1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
Canadian Army
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The Canadian Army is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. As of September 2013 the Army has 21,600 regular soldiers, about 24,000 reserve soldiers, the Army is supported by 5,600 civilian employees. It maintains regular forces units at bases across Canada, and is responsible for the Army Reserve. The Commander of the Canadian Army and Chief of the Army Staff is Lieutenant-General Paul Wynnyk, the name Canadian Army only came into official use beginning in 1940, from before Confederation until the Second World War the official designation was Canadian Militia. On 1 April 1966, as a precursor to the unification of Canadas armed services, Mobile Command was renamed Land Force Command in the 1993 reorganization of the Canadian Armed Forces. In August 2011, Land Force Command reverted to the title of the Canadian Army. Some current regiments of the Canadian Army trace their origins to these pre-Confederation militia, Regular Canadian troops participated in the North West Rebellion in 1885, the South African War in 1899, and, in much larger numbers, constituted the Canadian Expeditionary Force in First World War. In 1940, during Second World War, the Permanent Active Militia was renamed the Canadian Army, supplemented by the non-permanent militia, the Army participated in the Korean War and formed part of the NATO presence in West Germany during the Cold War. Despite Canadas usual support of British and American initiatives, Canadas land forces did not directly participate in the Vietnam War or the Iraq War, Command of the Army is exercised by the Commander of the Canadian Army within National Defence Headquarters located in Ottawa. It serves as a headquarters to command a divisional-level deployment of Canadian or allied forces on operations. It includes a number of schools and training organizations, such as the Combat Training Centre at CFB Gagetown, New Brunswick, the position was renamed Chief of the Land Staff in 1993. Following the reversion of Land Forces to the Canadian Army in 2011, officers are selected in several ways, The Regular Officer Training Plan, where candidates are educated at the Royal Military College of Canada or at civilian Canadian universities. Direct Entry officer Plan, for those who hold a university degree or technology diploma. Candidates complete their degrees while serving in the Army, university Training Plan, designed to develop selected serving non-commissioned members for service as career officers in the Regular Force. Normally, candidates selected for this plan will attend RMC or a university in Canada. Special Requirements Commissioning Plan, is designed to meet the needs of the officer occupations, subsidized special education, which includes the Medical Officer Training Plan or Dental Officer Training Plan. In addition there were other commissioning plans such as the Officer Candidate Training Plan, Canadian infantry and armoured regimental traditions are strongly rooted in the traditions and history of the British Army. Many regiments were patterned after regiments of the British Army, other regiments developed independently, resulting in a mixture of both colourful and historically familiar names
3.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
4.
Bonnie Dundee
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The older tune Bonny Dundee adapted by Scott had already been used for several songs appearing under variations of that title and referring to the bonnie town of Dundee rather than to Claverhouse. Scotts song has been used as a march by several Scottish regiments in the British Army and was adapted by Confederate troops during the American Civil War. Bonny Dundee is a very old Scottish folk-tune used for at least fifteen songs, A simpler version of the tune appears in the Skene manuscript around 1630 under the title Adew, Dundee. The title Bonny Dundee for the tune appears in an appendix to John Playfords 1688 edition of The Dancing Master, the tune has been used for the following popular song, O whaur gat ye that hauver-meal bannock. Silly blind body, O dinna ye see, I gat it frae a brisk sodger laddie, Atween Saint Johnstone and Bonnie Dundee. O, gin I saw the laddie that gae met, aft has he doudld me on o his knee. But now hes awa, and I dinner ken whaur hes, O gin he was back to his minnie, Saint Johnstone refers to Perth, and Bonny Dundee is the town of Dundee. Robert Burns rewrote the second verse of the original, so that the lines were May Heaven protect my Bonnie Scots laddie. He added a verse with the promise to the baby to bigg a bower on yon bonnie banks. Another version of the original, titled Scots Callan O Bonnie Dundee, refers to a callant rather than a soldier, and a bonnie blue bonnet instead of a bannock. From 1668 John Graham, the laird of Claverhouse was at the forefront of Royalist repression of the Covenanters, in 1688 he was made 1st Viscount of Dundee by James VII of Scotland. When William of Orange overturned James in 1689 in what was called the Glorious Revolution and his forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Dunkeld. Over a century later he was immortalised in a poem by Walter Scott which was adapted into a song. Walter Scotts novel Old Mortality, published in 1816, gives a portrait of Claverhouse. The story mentions one of Claverhouses troopers humming the lively Scottish air, Between Saint Johnstone and Bonny Dundee, in this, Saint Johnstone refers to Perth, and Bonny was the common description of the town of Dundee before Scott transferred the description to Claverhouse. Scott sent a copy of the verses to his daughter-in-law Jane, mentioning that his great-grandfather had been among Claverhouses followers and describing himself as a most incorrigible Jacobite. This is an exaggeration, but Scotts ballad is certainly written from the point of view of Claverhouse. It consists of eleven stanzas, which Scott admitted was greatly too long, the poem was first published in a miscellany, The Christmas Box, and then included as a song in Scotts unperformed play The Doom of Devorgoil
5.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
6.
United States Army Band
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The United States Army Band, also known as Pershings Own, is the premier musical organization of the United States Army, founded in 1922. Before 2002, the United States Army Band was the only Washington-based military band to have participated in a theater of combat operations. S. Army Herald Trumpets, The Army Strings, and The Army Brass Quintet. The United States Army Band was established on January 25,1922 by General of the Armies John J. Pershing, in its early years, the band was featured on RCA, CBS, the Mutual Broadcasting Network, and other networks. The band also completed four tours between 1928 and 1931 and was noted for its professionalism during a trip to Spain for the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929. In June 1943, the United States Army Band was called overseas to perform in North Africa, the band received a campaign streamer for their efforts during the Rhineland Campaign. Notable musicians included Metropolitan Opera bass Jerome Hines, composers Paul Hindemith and Percy Grainger, similarly, several well-known entertainers and recording artists were band members during this period. Eddie Fisher, Robert Dini, and Steve Lawrence were very popular during the 1950s, as were harpist Lloyd Lindroth, future Metropolitan Opera tenor George Shirley, throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, the United States Army Band continued to perform and serve with distinction. In 1963, the participated in the state funeral of John F. Kennedy with Army Band Bugler Keith Clark performing Taps during final interment at Arlington National Cemetery. Brucker Hall, the training and performance facility, was constructed in the mid-1970s. Also during this era, the Army Blues, the Army Brass Quintet, the Army Chorale, in 1984, the band recorded and participated in the filming of Francis Ford Coppolas movie Gardens of Stone. In November 1997, the United States Army Band culminated its rich 75-year history with a concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City. Guest artists included Walter Cronkite, Charles Osgood, and Metropolitan Opera stars Roberta Peters, in April 2000, Colonel Gary F. Lamb returned to the United States Army Band and this was the first time since 1945 that members of the band performed in a theater of foreign operations. Other celebrities that have accompanied recent tours include country singer Mark Wills, comedian Al Franken, Colonel Lamb retired in June 2005 and was succeeded by Colonel Thomas Rotondi, Jr. whose previous assignment was Commander/Conductor of the United States Military Academy Band in West Point, New York. The U. S. Army Band official website The short film A NATION SINGS is available for download at the Internet Archive
7.
Commonwealth of Nations
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The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
8.
