. Thus, Anne was left as the last remaining heir to the throne. The Bill of Rights excluded Catholics from the throne, which ruled out James II, however, it also provided for no further succession after Anne. Parliament thus saw the need to settle the succession on Sophia and her descendants, is are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish Religion or shall marry a Papist. Thus, those who were Roman Catholics, and those who married Roman Catholics, were barred from ascending the throne. Eight additional provisions of the act would only come into effect upon the death of both William and Anne, The monarch shall join in communion with the Church of England and this was intended to ensure the exclusion of a Roman Catholic monarch. If a person not native to England comes to the throne, England will not wage war for any dominions or territories which do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of Parliament. This provision has been dormant since Queen Victoria ascended the throne, no monarch may leave the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland, without the consent of Parliament. All government matters within the jurisdiction of the Privy Council were to be transacted there and this was because Parliament wanted to know who was deciding policies, as sometimes councillors signatures normally attached to resolutions were absent. This provision was repealed early in Queen Annes reign, as many councillors ceased to offer advice, subsequent nationality laws made naturalised citizens the equal of those native born, and this provision no longer applies. No person who has an office under the monarch, or receives a pension from the Crown, was to be a Member of Parliament and this provision was inserted to avoid unwelcome royal influence over the House of Commons
7.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
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The signing of the treaty formally ended the Seven Years War, known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre, and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe. Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World. The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, France had captured Minorca and British trading posts in Sumatra, while Spain had captured the border fortress of Almeida in Portugal, and Colonia del Sacramento in South America. In the treaty, most of territories were restored to their original owners. France and Spain restored all their conquests to Britain and Portugal, Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain, and Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Gorée, and the Indian factories to France. In return, France ceded Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, France also ceded the eastern half of French Louisiana to Britain, that is, the area from the Mississippi River to the Appalachian Mountains. France had already secretly given Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, in addition, while France regained its factories in India, France recognized British clients as the rulers of key Indian native states, and pledged not to send troops to Bengal. Britain agreed to demolish its fortifications in British Honduras, but retained a logwood-cutting colony there, Britain confirmed the right of its new subjects to practise Catholicism. In turn France gained the return of its colony, Guadeloupe. Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as Quelques arpents de neige, A few acres of snow, the Treaty of Paris is frequently noted as the point at which France gave Louisiana to Spain. The transfer, however, occurred with the Treaty of Fontainebleau but was not publicly announced until 1764, the Treaty of Paris was to give Britain the east side of the Mississippi. New Orleans on the east side remained in French hands, the Mississippi River corridor in what is modern day Louisiana was to be reunited following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. The 1763 treaty states in Article VII, While the war was all over the world. While the war had weakened France, it was still a European power, British Prime Minister Lord Bute wanted a peace that would not aggravate France towards a second war. This explains why Great Britain agreed to return so much while being in such a strong position, though the Protestant British feared Roman Catholics, Great Britain did not want to antagonize France through expulsion or forced conversion. Also, it did not want French settlers to leave Canada to strengthen other French settlements in North America and this explains Great Britains willingness to protect Roman Catholics living in Canada. Unlike Lord Bute, the French Foreign Minister the Duke of Choiseul expected a return to war, however, France needed peace to rebuild. French diplomats believed that without France to keep the Americans in check, in Canada, France wanted open emigration for those, such as nobility, who would not swear allegiance to the British Crown
8.
Quebec Act
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The Quebec Act of 1774, formally known as the British North America Act 1774, was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain setting procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. Reference to the Protestant faith was removed from the oath of allegiance and it guaranteed free practice of the Catholic faith. It restored the use of the French civil law for matters of law, except that in accordance with the English common law. It maintained English common law for matters of law, including administrative appeals, court procedure. It restored the Catholic Churchs right to impose tithes, the 1774 Act had wide-ranging effects, in Quebec itself, as well as in the Thirteen Colonies. In Quebec, English-speaking immigrants from Britain and the southern colonies objected to a variety of its provisions, Canadiens varied in their reaction, the land-owning seigneurs and ecclesiastics for example were generally happy with its provisions. The provisions of the Quebec Act were seen by the colonists as a new model for British colonial administration and it seemed to void the land claims of the colonies by granting most of the Ohio Country to the province of Quebec. After the Seven Years War, a victorious Great Britain and a defeated France formalized the peace with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of France ceded New France to Britain, choosing instead to keep the islands of Guadeloupe, Canada was considered less valuable, as its only significant commercial product at the time was beaver pelts. The territory found along the St. Lawrence River, called Canada by the French, was renamed Quebec by the British, non-military administration of the territories acquired by the British in the war was defined in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Under the terms of the treaty, Canadiens who did not choose to leave became British subjects. In order for them to serve in offices, they were required to swear an oath to the King that contained specific provisions rejecting the Catholic faith. Since many of the predominantly Roman Catholic Canadiens were unwilling to take such an oath, with unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support the growing rebellion. At that time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the population of the province of Quebec. To secure the allegiance of the approximately 90,000 Canadiens to the British crown, first Governor James Murray, there was also a need to compromise between the conflicting demands of the Canadien subjects and those of newly arrived British subjects. These efforts by the governors eventually resulted in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. Territory, The boundaries of the province were defined by the Act and this increased the size of the province threefold over the size of the French province. This enabled, for the first time, French Canadians to legally participate in the affairs of the government without formally renouncing their faith
9.