Military history of Canada
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For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. In 1763, after the final colonial war—the Seven Years War—the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, the Americans launched invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by Canadian forces, however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century, after Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full-fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canadas links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war. Canada has also played an important role in United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide and has committed more troops than any other country. The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence, resources, before European colonization, aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed relatively few casualties. Warfare was also common among indigenous peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density, inuit groups of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare, primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Those captured in fights were not always killed, tribes often adopted captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles, slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Slave-owning tribes of the societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida. Among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were slaves, according to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their plans to settle the area. Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450 and 1600, existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries. By the end of the 17th century, First Nations from the woodlands, eastern subarctic. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities, the bloodshed during conflicts was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among competing aboriginal groups. Two years after the French founded Port Royal in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, by 1706, the French population was around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors. This lack of immigration resulted in New France having one-tenth of the British population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s, La Salles explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered settlements
9.
History of the Royal Canadian Air Force
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The history of the Royal Canadian Air Force begins in 1920, when the air force was created as the Canadian Air Force. In 1924 the CAF was renamed the Royal Canadian Air Force when it was granted the title by King George V. The RCAF existed as an independent service until 1968, the Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, and several United Nations peacekeeping missions and NATO operations. The force maintained a presence in Europe through the half of the 20th century. A. D. The 1/2-mile flight was followed by a flight of 20 miles on 10 March 1909. McCurdy and his partner F. W. Casey Baldwin had formed the Canadian Aerodrome Company, two staff officers at Militia Headquarters were interested in using aircraft for military use, and so the aviators were invited to Camp Petawawa to demonstrate their aircraft. On 2 August 1909, the Silver Dart made four flights, however. The Silver Dart never flew again, a second aircraft, the Baddeck No.1, was flown a few days later, but was severely damaged on its second landing. Before the accidents, however, the Silver Dart made the first passenger aboard a heavier-than-air aircraft in Canada when McCurdy flew with Baldwin. After the crashes, the militia department showed no interest in aircraft and it was not until the First World War that the Canadian government became interested in military aviation. At the beginning of the First World War on 4 August 1914, london answered with a request for six experienced pilots immediately, but Hughes was unable to fill the requirement. The Burgess-Dunne biplane was delivered on 1 October 1914, and was shipped immediately to England, on arrival, the biplane was transported to Salisbury Plain where the CEF was marshalled for training. It quickly deteriorated in the winter climate. By May 1915, the CAC no longer existed, during the First World War over 20,000 Canadians volunteered to serve with the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service, producing such aces as William Barker, W. A. Billy Bishop, Naval Pilot Raymond Collishaw, Roy Brown, Donald MacLaren, Frederick McCall, in 1917 the RFC opened training airfields in Canada to recruit and train Canadian airmen. The Canadian government advanced the RFC money to open a factory in Toronto, Canadian Aeroplanes. In 1915, Britain suggested that Canada should consider raising its own air units, however, it was not until spring 1918, that the Canadian government proposed forming a wing of eight squadrons for service with the Canadian Corps in France. Rather than the proposed eight squadrons, the British Air Ministry formed two Canadian squadrons, in June 1919 the British government cut funding to the squadrons, and in February 1920, the Canadian Air Force in Europe was disbanded, never having flown any operations
10.
History of the Canadian Army
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The history of the Canadian Army, began when the title first came into official use in November 1940, during the Second World War, and is still used today. The term was even used in official military publications, for example in recruiting literature. On August 16,2011, the title, Canadian Army, was restored, once again bringing the official designation in line with common. Most of these units were activated in time of war. These fencible and militia units played a role during the conflict. The history and heritage, as well as the War of 1812 battle honours awarded to many of these units, are perpetuated by current units within the Canadian Army, the Militia Act of 1855 created active militia, but they offered limited military protection. The Canadian Militia evolved from the various British garrison forces on the North American continent in the 19th century, upon Canadian Confederation in 1867, the ground forces in Canada were referred to as the Militia. Eventually, a Permanent Active Militia was designated, being the army of Canada. These batteries are now incorporated in the 1st Regiment Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, the Cavalry School Corps, which eventually became The Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the Infantry School Corps, which became The Royal Canadian Regiment, were both formed on 21 December 1883. After Canadian participation in the Second Boer War, the need for supporting organizations was made evident. Canada in short order formed its own Permanent Active Militia Army Medical Corps, Canadian Army Veterinary Corps, Signalling Corps, Ordnance Stores Corps, during the First World War a Canadian Provost Corps was also created. Canada was the first military in the world to create a Canadian Army Dental Corps, Canadian participation in the First World War began with the unusual step of scrapping all mobilization plans, and creating a field force from scratch. In 1914, the Canadian Expeditionary Force was created in response to a call by the United Kingdom for soldiers, the CEF was a separate entity from the Permanent Active Militia and the Non-Permanent Active Militia or NPAM. Regiments and other units of the Militia were not mobilized, the CEF was disbanded after the war. In 1936, the Non-Permanent Active Militia had six tank battalions created as part of the infantry, the new regiments all perpetuated the history of the wartime CEF, and when battle honours were granted many years later, were permitted to adopt those battle honours. In 1936, the CMGC was abolished and the Militia again underwent dramatic reorganizations, many regiments were disbanded or amalgamated. The Second World War saw major changes to the Militia, in November 1940 the name Canadian Army was adopted to refer to both the former PAM and NPAM, many infantry regiments were transferred to the Canadian Armoured Corps, created the same year. Cavalry regiments were mechanized, the horse was withdrawn from use
11.
Military history of the Acadians
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Some other Acadians provided military intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support to the resistance movement. The Acadian militias achieved effective resistance for more than 75 years, while Acadian militia was briefly active during the American Revolution, the militias were dormant throughout the nineteenth century. After confederation, Acadians eventually joined the Canadian War efforts in World War I, the most well-known colonial leaders of these militias were Joseph Broussard and Joseph-Nicolas Gautier. The first war to influence the Acadians is now known as King Williams War, the crews of the French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste were primarily Acadian. The Acadians resisted during the Raid on Chignecto, colonel Benjamin Church and four hundred men arrived offshore of Beaubassin on September 20. When they came ashore, the Acadians and Mi’kmaq opened fire on them, Church lost a lieutenant and several of his men. They managed to get ashore and surprise the Acadians, many fled while one confronted Church with papers showing they had signed an oath of allegiance in 1690 to the English King. Church was unconvinced, especially after he discovered the proclamation heralding the French success at Pemaquid posted on the church door. On October 18 Church and his troops arrived opposite the capital of Acadia, in the Siege of Fort Nashwaak, Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste was there to defend the capital. Baptiste joined the Maliseet from Meductic for the duration of the siege, there was a fierce exchange of gun fire for two days, with the advantage going to the better sited French guns. The New Englanders were defeated, having suffered eight killed and seventeen wounded, the French lost one killed and two wounded. After the Siege of Pemaquid, dIberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mi’kmaq and they destroyed almost every British settlement in Newfoundland, killed more than 100 British and captured many more. They deported almost 500 British colonists to Britain or France, during Queen Annes War, the members of the Wabanaki Confederacy from Acadia raided Protestant settlements along the Acadia/ New England border in present-day Maine in the Northeast Coast Campaign. Mi’kmaq and Acadians resisted the New England retaliatory Raid on Grand Pré, Piziquid, the raid was led by Benjamin Church who was fired on by the local militia, who had gathered in the woods along the banks. According to Church, on the first day of the raid, Church had a small cannon on his boat, which he used to fire grape shot at the attackers on the shore, who withdrew, suffering one Mi’kmaq killed and several wounded. Church was unable to come ashore, having withdrawn from the village, the next morning the Acadian and Mi’kmaq militia waited in the woods for Church and his men to arrive. At the break of day, the New Englanders again set off toward the village, the largest body of defenders fired on the raiders right flank from behind trees and logs, but their fire was ineffective and they were driven off. Acadians joined the French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over British vessels, Acadians also fought alongside the Confederacy and French soldiers to protect the capital in the Siege of Port Royal and the final Conquest of Acadia
12.