Constitutional Act 1791
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The Clergy Endowments Act 1791, commonly known as the Constitutional Act 1791, is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain. Quebec, with a population of 145,000 French-speaking Canadians, was divided in two when the Act took effect on 26 December 1791, the western half became Upper Canada and the eastern half Lower Canada. The names Upper and Lower Canada were given according to their location on the St. Lawrence River, representative governments were established in both colonies with the creation of respective legislative assemblies, Quebec had not previously had representative government. The Constitutional Act tried to create a church by creating clergy reserves. These reserves created many difficulties in later years, making economic development difficult and creating resentment against the Anglican church, the Family Compact, however, both groups preferred the act and the institutions it created to the Quebec Act which it replaced. The frustration of the French over the nature of Lower Canadian political, Constitutional history of Canada Act of Union Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester Constitutional Act of the Province of Lower Canada
10.
Act of Union 1840
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The British North America Act,1840, commonly known as the Act of Union 1840, was enacted in July 1840 and proclaimed February 10,1841. It abolished the legislatures of Lower Canada and Upper Canada and established a new political entity and this act effected the political union of the Province of Canada, and was similar in nature and in goals to the other Acts of Union enacted by the British Parliament. The inspiration for the act is attributed to Lord Durhams Report on Canada. Lord Durham was sent to the colonies to examine the causes of the Rebellions of 1837 in both Upper and Lower Canada, Lord Durham wanted to re-instate peace throughout the colonies, and recommended a political union. The union was proposed to solve pressing financial issues in Upper Canada. These debts stemmed mostly from investments in canals connecting Upper Canada to the port of Montreal in Lower Canada via the Great Lakes. Due to Upper Canadas considerable debt and chronic budget shortfalls, it was hoped that its finances could be salvaged by merging it with the then-solvent Lower Canada. Upper Canada, with its British and Protestant majority, was growing more rapidly than Lower Canada, with the French-Canadian and it was hoped that by merging the two colonies, the French-Canadian cultural presence in North America would gradually disappear through assimilation. As such, the act also contained measures banning the French language from use in the Legislative Assembly. However, despite the amalgamation, the legal systems of the two colonies was retained with Upper Canada becoming referred to as Canada West and Lower Canada as Canada East. In Upper Canada, there was opposition to unionization from the Family Compact, while in Lower Canada political, the new, merged colony was named the Province of Canada and the seat of government was moved to Kingston by Lord Sydenham. Canada West, with its 450,000 inhabitants, was represented by 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly, the French-Canadian majority as well as numerous anglophones considered this an injustice. In Lower Canada, Louis-Joseph Papineau demanded representation by population and the recall of the union the minute he entered the new parliament of the united Canadas, the granting of responsible government to the colony is typically attributed to reforms in 1848. These reforms resulted in the appointment of the second Baldwin-Lafontaine government that removed many of the disabilities on French-Canadian political participation in the colony. By the late 1850s, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West changed the demographic imbalance between the English and French sections of the colony. Many politicians in Canada West began to lobby for representation by population as no longer considered the equal representation mandated by the Act of Union to be just. In the end, the Act of Union failed at shutting down French-Canadian political influence, by voting en bloc while the anglophones of Canada West were highly factionalized, the francophones of Canada East guaranteed a strong, unified presence in the legislative assembly. As a result, bills proposed by one of the anglophone Canada West factions required the support of the francophone Canada East votes to be passed and this was known as the double majority principle
11.
Constitution Act, 1867
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The Constitution Act,1867, is a major part of Canadas Constitution. The British North America Acts, including this Act, were renamed in 1982 with the patriation of the Constitution, however, amendments were also made at this time, section 92A was added, giving provinces greater control over non-renewable natural resources. This description of the Constitution has proven important in its interpretation, in New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia, the leading Canadian case on parliamentary privilege, the Supreme Court of Canada grounded its 1993 decision on the preamble. Political scientist Rand Dyck has criticized the preamble, saying it is out of date. He claims the Constitution Act,1867 lacks an inspirational introduction, the preamble to the Constitution Act,1867 is not the Constitution of Canadas only preamble. The Charter also has a preamble, Part I consists of just two sections. Section 1 gives the title of the law as The British North America Act,1867. Section 2 indicates that all references to the Queen equally apply to all her heirs and successors, the British North America Act,1867 established the Dominion of Canada by fusing the North American British Provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Section 3 establishes that the union would take effect six months of passage of the Act. Section 5 lists the four provinces of the new federation, Section 7 confirms that the boundaries of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were not changed. And Section 8 provides that a census of all provinces must be held every ten years. Section 9 confirms that all executive powers remain with the Crown, as represented by a general or an administrator of the government. Section 11 creates the Queens Privy Council for Canada, Section 13 defines the Governor-General in Council as the governor-general acting with the advice of the privy council. Section 14 allows the general to appoint deputies to exercises his powers in various parts of Canada. The commander-in-chief of all armed forces in Canada continues with the Crown under Section 15. Section 16 declares Ottawa the capital of the new federation, the Parliament of Canada, composed of the Crown and two houses is created by section 17. Section 18 defines the powers and privileges of the parliament as being no greater than those of the British parliament, at the time of the Union, there were 72 senators, equally divided between three regions Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces. Section 23 lays out the qualifications to become a senator, senators are appointed by the governor general under section Section 24, and the first group of senators was proclaimed under section 25
12.