The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Armed Forces
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This modern construct stems from Canadas system of constitutional monarchy, and through its 500 years of monarchical history. Since Canadian Confederation, three members of the Royal Family have been titled as Commander-in-Chief, the Duke of Argyll, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, and the Earl of Athlone. As such, all new recruits into the Canadian Forces are required to recite the Oath of Allegiance to the monarch and his or her heirs and successors. According to the National Defence Act, the use of traitorous or disloyal words towards the king or queen is a service offence. The monarch issues letters patent, known as the Queens Commission, to commissioned officers in the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, further, all regulations for the Canadian Forces are set out by the sovereign in the Queens Regulations and Orders. The Canadian Forces have derived many of their traditions and symbols from the British army, navy, contemporary icons and rituals, however, have evolved to include elements reflective of Canada and the Canadian monarchy. Many ceremonies and rituals of the Canadian Forces have a royal connection, Canada has mounted the Kings/Queens Guard eight times since 1916, including Canadian Coronation Contingents for King George VI in May 1937 and for Queen Elizabeth II in May 1953. Also, whenever the sovereign or a member of her family is in Ottawa, they lay a wreath at the National War Memorial. For such events, an order of precedence is followed for organising participants and according respect, the provincial viceroys fall in at sixteenth on the list, behind the leader of Her Majestys Loyal Opposition. The Royal Anthem of Canada, God Save the Queen, is played, as may be the Viceregal Salute for the governor general or lieutenant governor. A Loyal Toast may also be given, it is required at all formal mess dinners, Canadian Forces members and officers are required to stand during the toast and to salute any time the Royal Anthem is played. A number of flags and banners are used by the Canadian Forces to signify loyalty, nationality, units and this flag however, is generally flown only on specified days and whenever instructed by National Defence headquarters. Others symbolise royal and viceroyal figures or royal honours bestowed on a unit or regiment, Colours are thus consecrated objects, it is expected that everyone will rise to attention and salute upon passing a stand of uncased Colours. Those in the Royal Family may also present a Royal Banner to a unit to commemorate specific services rendered and these typically include a mark unique to the royal individual, such as a cypher. Other flags that are held by an individual also bear royal symbols, to signify the sovereigns place at the head of the Canadian Forces, many badges include a crown in their design. Originally designed by the British King of Arms, since 1968 they have created by the Department of National Defence. The Queens Canadian Arms and her Royal Cypher are also displayed throughout the forces, including on banners, badges, and military band instruments. Many regiments of the Canadian Army have also granted the use of the prefix royal in the regiments name
13.
History of the Royal Canadian Navy
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The history of the Royal Canadian Navy goes back to 1910, when the naval force was created as the Naval Service of Canada and renamed a year later by King George V. The Royal Canadian Navy is one of the three commands of the Canadian Forces. In 1968, the RCN was amalgamated with the Canadian Army, the naval force was known as Maritime Command until 2011, when the environmental command was renamed as the Royal Canadian Navy. During the early years of the 20th century, there was growing debate within the British Empire as to the role the Dominions would play in defence, because of the developing naval arms race with Germany, a key part of this discussion focused on naval issues. After extensive political debates, Canadian politicians chose the latter option, on 29 March 1909, George Foster introduced a resolution in the House of Commons calling for the establishment of a Canadian Naval Service. The resolution was not successful, however, on 12 January 1910, a request to change name of the Naval Service of Canada to Royal Canadian Navy on 30 January 1911, brought a favourable reply from King George V on 29 August of that year. The naval college was established in the dockyard at Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1911 as Royal Naval College of Canada, the Royal Naval College was established to impart a complete education in Naval Science. Graduates were qualified to enter the Imperial or Canadian Service as midshipmen although a Naval career was not compulsory, the program aimed to develop both the physical and mental including discipline, the ability to obey and take charge, and honour. Candidates had to be between their fourteenth and sixteenth birthdays on 1 July following the examination, the original Royal Naval College of Canada facilities were destroyed in December 1917 in the Halifax Explosion. What could be salvaged was moved to HMCS Stone Frigate at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, the Royal Canadian Naval College moved in 1919 to a building in the naval dockyard at Esquimalt, British Columbia. The college was closed in 1922, to form the nucleus of its new navy, and to train Canadians for the countrys planned fleet of five cruisers and six destroyers, Canada acquired two ships from Great Britain. The cruiser HMCS Rainbow was the first ship commissioned into Canadas navy on 4 August 1910, at Portsmouth and she arrived at Esquimalt on 7 November 1910, and carried out fishery patrols and training duties on Canadas west coast. These initial plans encountered significant setbacks following Lauriers defeat in the 1911 federal election, the new Conservative government, led by Robert Borden, had opposed the Naval Service Act while they were in opposition. At the urging of the Admiraltys First Sea Lord Sir Winston Churchill and this plan was far more costly than Lauriers original plan of the Canadian-built fleet, and would reap no benefits to Canadian industries whatsoever. On 5 December 1912, Borden introduced the Naval Aid Bill as a contribution to the British Royal Navy. The Act was soundly defeated by the Liberal-majority Senate two weeks later, the Royal Canadian Navy now found itself in limbo, with very limited funds for operations, two obsolescent cruisers, and no prospect of new ships being built or acquired. Despite the problems of early years, some Canadians were still active supporters of a national navy. Building on earlier, unofficial efforts, a volunteer reserve came into being in May 1914 as the Royal Naval Canadian Volunteer Reserve and its initial establishment was 1,200 men, and it was divided into three distinct geographic areas, Atlantic, Pacific, and Lake
14.
Military of New France
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The Military of New France consisted of a mix of regular soldiers of the French Army, French Navy and Canadien volunteer military units, supported by independent American Indian Allies. The French and Canadiens built forts from Newfoundland to Louisiana and others captured from the British from the 1600s to the late 1700s, some were a mix of military post and trading forts. Chateau St. Fort Le Boeuf 1753-1763 Fort Lachine, Lachine 1672-1873 and site of Lachine massacre, abandoned 1825, most of the military consisted of habitant militia rather than actual French soldiers. Upon their arrival, the soldiers of New France learned quickly that the military techniques seen on the battlefields of Europe were not at all effective in the New World. The Iroquois attacks on the French forced them to adapt to their current situation, luckily the French were experts on forging alliances with the Native people and with the help from their allies the French adopted what they called “la petite guerre”. The strategies consisted mostly of stealth and surprise attacks whose purpose lied in creating ambushes and raids and this strategy focused on the elimination of small groups of targets rather than capturing targets of strategic value. Native Allies It was the job of the military to maintain relations with frontier Native Americans in order to preserve French interests in the colony. In fact, preserving a positive relationship between the French and Native Peoples was the most important of the duties that were given to the military. They taught them how to hunt, fish and dress their catches and they taught them how to navigate, the French soldiers relied heavily on the Native warriors but their allegiance came at a cost. In addition, the Natives as tribes provided knowledge of the wilderness, Native warriors participated in the French battles if they chose to do so usually under the arrangement that they would be compensated for their participation. Falling short on these agreements sometimes caused great discourse amongst the Natives and sometimes damaged French-Native relationships, decadence amongst the soldiers Part of the job of the military was to create good trade relations with the Natives. New France relied heavily on the fur trade given that it was the valuable commodity in the entire colony. However, much of the hierarchy was not based on merit but rather on internal family connections. This resulted in many leaving their post for weeks at a time in order to illegally trade with the Natives. Therefore, the lack of discipline amongst some of the higher ups resulted in losing face amidst the natives and subsequently losing some of their business and their allegiance to the English
15.