Supreme Court Act
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The Supreme Court Act is an Act passed by the Parliament of Canada which established the Supreme Court of Canada. It was originally passed in 1875 as the Supreme and Exchequer Courts Act, although at the time, the Supreme Court was not the supreme authority on Canadian law, as Supreme Court cases could still be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Supreme Court Act is not a part of the Constitution of Canada, the Supreme Court Act also was not named as part of the Constitution during patriation in 1982, although the Court itself is mentioned in the amending formula. As the Court is defined in a statute, it may be argued the Court could be abolished by an act of Parliament. Section 53 gives the government the ability to submit Reference questions, in Reference re Secession of Quebec, the Supreme Court examined the applicability of section 53. The Quebec government argued that the right to secede was a basis for a reference question. History of the Supreme Court of Canada text of the act
13.
British North America Acts
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The British North America Acts 1867–1975 are the original names of a series of Acts at the core of the constitution of Canada. They were enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Parliament of Canada, in Canada, some of the Acts were amended or repealed by the Constitution Act,1982. The rest were renamed in Canada as the Constitution Acts, in the United Kingdom, those Acts that were passed by the British Parliament remain under their original names. The term British North America refers to the British colonies in North America, Canada dates its history as a country to the British North America Act,1867, which came into effect on July 1,1867. However, Canada was not established as independent, since the United Kingdom retained legislative control over Canada. Canada did not have any foreign embassies until its first one was established in Washington, until 1949, changes to the British North America Acts could be made only by the British parliament. Because of this, all British North America Acts dated before 1949 were passed by the British Parliament, the fifteen BNA Acts enacted by the United Kingdom Parliament do not have official French-language versions. Only the English version is official, the five BNA Acts enacted by the Canadian Parliament do have official French-language versions, and the English-language and French-language versions are equally authoritative. The different Acts of this series are distinguished by appending the year of their enactment. BNA Acts were passed in 1867,1871,1886,1907,1915, 1916*,1930,1940, 1943*, 1946*,1949,1949 *, 1951* and those marked with have since been repealed. Five of the British North America Acts were enacted by the Parliament of Canada, namely those of 1952,1965,1974,1975, the other fifteen were enacted by the Imperial Parliament in London. The first Act, the British North America Act,1867 created the self-governing Dominion of Canada, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1867, with the patriation of the constitution. Amendments were also made at time, section 92A was added. This Act gave Canada the power to new provinces and territories. The act recognized the creation of the Province of Manitoba, and also the incorporation of Ruperts Land, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1871. This Act gave parliament the authority to allow the Territories of Canada to have representation in the Canadian Senate, in 1982, this Act was renamed the Constitution Act,1886. This Act regulated transfer payments by the Federal government to the provinces to support their legislatures. The funds transferred were set at between C$100,000 and $250,000 depending on the population with an extra $100,000 a year for ten years to British Columbia
14.
Statute of Westminster 1931
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It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to the Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926. It was a step in the development of the Dominions as separate states. The Statute of Westminsters relevance today is that it sets the basis for the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown. The Statute of Westminster gave effect to certain political resolutions passed by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930, in particular, the Balfour Declaration of 1926. Both Canada and the Irish Free State pushed for the ability to amend the laws themselves. After the Statute was passed, the British parliament could no longer make laws for the Dominions, other than with the request, before then, the Dominions had legally been self-governing colonies of the United Kingdom. However, the Statute had the effect of making them sovereign nations once they adopted it, Ireland and South Africa are now republics and Newfoundland is part of Canada. Adopting section 4 clarified that Britain could legislate with effect on Australia as a whole only with Australias request, however, this capacity was never used. That authority remained in effect until the Constitution Act,1982, which transferred it to Canada and these disagreements were resolved only in time for the passage of the Canada Act 1982, thus completing the patriation of the Canadian constitution to Canada. At that time, the Canadian parliament also repealed sections 4 and 7 of the Statute of Westminster, the Statute of Westminster remains a part of the constitution of Canada by virtue of section 52 of the Constitution Act,1982. As a consequence of the adoption, the Parliament of Canada gained the ability to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, while civil appeals continued until 1949, the passage of the Statute of Westminster meant that changes in British legislation governing the succession to the throne no longer automatically applied to Canada. The Free States constitution gave the Oireachtas sole and exclusive power of making laws, originally, the UK government had wanted to exclude from the Statute of Westminster the legislation underpinning the 1921 treaty, from which the Free States constitution had emerged. President W. T. Cosgrave objected, although he promised the Executive Council would not amend the legislation unilaterally, the other Dominions backed Cosgrave and, when an amendment to similar effect was proposed at Westminster by John Gretton, parliament duly voted it down. He went on to present the Statute as largely the fruit of the Free States efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty. After Éamon de Valera led Fianna Fáil to victory in the Free State election of 1932, he began removing the elements of the constitution. De Valera initially considered invoking the Statute of Westminster in making these changes, abolishing the Oath of Allegiance in effect abrogated the 1921 treaty. Generally, the British thought that this was morally objectionable but legally permitted by the Statute of Westminster, however, the Free State had also abolished the right of appeal to the JCPC
15.