Beaver Wars
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The Beaver Wars—also known as the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars—encompass a series of conflicts fought intermittently during the 17th century in eastern North America. During the 17th century, the Beaver Wars were battles for economic welfare throughout the St. Lawrence, the wars were between the Iroquois trying to take control of the fur trade from the Hurons, the northern Algonquians, and their French allies. From medieval times, Europeans had obtained furs from Russia and Scandinavia, the Iroquois sought to expand their territory and monopolize the fur trade and the trade between European markets and the tribes of the western Great Lakes region. They were a confederation of five nations—Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, each of these Native American nations has beliefs in tribal sovereignty and a collective body called a league. These nations had a supralevel affirmation in the sovereignty of the two leagues between Onondaga and New York, government officials in Washington DC and Ottawa recognized the Iroquois sovereignty only in existence of individual tribal governments. The Iroquois Confederation, led by the dominant Mohawk, mobilized against the largely Algonquian-speaking tribes of the Great Lakes region, the Iroquois were armed by their Dutch and English trading partners, the Algonquian were backed by the French, their chief trading partner. The wars were brutal and are considered one of the bloodiest series of conflicts in the history of North America and they pushed some eastern tribes to the west of the Mississippi River, or southward into the Carolinas. The Iroquois gained control of the Ohio Valley lands as hunting ground, the Ohio Country and the Lower Peninsula of Michigan had become virtually empty of Native people as refugees fled westward to escape the Iroquois warriors. Both Algonquian and Iroquoian societies were disrupted by these wars. After the Iroquois became trading partners with the English, their alliance was a component of the later English expansion. The English used the Iroquois conquests as a claim to the old Northwest Territory, the expeditions of French explorer Jacques Cartier in the 1540s made the first written records of the Native Americans in North America. French explorers and fishermen had traded in the region near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River estuary a decade before then for valuable furs. Cartier recorded an ongoing war between the Stadaconans and another known as the Toudaman, who had destroyed one of their forts the previous year. Wars and politics in Europe distracted French efforts at colonization in the St. Lawrence Valley until the beginning of the 17th century, when the French returned to the area, they found the sites of both Stadacona and Hochelaga abandoned, completely destroyed by an unknown enemy. When the French returned, they found no inhabitants in this part of the river valley. The Iroquois and the Iroquoian-speaking Huron used it as hunting ground and this was perhaps in response to the formation of the League of the Iroquois. Before 1603, Champlain had formed an alliance against the Iroquois. He decided that the French would not trade firearms to the Iroquois and he had a commercial rationale, the northern Natives provided the French with valuable furs and the Iroquois, based in present-day New York, interfered with that trade
16.
King William's War
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King Williams War was the North American theater of the Nine Years War. For King Williams War, neither England nor France thought of weakening their position in Europe to support the war effort in North America. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, according to the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, the boundaries and outposts of New France, New England, and New York remained substantially unchanged. The English settlers were more than 154,000 at the beginning of the war, in addition, the English lacked military leadership and had a difficult relationship with their Iroquois allies. The French population amounted to 14,000 in 1689, although the French were vastly outnumbered, they were more politically unified and contained a disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds. Realizing their numerical inferiority, they developed good relationships with the Indigenous people in order to multiply their forces, englands Catholic King James II was deposed at the end of 1688 in the Glorious Revolution, after which Protestants William and Mary took the throne. William joined the League of Augsburg in its war against France, in North America, there was significant tension between New France and the northern English colonies, which had in 1686 been united in the Dominion of New England. New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fought New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been in conflict with New France since 1680. At the urging of New England, the Iroquois interrupted the trade between New France and the western tribes, in retaliation, New France raided Seneca lands of western New York. In turn, New England supported the Iroquois in attacking New France, there were similar tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts had expanded their settlements into Acadia, the New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre of the war is also known as Castins War and Father Jean Baudoins War. In April 1688, Governor Andros plundered Castines home and village on Penobscot Bay, later in August, the English raided the French village of Chedabouctou. In response, Castin and the Wabanaki Confederacy engaged in the Northeast Coast Campaign of 1688 along the New England/Acadia border and they began August 13,1688 at New Dartmouth, killing a few settlers. A few days later killed two people at Yarmouth in the first battle. At Kennebunk, in the fall of 1688, members of the Confederacy killed two families, in June, they killed four men at Saco. In response to raids, a company of 24 men were raised to search for the bodies. They were forced to return after they lost a quarter of their men in conflicts with the natives, in August 1689, Jean-Vincent dAbbadie de Saint-Castin and Father Louis-Pierre Thury led an Abenaki war party that captured and destroyed the fort at Pemaquid. The fall of Pemaquid was a significant set back to the English and it pushed the frontier back to Casco, Maine
17.
Queen Anne's War
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The War of the Spanish Succession was primarily fought in Europe. In addition to the two combatants, the war also involved numerous Native American tribes allied with each nation, and Spain. It was also known as the Third Indian War or in French as the Second Intercolonial War, the English colonies of New England fought with French and Native American forces based in Acadia and Canada. Quebec City was repeatedly targeted by British expeditions, and the Acadian capital Port Royal was taken in 1710, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Toward this end, they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts, on Newfoundland, English colonists based at St. Johns disputed control of the island with the French based at Plaisance. Most of the conflict consisted of destructive raids against the other sides settlements. The French successfully captured St. Johns in 1709, but the British quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it, following a preliminary peace in 1712, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713. It resulted in the French cession of claims to the territories of Hudson Bay, Acadia, some of its terms were ambiguous, and concerns of various Native American tribes were not included in the treaty, setting the stage for future conflicts. In 1701, following the death in late 1700 of King Charles II, although the war was at first restricted to a few powers in Europe, in May 1702 it widened when England declared war on Spain and France. The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers, the total population of the English colonies at the time has been estimated at 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The population centers of these colonies were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, most European colonists knew very little of the interior of the continent, to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. This area was dominated by tribes, although French and English traders had penetrated the area. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions to convert the inhabitants to Roman Catholicism. The Spanish population was small, and the native population they ministered to has been estimated to number 20,000. French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River, near which they established a colonial presence in 1699 at Fort Maurepas. From there they began to trade routes into the interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw. All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases like smallpox by early explorers and traders, France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years War. To the north, the conflict held a strong component in addition to territorial disputes
18.