Canada Act 1982
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Annexed as Schedule B to the Act is the text of the Constitution Act,1982, in both of Canadas official languages. Canadas political history began with the British North America Act,1867 and this act created the modern state of Canada by combining the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a dominion within the British Empire. From this Canada adopted a Westminster style government with a Parliament of Canada, a Governor General fulfilled the constitutional duties of the British Sovereign on Canadian soil. Despite this, the United Kingdom still had the power to legislate for Canada, the Statute of Westminster 1931 removed this power of the British Parliament for Canada, as well as the other British Dominions, except where the Dominion consented to Imperial legislation. Also, the British North America Act,1949 was passed by the British Parliament, in effect, an Act of the British Parliament was required to make some amendments in the Canadian constitution. The Canada Act 1982 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in response to the request from the Parliament of Canada to take over authority for amending its own constitution. After unpromising negotiations with the governments, Pierre Trudeau proclaimed that the federal Parliament would unilaterally patriate the constitution. However, new research into documents of the Thatcher government indicate that Britain had serious concerns about the inclusion of the Canadian Charter of Rights, through section 2 of the Canada Act 1982, the United Kingdom ended its involvement with further amendments to the Canadian constitution. The procedure for amending the Constitution Act,1982 must comply with its Part V, Canadas Constitution Act,1982 was signed into law by Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada on April 17,1982 on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Queen Elizabeths constitutional powers over Canada were not affected by the Act, australia Act 1986 New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 Patriation Table of Constitutional Documents
16.
Canadian constitutional law
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Canadian constitutional law is the area of Canadian law relating to the interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the courts. All laws of Canada, both provincial and federal, must conform to the Constitution and any laws inconsistent with the Constitution have no force or effect, under the authority of section 52 of the Constitution Act,1982, courts may review all matters of law. Accordingly, the courts have a broad reaching scope of competence, Constitutional issues come before the court through disputes between parties as well as through reference questions. The court has the discretion to hear any Constitutional issues as long as there is a sufficient legal component, the US constitutional political questions doctrine was rejected and so a political dimension to the issue does not bar it from court. Courts must be careful when considering reference questions and they are required to be careful to only answer questions that are not speculative, of a purely political nature, or unripe. When answering the questions the court must retain its role within the constitutional framework. A party must have standing to bring a challenge to the courts. Those who wish to challenge a law can do so in one of several ways, a party who is directly affected by the law that purports to be unconstitutional has standing as of right. Likewise, rights holder may challenge any law that will limit any of their rights and those who are not protected by a right but are nonetheless prosecuted by that law may challenge it as well. Public interest groups may also gain standing if they satisfy the requirements of the Borowski test, in rare cases, the courts have developed substantive rules of constitutional law that are not expressly set out in constitutional texts but rather implied by a number of different principles. This development was criticized by at least one academic, in the Provincial Judges Reference, the Supreme Court found that there was an unwritten constitutional principle that protected a right to judicial salary commissions for provincial court judges. Since the 1929 ruling in Edwards v Canada, the courts have interpreted the Constitution within the context of society to ensure that it adapts and reflects changes. As Viscount Sankey stated, The British North America Act planted in Canada a living tree capable of growth, in Charter jurisprudence, the dialogue principle is where judicial review of legislation is said to be part of a dialogue between the legislatures and the courts. It specifically involves governments drafting legislation in response to court rulings, in 1982 the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was brought into effect. This was not meant to affect the workings of federalism, though some content was moved from section 91 to section 4 of the Charter. Mainly, the Charter is meant to decrease powers of both levels of government by ensuring both federal and provincial laws respect Charter rights, under section 32. The relationship between federalism and the Charter is directly dealt with in section 31, which declares that neither the federal nor provincial governments powers under the Charter. In R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd, it was found that legislation whose purpose is found to violate the Charter cannot be saved if its effects were found to be inoffensive
17.
Patriation
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Patriation was the political process that led to full Canadian sovereignty, culminating with the Constitution Act,1982. That authority was removed from the UK by the passing of the Canada Act,1982 on March 29,1982, by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeths constitutional powers over Canada were not affected by the Act. She remained monarch and Head of State of Canada, separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms, hence, patriation is associated with the establishment of full sovereignty. The word patriation was coined in Canada as a back-formation from repatriation, prior to 1982, the Canadian constitution was held by, and modified by, the United Kingdom, hence some have felt that the term patriation was more suitable than the term repatriation. From 1867, the Constitution of Canada was primarily contained in the British North America Act,1867, and other British North America Acts, which were passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The British North America Act,1949, granted the Parliament of Canada limited power to amend the constitution in many areas of its own jurisdiction, the constitution was amended in this manner five times, in 1952,1965,1974, and twice in 1975. Negotiations continued sporadically between federal and provincial governments on the development of a new amending formula in which the United Kingdom would have no part, in 1968, Pearson was succeeded by Pierre Trudeau, who also advocated patriation. He made several attempts, including the Victoria Charter in 1971, at the 1978-79 conference, Trudeau prepared for the first time to provide some federal concessions with regard to the division of powers, including family law, fisheries, and resources. However, the other premiers balked, which led to speculation they were waiting to see if the more province-friendly Progressive Conservatives would win the federal election. In that campaign, the Liberals ran on constitutional change, including a speech at Maple Leaf Gardens in which Trudeau promised unilateral action if the premiers did not agree to patriation. Patriation was given a new impetus after the 1980 referendum on Quebec independence, Trudeau, when presented with the document, refused to accept it and reiterated his threat that he would seek the House of Commons approval to proceed with a unilateral amendment. Trudeau announced his belief that the premiers were dealing in bad faith, after offering a wide range of options and proposing full reform, a Quebec MP shouted Allons-y en Cadillac. Taking the proposal to Cabinet, some ministers suggested using the maneuver to increase federal power over the economy, on October 2,1980, he announced on national television his intention to proceed with unilateral patriation in what he termed the peoples package. However, there was disagreement over the charter, which the premiers of six provinces opposed as encroachments on their power, Manitoba, Newfoundland, and Quebec launched references to their respective courts of appeal asking if the Canada Bill was constitutional. Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan remained neutral, nova Scotia and Saskatchewan approved of this, prompting the press to now call the opposition premiers the Gang of Eight. Trudeau rejected the document out of hand and again threatened to take the case for patriation straight to the British parliament bothering to ask one premier. The gang soon appealed to the courts, judges, however, were not unanimous in their conclusions on the matter. The case was presented to the Supreme Court of Canada
18.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the Constitution Act,1982, the Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights, the Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April 17,1982 along with the rest of the Act. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960, however, the Bill of Rights is only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. As a federal statute, it can be amended through the legislative process and has no application to provincial laws. The Supreme Court of Canada also narrowly interpreted the Bill of Rights, the relative ineffectiveness of the Canadian Bill of Rights motivated many to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Charter, however, granted new powers to the courts to enforce remedies that are more creative, as a result, the Charter has attracted both broad support from a majority of the Canadian electorate and criticisms by opponents of increased judicial power. The Charter only applies to government laws and actions, and sometimes to the common law, under the Charter, people physically present in Canada have numerous civil and political rights. Most of the rights can be exercised by any legal person, the rights are enforceable by the courts through section 24 of the Charter, which allows courts discretion to award remedies to those whose rights have been denied. This section also allows courts to exclude evidence in trials if the evidence was acquired in a way that conflicts with the Charter, Section 32 confirms that the Charter is binding on the federal government, the territories under its authority, and the provincial governments. Every case in which a court discovers a violation of the Charter would therefore require a section 1 analysis to determine if the law can still be upheld, Section 1 has thus been used to uphold laws against objectionable conduct such as hate speech and obscenity. Section 1 also confirms that the rights listed in the Charter are guaranteed, in addition, some of these rights are also subjected to the notwithstanding clause. The notwithstanding clause authorizes governments to temporarily override the rights and freedoms in sections 2 and 7–15 for up to five years, the Canadian federal government has never invoked it, and some have speculated that its use would be politically costly. In the past, the clause was invoked routinely by the province of Quebec. The provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta have also invoked the clause, to end a strike and to protect an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage. The territory of Yukon also passed legislation once that invoked the notwithstanding clause, Section 4, the maximum duration of legislatures is set at five years. Section 5, a sitting of legislatures is required as a minimum
19.