Dummer's War
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The root cause of the conflict on the Maine frontier was over the border between Acadia and New England, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Complicating matters further, on the Nova Scotia frontier, the Treaty of Utrecht that ended Queen Annes War had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki Confederacy. While the Abenaki signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, none had been consulted about British ownership of Nova Scotia, the war began on two fronts as a result of the expansion of New England settlements along the coast of Maine, and at Canso, Nova Scotia. The New Englanders were led primarily by Lt, Governor of Massachusetts William Dummer, Lt. Governor of Nova Scotia John Doucett and Captain John Lovewell, the Wabanaki Confederacy and other native tribes were led primarily by Father Sébastien Rale, Chief Gray Lock and Chief Paugus. In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the treaty that ended Father Rales war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mikmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power, in this case Britain, French Acadia was ceded to Great Britain, although its borders were disputed. The area disputed by the European powers consisted of land between the Kennebec River and the Isthmus of Chignecto, Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Over the next year other Abenaki tribal leaders signed the treaty. Following the peace, New England settlements expanded eastward of the Kennebec River, the establishment of a permanent British fishing settlement at Canso was a particular sore spot with the local Mikmaq, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements. In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Philipps, Georges Fort at Thomaston, and Fort Richmond at Richmond. The Kennebec sachem Wiwurna objected not only to the establishment of settlements on their lands, Shute, who often rudely interrupted Wiwurna, bluntly reasserted British claims to the territory. This ambiguous response, and the treaty that was ultimately agreed, over the next several years settlers continued to encroach on Wabanaki lands east of the Kennebec River, the Wabanakis responded by raiding livestock. Shute protested the presence of the French Jesuit priest Sebastian Rale, the Wabanaki responded in July 1721 with a refusal, and a demand that hostages be released in exchange for a delivery of furs made in restitution for their raiding. Shute dismissed the letter as insolent and menacing, and sent militia forces to Arrowsic and he also asserted, based on Rales influence, that the Wabanaki claims were part of a French intrigue to further French claims to the disputed areas. Following up on his belief that the French were behind Wabanaki claims, under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook of Thomaston, the New England militia were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, but they plundered the church and Rales cabin. While most of the tribe was hunting, Westbrooks 300 soldiers surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale. Found among the possessions, however, was his strongbox
19.
King George's War
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King Georges War is the name given to the military operations in North America that formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of the four French and Indian Wars and it took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. In French, it is known as the Third Intercolonial War, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and restored Louisbourg to France, but failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues. The War of Jenkins Ear broke out in 1739 between Spain and Great Britain, but was confined to the Caribbean Sea and conflict between Spanish Florida and the neighboring British Province of Georgia, Massachusetts did not declare war until June 2. News of war reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3,1744. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mikmaq and Maliseet allies in conjunction with Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days, in 1745, British colonial forces captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. In retaliation, the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia launched the Northeast Coast Campaign against the British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine, France launched a major expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the war was also fought on the frontiers between the northern British colonies and New France. On November 28,1745, the French with their Indian allies raided and destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, all of the British settlements north of Albany were accordingly abandoned. In July 1746 an Iroquois and intercolonial force assembled in northern New York for an attack against Canada. British regulars expected to participate never arrived, and the attack was called off, in 1748, Indian allies of the French attacked Schenectady, New York. The war took a toll, especially in the northern British colonies. The losses of Massachusetts men alone in 1745–46 have been estimated as 8% of that colonys adult male population. According to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisbourg was returned to France three years later, in exchange for the city of Madras in India, captured by the French from the British and this decision outraged New Englanders, particularly Massachusetts colonists who had contributed the most to the expedition. The British government eventually acknowledged their effort with a payment of £180,000 after the war, in Acadia and Nova Scotia, the fighting continued in Father Le Loutres War. The Enduring Vision, A History of the American People Drake, a Particular History of the Five Years French and Indian War in New England Kingsford, William
20.
Father Le Loutre's War
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Father Le Loutres War, also known as the Indian War, the Micmac War and the Anglo-Micmac War, took place between King Georges War and the French and Indian War in Acadia and Nova Scotia. On one side of the conflict, the British and New England colonists were led by British Officer Charles Lawrence, on the other side, Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre led the Mikmaq and the Acadia militia in guerrilla warfare against settlers and British forces. While the British captured Port Royal in 1710, the Mikmaq and Acadians continued to contain the British to settlements at Port Royal, the rest of the colony was in the control of the Catholic Mikmaq and Acadians. The British settled 3,229 people in Halifax during the first years and this exceeded the number of Mikmaq in the entire region and was seen as a threat to the traditional occupiers of the land. The Mikmaq and some Acadians resisted the arrival of these Protestant settlers, the war caused unprecedented upheaval in the area. Atlantic Canada witnessed more population movements, more construction. Twenty-four conflicts were recorded during the war,13 of which were Mikmaq, as typical of frontier warfare, many additional conflicts were unrecorded. The British also wanted to establish Protestant communities in Nova Scotia, during the war, the Acadians and Mikmaq left Nova Scotia for the French colonies of Ile St. Jean and Ile Royale. The French also tried to control of the disputed territory of present-day New Brunswick. Throughout the war, the Mi’kmaq and Acadians attacked the British forts in Nova Scotia and they wanted to retard British settlement and buy time for France to implement its Acadian resettlement scheme. The war began with the British unilaterally establishing Halifax, which was a violation of a treaty with the Mikmaq. In response, the Acadians and Mikmaq orchestrated attacks at Chignecto, Grand Pré, Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax, the French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto and Port Elgin, New Brunswick. The British responded by attacking the Mikmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto, the British unilaterally established communities in Lunenburg and Lawrencetown. Finally, the British erected forts in Acadian communities located at Windsor, Grand Pre, the war ended after six years with the defeat of the Mikmaq, Acadians and French in the Battle of Fort Beausejour. The Mikmaq and Acadians were united in their commitment to Catholicism, intermarriage, despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, the dominant population in Acadia remained Catholic Acadians, who would not sign an unconditional oath to become British subjects. As a result, Acadians and Mi’kmaq resisted the British occupation of Acadia, by the time Cornwallis had arrived in Halifax, there was a long history of the Wabanaki Confederacy protecting their land by killing British civilians along the New England/ Acadia border in Maine. Before the founding of Halifax, there was also a history of Acadian resistance to the British through three French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rales War. Acadians joined French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over many British vessels during King Williams War, after the Siege of Pemaquid, dIberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mikmaq and Abanaki in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign
21.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
22.
Invasion of Quebec (1775)
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The Invasion of Quebec in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to military control of the British Province of Quebec. One expedition left Fort Ticonderoga under Richard Montgomery, besieged and captured Fort St. Johns, the other expedition left Cambridge, Massachusetts under Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec City. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775, Montgomerys expedition set out from Fort Ticonderoga in late August, and began besieging Fort St. Johns, the main defensive point south of Montreal, in mid-September. There he joined Arnold, who had left Cambridge in early September on a trek through the wilderness that left his surviving troops starving and lacking in many supplies. These forces joined before Quebec City in December, where they assaulted the city in a snowstorm on the last day of the year, the battle was a disastrous defeat for the Americans, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, while the citys defenders suffered few casualties. The British sent several troops, including General John Burgoyne and Hessian allies. General Carleton then launched a counter-offensive, ultimately driving the smallpox-weakened and disorganized American forces back to Fort Ticonderoga, the Americans, under Arnolds command, were able to hinder the British advance sufficiently that an attack could not be mounted on Fort Ticonderoga in 1776. The end of the set the stage for Burgoynes campaign of 1777 to gain control of the Hudson River valley. The objective of the American military campaign, control of the British province of Quebec, was referred to as Canada in 1775. Johns, Montreal, and any parts of the Country. Even relatively modern history books covering the campaign in detail refer to it as Canada in their titles. The name Quebec is used in article, except in quotations that specifically mention Canada. In the spring of 1775, the American Revolutionary War began with the Battle of Lexington, the conflict was then at a standstill, with the British Army surrounded by colonial militia in the siege of Boston. Johns, all of which were lightly defended at the time. Ticonderoga and Crown Point were garrisoned by 1,000 Connecticut militia under the command of Benjamin Hinman in June, the Second Continental Congress sent a second such letter in May 1775, but there was no substantive response to either one. They each separately proposed expeditions against Quebec, suggesting that a force as small as 1200–1500 men would be sufficient to drive the British military from the province. Congress at first ordered the forts to be abandoned, prompting New York and Connecticut to provide troops, public outcries from across New England and New York challenged the Congress to change its position
23.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
24.