Canadian federalism
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Canadian federalism involves the current nature and historical development of federal systems in Canada. Canada is a federation with 11 jurisdictions of governmental authority, the country-wide federal Crown and 10 provincial Crowns, most sectors are under federal jurisdiction or that of the provinces, such as education and healthcare. The division of powers is outlined in the Constitution Act,1867, much about Canadian federalism has undoubtedly changed in the last fifteen years, although it is also true that much remains the same. The foundations of Canadian federalism were laid at the Quebec Conference of 1864, the Quebec Resolutions were a compromise between those who wanted sovereignty vested in the federal government and those who wanted it vested in the provinces. A protracted political process ensued before the Quebec Resolutions became the British North America Act of 1867 and this process was dominated by John A. Macdonald, who joined British officials in attempting to make the federation more centralized than that envisaged by the Resolutions. The complex resulting constitution was couched in more centralist terms than intended, as prime minister, Macdonald tried to exploit this discrepancy to impose his centralist ideal against chief opponent Oliver Mowat. In a series of battles and court cases from 1872 to 1896, Mowat reversed Macdonalds early victories. In 1888, Edward Blake summarized that view, a federal as distinguished from a legislative union, not fractions of a unit but units of a multiple. The Dominion is the multiple and each province is a unit of that multiple, the accession of Wilfrid Laurier as prime minister inaugurated a new phase of constitutional consensus, marked by a more-egalitarian relationship between the jurisdictions. The federal governments powers of disallowance and reservation, which Macdonald abused in his efforts to impose a centralised government. During World War I the federal Crowns power was extended with the introduction of taxes and passage of the War Measures Act. In 1926, the King–Byng Affair resulted in a crisis which was the impetus for changes in the relationship between the governor general and the prime minister. Although its key aspects were political in nature, its constitutional aspects continue to be debated, one result was the Balfour Declaration issued later that year, whose principles were eventually codified in the Statute of Westminster 1931. It, and the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865, gave the parliament the ability to make extraterritorial laws. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, but civil appeals continued until 1949, the last Privy Council ruling of constitutional significance occurred in 1954, in Winner v. S. M. T. After that, the Supreme Court of Canada became the court of appeal. In 1937, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta John C. Bowen refused to give Royal Assent to three Legislative Assembly of Alberta bills. All three bills were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference re Alberta Statutes, World War IIs broader scope required passage of the National Resources Mobilization Act to supplement the powers in the War Measures Act to pursue the national war effort
20.
Law of Canada
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The legal system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of private law, both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and these generally include interprovincial transport as well as interprovincial trade and commerce. Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, Canadas constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid. The Constitution Act,1982 stipulates that Canadas constitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to that act, and any amendment to any of those acts. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in their rulings, the Constitution Act,1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce, banking, the federal government also has the residual power to make laws necessary for Canadas peace, order and good government. Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, municipalities, education, and property, the Constitution Act,1867 also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges. It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any provincial or federal law, Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act,1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which level of government may legitimately enact legislation. Laws passed by the government are initially announced in the Canada Gazette. Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published in the Annual Statutes of Canada, from time to time, the federal government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada. The most recent federal consolidation was in 1985, laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are announced in a gazette, published annually. All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition, equally, courts have power under the provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity. As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of stare decisis, lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are bound. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British Columbia court, nonetheless, decisions made by a provinces highest court are often considered as persuasive even though they are not binding on other provinces. Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the country with a single ruling. S, law than English law in these areas
21.
Canadian Bill of Rights
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The Canadian Bill of Rights is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by Parliament of Canada on August 10,1960. It provides Canadians with certain quasi-constitutional rights at Canadian federal law in relation to federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human law at the federal level in Canada. In 1947, Saskatchewan passed into law a bill of rights which was unique, the Saskatchewan Bill of Rights covered both fundamental freedoms and equality rights. Saskatchewans Bill of Rights is considered to have had influence on John Diefenbaker. Thirteen years later, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights, in 1936, four years before being elected to Parliament, John Diefenbaker began drafting his Bill of Rights. As a young boy, he saw injustice first-hand in the form of discrimination against French-Canadians, natives, Metis, as a lawyer, he would have been aware of the Jehovahs Witnesses cases being tried in the courts. On March 16,1950, a decade before the Canadian Bill of Rights became law, Diefenbaker, then a Saskatchewan MP, individuals freedoms of religion, press, speech and association are threatened by the state, he said. A Bill of Rights was needed to take a stand against discrimination based on colour. In 1960, as minister, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights. The Canadian Bill of Rights protects numerous rights, most of which were included in the Charter. Section 2 of the Bill of Rights reads as follows,2, the notwithstanding wording of section 2 is a precursor to the notwithstanding clause of the Charter. This section reads as follows,3, criticism of the Bill of Rights has mostly centered on its limited effect. The ineffectiveness of the Bill of Rights in achieving its aim was the main reason that. The Bill of Rights was limited in several ways, first, it does not explicitly amend any conflicting statutes, either to remove conflicts or to insert explicit allowances for the statutes to operate notwithstanding the Bill of Rights. When called upon to apply conflicting laws, the courts typically sought to interpret a statute as creating a minimal disturbance of earlier law. In practice this meant that the courts relied on Parliament to repeal or amend any laws contrary to the Bill of Rights, disappointments for those who wanted courts to enforce rights vigorously included Bliss v. Canada and Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell. A notable exception was R. v. Drybones, second, since the Bill of Rights was not a constitutional amendment, there was some debate as to whether it was binding on future Parliaments
22.
Canadian Human Rights Act
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In 2016, An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code has been introduced to the Canadian House of Commons, to add and include gender identity or expression to the legislation. The Canadian Human Rights Act created the Canadian Human Rights Commission that investigates claims of discrimination as well as the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal to judge the cases, before a case can be brought to the Tribunal it must go through several stages of investigation and remediation by the Commission. After this process has completed, if the parties are not satisfied. If a complainant can show a case of discrimination the defendant can rebuke it by showing that their practice was for a justified reason. The process is known as the Meiorin test which is similar to the Oakes test justification in a Charter challenge. In June 2012, the House of Commons voted to repeal Section 13 of the Canadian Human Rights Act regarding communication of hate messages, on June 26,2013, Section 13 was finally repealed after a vote in the Senate. Royal Assent was given to the bill on July 1,2013
23.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
24.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
25.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
26.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
27.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
28.
Appalachian Mountains
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The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period and it once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines, definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft. The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet, the term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the mountain range with its surrounding hills. The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, the name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváezs expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15,1528, now spelled Appalachian, it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US. After the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrezs map of 1562, the name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the Allegheny Mountains, Alleghenies, in the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In U. S. dialects in the regions of the Appalachians. In northern parts of the range, it is pronounced /ˌæpəˈleɪtʃᵻnz/ or /ˌæpəˈleɪʃᵻnz/, the third syllable is like lay. There is often debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is /ˌæpəˈlætʃiən/, the whole system may be divided into three great sections, Northern, The northern section runs from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador to the Hudson River. The Monteregian Hills, which cross the Green Mountains in Quebec, are also unassociated with the Appalachians, Central, The central section goes from the Hudson Valley to the New River running through Virginia and West Virginia. Southern, The southern section runs from the New River onwards and it consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, which is divided into the Western Blue Ridge Front and the Eastern Blue Ridge Front, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau
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Indian Reserve (1763)
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The Royal Proclamation of 1763 organized on paper much of the new territorial gains in three colonies in North America—East Florida, West Florida, and Quebec. The rest of the expanded British territory was left to American Indians, the delineation of the Eastern Divide, following the Allegheny Ridge of the Appalachians, confirmed the limit to British settlement established at the 1758 Treaty of Easton, before Pontiacs War. Additionally, all European settlers in the territory were supposed to leave the territory or get official permission to stay. Many of the moved to New Orleans and the French land on the west side of the Mississippi. However, many of the settlers remained and the British did not actively attempt to evict them. In 1768, lands west of the Alleghenies and south of the Ohio were ceded to the colonies by the Cherokee at the Treaty of Hard Labour and by the Six Nations at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. However, several other Indian nations, particularly Shawnee and Mingo, continued to inhabit and this conflict led to Dunmores War in 1774, ended by the Treaty of Camp Charlotte where these tribes agreed to accept the Ohio River as the new boundary. Restrictions on settlement were to become a point in the American Revolutionary War. The renegade Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe did not agree to the sale, nor did the Royal Government in London, which forbade settlement in this region. As an act of Revolution in defiance of the crown, white settlers began pouring into Kentucky in 1776, opposed by Dragging Canoe in the Cherokee–American wars. Washingtons militia ambush the French unit, and one account has it that Jumonville is killed by Seneca nation chief Tanacharison while in custody of Washington, igniting the French and Indian War. 1754 – Washington surrenders to Jumonvilles half brother Louis Coulon de Villiers in the Battle of the Great Meadows in Fayette County and it is the only time Washington is to ever surrender in battle. He signs a document taking responsibility for the assassination of Jumonville and is released, the document is to be used to widen the war into the global Seven Years War. 1762 – Following massive French defeats, the French secretly cede Louisiana on the west side of the Mississippi to its ally Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau,1763 – France cedes all lands in modern Canada and all lands east of the Mississippi in the Treaty of Paris. Terms call for tolerance in Quebec and unrestricted emigration from French Canada for 18 months. 1764 – Announcement that Spain has acquired the west bank of the Mississippi in Louisiana,1768 – Treaty of Fort Stanwix creates the Line of Property and Purchase Line in which the Iroquois cede much of Kentucky, West Virginia, and sections of western Pennsylvania and New York. 1772 – The Grand Ohio Company gets charter to settle the Vandalia colony south of the Ohio River much of which is now West Virginia, the act is considered one of the Intolerable Acts that contribute to the American Revolutionary War. 1775 – Transylvania founded in what is now Kentucky by Richard Henderson, daniel Boone blazes Wilderness Trail through Cumberland Gap and founds Boonesborough
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Thirteen Colonies
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
31.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
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First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
33.
Drainage divide
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A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
34.
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
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Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
35.