Lower Canada Rebellion
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Together with the simultaneous Upper Canada Rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada, it formed the Rebellions of 1837. The rebellion of Lower Canada continued in 1838 and in Quebec is often called Les rébellions de 1837–38, the appointed Legislative Council was dominated by a small group of businessmen known as the Château Clique, the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada. Activists in Lower Canada began to work for reform in a period of economic disfranchisement of the French-speaking majority, the rebellion protested the injustice of colonial governing as such, in which the governor and upper house of the legislature were appointed by the Crown. Many of its leaders and participants were English-speaking citizens of Lower Canada, the French speakers felt that Anglophones were disproportionately represented in the lucrative fields of banking, the timber trade, and transportation industry. The unification of the colony was favoured by the British-appointed Governor, George Ramsey, in Lower Canada, the growing sense of nationalism among English and the French-speaking citizens was organized into the Parti canadien. In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti Canadien in the Assembly and in 1815, the elected Assembly had little power, its decisions could be vetoed by the Legislative Council and Governor, all of whom were appointed by the British government. Governor Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas, Dalhousie forced an election in 1827 rather than accept Papineau as Assembly Speaker. Sympathizers to the movement in England had Dalhousie forced from his position. But the Legislative Council and the Assembly were not able to reach a compromise, after hearing about the 99 grievances submitted by Robert Gourlay, Papineau wrote the Ninety-two Resolutions while secretly coordinating with Upper Canada. After protestors were shot in Montreal in 1832, Papineau had no choice but to submit the list of resolutions to the governor himself. By 1834, the Assembly had passed the Ninety-Two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the Legislative Council, at that point, the Patriote movement was supported by an overwhelming majority of the Lower Canada population of all origins. Later in 1834, the Parti Patriote swept the election, gaining more than three-quarters of the popular vote, but, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer named John Neilson had quit the party in 1830, lartigue called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions. Papineau continued to push for reform and he petitioned the British government but in March 1837, the government of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineaus requests. Papineau organized protests and assemblies, and eventually approved formation of the paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the Assemblée des six-comtés, Papineau escaped to the United States, and other rebels organized in the countryside. Led by Wolfred Nelson, they defeated a British force at Saint-Denis on November 23,1837, the British troops soon beat back the rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14. The troops pillaged and ransacked Saint-Eustache, on December 5, the government declared martial law in Montreal. When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, in the meantime, filibusters from the United States, the Hunter Patriots, formed a small militia and attacked Windsor, Upper Canada, to support the Canadian Patriots
25.
Upper Canada Rebellion
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The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the oligarchic government of the British colony of Upper Canada in December 1837. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the Rebellion in Lower Canada that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt soon after and they launched the Patriot War in 1838-39. Some historians argue that the rebellions in 1837 should be viewed in the context of the late 18th. The United Kingdoms Chartists sought similar democratic goals, the Upper Canada Rebellion is sometimes dismissed as a farmers revolt, an opportunistic action by misled backwoodsmen. The rebellion was, rather, the consequence of a sophisticated political movement that copied the organizational forms of the British reform movement. The British Reform movement, organized as Political Unions, had achieved the Great Reform Bill of 1832 which broadened the electoral franchise, the Upper Canada Central Political Union was organized in 1832-3 by Dr Thomas David Morrison while William Lyon Mackenzie was in England. This union collected 19,930 signatures on a petition protesting Mackenzies unjust expulsion from the House of Assembly by the Family Compact and this union was reorganized as the Canadian Alliance Society in 1835. It shared a meeting space in the market buildings with the Mechanics Institute. The Canadian Alliance Society adopted much of the platform of the Owenite National Union of the Working Classes in London, England, in pursuit of this democratic goal, the Chartists eventually staged a similar armed rebellion, the Newport Rising, in Wales in 1839. The Canadian Alliance Society was reborn as the Constitutional Reform Society in 1836, the Reformers experienced a disaster at the 1836 elections for the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada, and the Society took its final form as the Toronto Political Union in 1837. It was this group of the disenfranchised that began organizing local Vigilance Committees to elect delegates to a so-called Constitutional Convention in July 1837 and this became the organizational structure for the Rebellion, most of the rebel organizers were elected Constitutional Convention delegates. The first of those meetings to select delegates to the convention were held at Doels Brewery in Toronto on July 28 and 31. The second meeting was called to order by Samuel Hughes, a member of the Children of Peace, the meeting appointed Hughes, Samuel Lount, Nelson Gorham, Silas Fletcher, Jeremiah Graham and John McIntosh, M. P. P. as delegates to the convention. Immediately preceding the Mackenzie rebellion John Doels house and brewery were prominent gathering places for the Reformers, the large meetings were usually held in the brewery while smaller meetings of the leaders were held in the home. Mackenzie’s planned to take foundry-men and axe-makers and seize arms, ammunition, and they would then arouse the citizens of the town and country to proclaim a provincial government. Mr. Doel objected to the plan and there was a fight between Mackenzie, Doel, and Morrison, the meeting was broken up and Mackenzie left the house forever. From this point forward John Doel, his brewery, and his home were not longer part of the rebellion. The meetings in the Home District met with an amount of Orange Order violence, so that the reformers began to protect themselves
26.
Patriot War
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The Patriot War was a conflict along the Canada–United States border where bands of raiders attacked the British colony of Upper Canada more than a dozen times between December 1837 and December 1838. This so-called war was not a conflict between nations, it was a war of ideas fought by like-minded people against the greatest military power of the time. Participants in the conflict were members of an association, the “Hunter’s Lodge”. The Republic of Canada was also short-lived. S, the organizations were made up of grass-roots armed militants whose goal was to overthrow British rule in Canada. Their dispersal involved the largest deployment of U. S. troops against their own citizens since the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, while the initial rebellion in Upper Canada ended quickly with the Battle of Montgomerys Tavern, many of the rebels fled to the United States. Mackenzie established a short-lived Republic of Canada on Navy Island in the Niagara River, even before the Battle of Montgomerys Tavern, a large meeting in Buffalo met on 5 December 1837 and appointed a committee of 13 to organize support for the rebels. On the 11 Dec. Mackenzie arrived in Buffalo, where he was met by Thomas Jefferson Sutherland, Sutherland convinced Rensselaer van Rensselaer to become Commander in chief of the Patriot forces. Van Rensselaer was a West Point graduate who had fought with Bolivar in South America, on Dec.13 they proceeded to Navy Island in the Niagara River, but initially found only 24 men to accompany them. Navy Island lay in Canadian waters and hence did not implicate the United States in the military actions, the encampment was to launch an attack in support of the Duncombe uprising in the London District. Here, Mackenzie declared the government of the Republic of Canada. Three hundred acres of government land was offered to each volunteer, over the month of December, large supportive meetings were held in towns along the border, including Burlington, Albany, Rochester, Buffalo, Cleveland and Detroit and aid was promised. By the end of the month, up to 500 volunteers had joined Mackenzie on the island, however, with the failure of Duncombes revolt, the main purpose of seizing Navy Island disappeared and it was evacuated on Jan. 14, ending the short lived republic, the steamship Caroline, captained by Gilman Appleby, carried supplies between Buffalo and Mackenzies encampment on Navy Island. The incident sparked an international outcry and this case is a basis for the principle of the preemptive strike. Thomas Jefferson Sutherland was sent by the leaders on Navy Island in the Niagara River to raise a force in Detroit in December 1837. Sutherland arrived to find that Henry S. Handy and Dr Edward A. Theller had already held public meetings, Handy was in Toronto in the fall of 1837 where he met Marshall Bidwell and learned of the rebellion from him. Handy and his brother-in-law Judge Orange Butler, then of the Michigan House of Representatives, dufort of Montreal in travelling to Detroit where they formed a “war council” of influential citizens. Men came to Detroit from as far away as Illinois and Kentucky to join the movement, on January 5,1838, the Detroit jail was raided and the Patriots seized the 450 muskets which had been stored there
27.