Theater (warfare)
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In warfare, a theater or theatre is an area or place in which important military events occur or are progressing. A theater can include the entirety of the air space, land, such a clearly defined idea as this is not capable of universal application, it is here used merely to indicate the line of distinction. Theater of operations is a sub-area within a theater of war, the boundary of a TO is defined by the commander who is orchestrating or providing support for specific combat operations within the TO. Theater of operations are divided into strategic directions or military regions depending whether its a war or peace time, the United States Armed Forces split into Unified Combatant Commands that are assigned to a particular theater of military operations. Strategic direction is a group of armies also known as task forces or battlegroups, also in the US Armed Forces the term of strategic is often associated with missile command dropping word missile out of use such as the United States Strategic Command. However it is an important strategic command that could be deployed in any theater of military operations. A strategic command or direction in general essence would combine a number of military formations or operational command. In modern military, a command is better known as a combat command that may be a combination of army groups. In a peacetime due to loss of a strategic direction fronts were transformed into military regions responsible for a section of operations. The Russian term is театр военных действий, teatr voennykh deistvii, abbreviated ТВД, as the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control
36.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
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Saint Pierre and Miquelon
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It is the only remnant of the former colonial empire of New France that still remains under French control, with an area of 242 km2 and a population of 6,080 at the January 2011 census. The islands are situated at the entrance of Fortune Bay, which extends into the southwestern coast of Newfoundland and they are 3,819 kilometres from Brest, the nearest point in Metropolitan France, but only 25 kilometres from the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland. Saint-Pierre is French for Saint Peter, the saint of fishermen. The present name of Miquelon was first noted in the form of Micquelle in the Basque sailor Martin de Hoyarçabals navigational pilot for Newfoundland and it has been claimed that the name Miquelon is a Basque form of Michael, Mikel and Mikels are usually named Mikelon in the Basque Country. Therefore, from Mikelon it may have written in the French way with a q instead of a k. It appears that this is a common form in that language. The adjoined islands name of Langlade is said to be an adaptation of lîle à lAnglais, the first European encounter with Saint-Pierre and Miquelon was in 1520, by the Portuguese João Álvares Fagundes. They were made a French possession in 1536 by Jacques Cartier on behalf of the King of France, in 1670, during Jean Talons tenure as Intendant of New France, a French officer annexed the islands when he found a dozen French fishermen camped there. The British Royal Navy soon began to harass the French, pillaging their camps and ships, by the early 1700s, the islands were again uninhabited, and were ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, which put an end to the Seven Years War, France ceded all its North American possessions, France also maintained fishing rights on the coasts of Newfoundland. With France being allied with the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, Britain invaded and razed the colony in 1778, in 1793, the British landed in Saint-Pierre and, the following year, expelled the French population, and tried to install British settlers. The British colony was in turn sacked by French troops in 1796, the Treaty of Amiens of 1802 returned the islands to France, but Britain reoccupied them when hostilities recommenced the next year. The Treaty of Paris gave them back to France, though Britain occupied them yet again during the Hundred Days War, France then reclaimed the then uninhabited islands in which all structures and buildings had been destroyed or fallen into disrepair. The islands were resettled in 1816, the settlers were mostly Basques, Bretons and Normans, who were joined by various other elements, particularly from the nearby island of Newfoundland. Only around the middle of the century did increased fishing bring a certain prosperity to the little colony, during the early 1910s, the colony suffered severely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large numbers of its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec. The draft imposed on all inhabitants of conscript age after the beginning of World War I crippled the fisheries, which could not be processed by the older people. About 400 men from the served in the French military during World War I. The increase in the adoption of steam trawlers in the fisheries also contributed to the reduction in employment opportunities, smuggling had always been an important economic activity in the islands, but it became especially prominent in the 1920s with the institution of prohibition in the United States
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Haiti
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Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti and formerly called Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic, the region was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people. Spain discovered the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic, when Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia. On Christmas Day 1492, Columbus flagship the Santa Maria ran aground north of what is now Limonade, the island was named La Española and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the portion of the island being ceded to France. The development of plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years, and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas, Henri Christophe – former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I – built it to withstand a possible foreign attack. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas, most recently, in February 2004, a coup détat originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, the name Haïti comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, land of high mountains. The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately. In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, the name Haïti was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. The Taíno name for the island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America, genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America, after migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of organization was led by a cacique, or chief. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests, Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions
39.
Guadeloupe
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Guadeloupe is an insular region of France located in the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Administratively, it is a region consisting of a single overseas department. With a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,132 as of January 2015. Guadeloupes two main islands are Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, which are separated by a strait that is crossed with bridges. They are often referred to as a single island, the department also includes the Dependencies of Guadeloupe, which include the smaller islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes. Guadeloupe, like the other departments, is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, as an overseas department, however, it is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture of Guadeloupe is the city of Basse-Terre, which lies on the island of the same name, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population except recent arrivals from metropolitan France also speak Antillean Creole. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, the island was called Karukera by the Arawak people, who settled on there in 300 AD/CE. During the 8th century, the Caribs came and killed the population of Amerindians on the island. During his second trip to the Americas, in November 1493, Christopher Columbus became the first European to land on Guadeloupe, while seeking fresh water. He called it Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, the expedition set ashore just south of Capesterre, but left no settlers behind. Columbus is credited with discovering the pineapple on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and he called it piña de Indias, which can be correctly translated as pine cone of the Indies. During the 17th century, the Caribs fought against the Spanish settlers, after successful settlement on the island of St. Due to Martiniques inhospitable nature, the duo resolved to settle in Guadeloupe in 1635, took possession of the island and it was annexed to the kingdom of France in 1674. Over the next century, the British seized the island several times, the economy benefited from the lucrative sugar trade, which commenced during the closing decades of the 17th century. Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, worth about £6 million a year, the British captured Guadeloupe in 1759. The British government decided that Canada was strategically important and kept Canada while returning Guadeloupe to France in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War
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