Fenian raids
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They divided Catholic Irish-Canadians, many of whom were torn between loyalty to their new home and sympathy for the aims of the Fenians. The Protestant Irish were generally loyal to Britain and fought with the Orange Order against the Fenians, while the U. S. authorities arrested the men and confiscated their arms, there is speculation that some in the U. S. There were five Fenian raids of note and all of them ended in failure, led by John OMahony, this Fenian raid occurred in April 1866, at Campobello Island, New Brunswick. A Fenian Brotherhood war party of over 700 members arrived at the Maine shore opposite the island intending to seize Campobello from the British, British commander Charles Hastings Doyle, stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia responded decisively. On 17 April 1866 he left Halifax with Royal Navy warships carrying over 700 British regulars and proceeded to Passamaquoddy Bay and this show of British might discouraged the Fenians, and they dispersed. The Fenians now split into two factions, the original faction led by Fenian founders James Stephens and John OMahony focused more on fundraising for rebels in Ireland. After the failure of the April attempt to raid New Brunswick, which had blessed by OMahony. This would be the only Fenian attack, other than the Quebec raid several days later, approximately 1000 to 1,300 Fenians crossed the Niagara River in the first 14 hours of June 1 under Colonel John ONeill. Once the USS Michigan was deployed, ONeills force in the Niagara Region was cut off from further supplies, the Canadian militia consisted of inexperienced volunteers with no more than basic drill training but armed with Enfield rifled muskets equal to the armaments of the Fenians. The Fenians were mostly battle-hardened American Civil War veterans, armed with weapons procured from leftover war supplies, the opposing forces exchanged volleys for about two hours, before a series of command errors threw the Canadians into confusion. The Fenians took advantage of it by launching a bayonet charge that broke the inexperienced Canadian ranks, two Fenians were killed and sixteen wounded. After the battle, the Canadians retreated to Port Colborne, at the Lake Erie end of the Welland Canal, the Fenians rested briefly at Ridgeway, before returning to Fort Erie. Another encounter followed that saw several Canadians severely wounded and the surrender of a group of local Canadian militia who had moved into the Fenian rear. They were intercepted by the gunboat Michigan and surrendered to the American navy, when the mistake was recognized, an attempt was made to reform in column, being too close to the Fenian lines, it failed. In his recent new history of Ridgeway, however, historian Peter Vronsky argues the explanation was not as simple as that. Prior to the formation of the square, confusion had already broken out when a unit of the Queens Own Rifles mistook three arriving companies of redcoat Hamilton 13th Battalion for British troops. When the Queens Own Rifles began retiring to give the field to what they thought were British units, the 13th Battalion mistook this for a retreat, at this moment that the infamous form square order was given, completing the debacle that was unfolding on the field. Nevertheless, the charges dogged Booker for the rest of his life, five days after the start of the invasion, U. S
28.
Wolseley expedition
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The expedition was also intended to counter American expansionist sentiments in northern border states. Under the leadership of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, the set out in May 1870 from Toronto, Ontario. The U. S. government had refused permission for the troops to cross U. S, but the difficulties were overcome, and the force arrived at Winnipeg in August. The expedition travelled to Georgian Bay, then by steamer across Lake Huron to the U. S, from there the troops carried small boats to Lake Shebandowan. Travelling further westwards, they passed through Fort Frances to Lake of the Woods and they proceeded down the Winnipeg River and across the south basin of Lake Winnipeg to the Red River finally arriving at Fort Garry in late August. Wolseley formed up his troops and immediately began his advance on Upper Fort Garry, Riel and his followers abandoned the fort with the result it was taken in a bloodless action. Perrin was a regular British soldier of the 60th Regiment of Foot, the expedition is considered by military historians to have been among the most arduous in history. Over 1,000 men had to all their provisions. At numerous portages, corduroy roads had to be constructed, as these jobs were being done, the troops had to endure life in the bush for over two months, in summer heat and the inevitable plagues of blackflies and mosquitoes. Following the successful completion of the expedition, Wolseley penned a tribute to his men in recognition of their extraordinary efforts
29.
North-West Rebellion
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The Métis believed that Canada had failed to protect their rights, their land and their survival as a distinct people. He had a force of a couple hundred Métis and a number of Aboriginal at Batoche in May 1885. Despite some notable victories at Duck Lake, Fish Creek and Cut Knife. Riel was captured and put on trial and he was convicted of treason and despite many pleas across Canada for amnesty, he was hanged. Riel became the martyr to Francophone Canada and ethnic tensions escalated into a major national division that was never resolved. Although only a few hundred people were affected in Saskatchewan. A much more important long-term impact was the bitter alienation French speakers across Canada showed, Laurent, St. Louis, and Duck Lake on or near the South Saskatchewan River. In 1882, surveyors began dividing the land of the newly formed District of Saskatchewan in the concession system. The Métis lands were laid out in the system of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their French-Canadian culture. Not having clear title the Métis feared losing their land which, in 1884, the Métis asked Louis Riel to return from the United States, where he had fled after the Red River Rebellion, to appeal to the government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response, the role of aboriginal peoples prior to—and during—the outbreak of the rebellion is often misunderstood. A number of factors have created the misconception that the Cree, thus, widespread dissatisfaction with the treaties and rampant poverty spurred Big Bear, a Cree chief, to embark on a diplomatic campaign to renegotiate the terms of the treaties. When the Cree initiated violence in the spring of 1885, it was almost certainly unrelated to the revolt of Riel, in both the Frog Lake Massacre and the Siege of Fort Battleford, small dissident groups of Cree men revolted against the authority of Big Bear and Poundmaker. For Riel and the Métis, several factors had changed since the Red River Rebellion, the railway had been completed across the prairies in 1883, though sections were still under construction north of Lake Superior, making it easier for the government to get troops into the area. In addition, the North-West Mounted Police had been created, developing a local force. Riel lacked support from English settlers of the area as well as the majority of tribes. Riels claim that God had sent him back to Canada as a prophet caused Catholic officials to try to minimize his support, the Catholic priest, Albert Lacombe, worked to obtain assurances from Crowfoot that his Blackfoot warriors would not participate in a rebellion. Map of Battle Sites Chronology of Events The District of Saskatchewan, to the east, the Carrot River sub-district with 1,770 people remained quiet
30.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
31.
Military history of Canada during World War I
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The military history of Canada during World War I began on August 4,1914, when the United Kingdom entered the First World War by declaring war on Germany. However, the Canadian government had the freedom to determine the level of involvement in the war. On August 5,1914, the Governor General declared a war between Canada and Germany, the Militia was not mobilized and instead an independent Canadian Expeditionary Force was raised. Canadas sacrifices and contributions to the Great War changed its history and enabled it to more independent. For the first time in Canadian military history, Canadian forces fought as a unit, first under a British commander. The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the Great War came during the Somme, Vimy, Canadas total casualties stood at the end of the war at 67,000 killed and 250,000 wounded, out of an expeditionary force of 620,000 people mobilized. Canadians of British descent—the majority—gave widespread support arguing that Canadians had a duty to fight on behalf of their Motherland, however this did not stop Laurier along with Henri Bourassa from leading the opposition to conscription three years later in 1917. Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden offered assistance to Great Britain, which was quickly accepted, prior to the war, Canada had a small permanent standing army and a much larger Canadian militia. The Minister of Militia and Defence, Sam Hughes, was ordered by Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden to train, at the time, Canada had a regular army of only 3,110 men and a fledgling navy. Although the force was raised quickly, it was riven with political patronage and lacked a solid core of professional officers,600,000 men and women participated in the war by enlisting as nurses, soldiers and chaplains. In general, non-white people and those born in enemy nations were not welcomed into the military, when blacks from Sydney, Nova Scotia volunteered their services, they were told, This is not for you fellows, this is a white mans war. Nonetheless, some segregated units were formed, in 1915, Indigenous people were allowed to enlist and accepted into a 114th battalion as well as others. In total, about 3,500 Indigenous people would serve with the Canadian Forces, the Canadian Japanese Association in British Columbia put forward a volunteer reserve force of 227 men, some of whom were later admitted into the military. The No.2 Construction Battalion included black soldiers from both Canada and the United States, the latter having crossed into Canada in order to participate, the over one thousand Black Canadians who served would continue to be segregated during their tour, both on ships and in camps. The Canadian government had restricted the arrival of all Asians and the CLC were secretly landed in Victoria and they were drilled in the old quarantine station at William Head and secretly shipped across Canada in cattle-trucks. The Canadian Corps was formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France, the soldiers of the Corps were mostly volunteers, as conscription was not implemented until the end of the war. The Corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916. The organization of a 5th Canadian Division began in February 1917, originally commanded by Lieutenant General Sir E. A. H
32.
Military history of Canada during World War II
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The military history of Canada during the Second World War begins with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. While the Canadian Armed Forces were eventually active in every theatre of war, most combat was centred in Italy, Northwestern Europe. Over the course of the war, more than 1.1 million Canadians served in the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force, more than 44,000 lost their lives and 54,000 were wounded. The financial cost was $21.8 billion between 1939 and 1950, by the end of the war Canada had the worlds fourth largest air force, and fifth largest navy. The Canadian Merchant Navy completed over 25,000 voyages across the Atlantic,130,000 Allied pilots were trained in Canada in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. On D-Day,6 June 1944 the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landed on Juno beach in Normandy, the Second World War had significant cultural, political and economic effects on Canada, including the conscription crisis in 1944 which affected unity between francophones and anglophones. The war effort strengthened the Canadian economy and furthered Canadas global position, however, the 1931 Statute of Westminster transformed Canada into a fully sovereign state, theoretically co-equal with Britain and the other Dominions of the British Commonwealth. As late as 1936 King had told Parliament Our country is being drawn into situations to a degree that I myself think is alarming. Both the government and the public remained reluctant to participate in a European war, in part because of the memories of the Conscription Crisis of 1917 that divided French, both King and opposition leader Robert James Manion stated their opposition to conscripting troops for overseas service in March 1939. Nonetheless, King had not changed his view of 1923 that Canada would participate in a war by the Empire whether or not the United States did and it had been clear that Canada would elect to participate in the war before the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Unlike 1914 when war came as a surprise, the government had prepared various measures for price controls, rationing, and censorship, and the War Measures Act of 1914 was re-invoked. After two days of debate, the House of Commons approved an Address in Reply to the Speech from the Throne on 9 September 1939 giving authority to declare war to Kings government. A small group of Quebec legislators attempted to amend the bill, Woodsworth was the only Member of Parliament to vote against the bill and it thus passed by near-acclamation. The Senate also passed the bill that day, the Cabinet drafted a proclamation of war that night, which Governor-General Lord Tweedsmuir signed on 10 September. King George VI approved Canadas declaration of war with Germany on Sept.10, Canada later also declared war on Italy, Japan, and other Axis powers, enshrining the principle that the Statute of Westminster conferred these sovereign powers to Canada. Though Canada was the oldest Dominion in the British Commonwealth, it was, for the most part, Canada, with a population somewhere between 11 and 12 million, eventually raised very substantial armed forces. Around 10% of the population of Canada joined the army. After the long struggle of the Great Depression of the 1930s, Canada informally followed the British Ten Year Rule that reduced defence spending even after Britain abandoned it in 1932
33.
Canada in the Korean War
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The Canadian Forces were involved in the 1950–1953 Korean War and its aftermath. 26,000 Canadians participated on the side of the United Nations, Canadian aircraft provided transport, supply and logistics. 516 Canadians died,312 of which were from combat, after the war, Canadian troops remained for three years as military observers. Japans defeat in World War II brought an end to 35 years of Japanese occupation of the Korean Peninsula, the Soviet forces entered the Korean Peninsula on 10 August 1945, followed a few weeks later by the American forces who entered through Incheon. U. S. Army Lieutenant General John R. Hodge formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th Parallel on 9 September 1945 at the Government House in Seoul. Although both rival factions tried initially to diplomatically reunite the nation, the Northern faction eventually tried to do so with military force. North Korea had expanded their army and Korean volunteers fighting in Manchuria in the Chinese Civil War had given their troops battle experience, the North expected to win with the war in a matter of days. Troops from Kim Il Sungs North Korean Army crossed the 38th parallel on 25 June 1950 beginning a civil war, the invasion of South Korea came as a surprise to the United Nations. When the North Korean Army crossed into South Korea on 25 June 1950, they advanced for the capital Seoul, North Koreas forces continued toward the port of Pusan, a strategic goal and the seat of the ROK government. The forces of the North conquered all of Korea except for this tiny enclave at the end of the peninsula, the war was nearly won by the DPRK. In two days, the United States offered assistance and the United Nations Security Council asked its members to help repel the North Korean attack. Canada, the United States, New Zealand, South Africa, Lieutenant General Charles Foulkes, then Chief of the General Staff was in favour of Canada providing an infantry brigade for the 1st Commonwealth Division. Since Foulkes favoured keeping the Canadian Armys Mobile Striking Force intact for the defence of North America, recruits for the Special Force were enlisted for a period of eighteen months with recruits coming from both the Active Force, World War II veterans and adventure seeking young men. The normal recruitment standards were lowered since the army would not wish to retain the soldier of fortune type of personnel on a term basis. Units of the Special Force would be second battalions of the existing three Permanent Force regiments, the new battalion trained in Calgary and at CFB Wainwright, before boarding the USS Private Joe P. Martinez on 25 November 1950, to Pusan in South Korea. The 2nd Battalion of the PPCLI was the first Canadian infantry unit to take part in the Korean War, Special Force Second Battalions of the Royal Canadian Regiment and Royal 22nd Regiment were formed and sent to Korea in 1951. By spring 1951,8500 Canadians troops were supporting the United Nations, the Canadian war front was about 30 miles across and was a section of the United Nations front occupied by British Commonwealth forces. Most of the Canadians combat missions took place on the 30 mile zone, the Canadians two main adversaries during the war were the North Korean army and the Chinese in the Battle of Kapyong
34.
October Crisis
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The October Crisis occurred in October 1970 in the province of Quebec in Canada, mainly in the Montreal metropolitan area. Members of the Front de libération du Québec kidnapped the provincial cabinet minister Pierre Laporte, in response, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act. The kidnappers murdered Laporte, and negotiations led to Crosss release, the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa, and the Mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau, supported Trudeaus invocation of the War Measures Act, which limited civil liberties. The police were enabled with far-reaching powers, and they arrested and detained, without bail,497 individuals, the Quebec government also requested military aid to the civil power, and Canadian Forces deployed throughout Quebec, they acted in a support role to the civil authorities of Quebec. At the time, opinion polls throughout Canada, including in Quebec, the response, however, was criticized at the time by prominent politicians such as René Lévesque and Tommy Douglas. From 1963 to 1970 the Quebec nationalist group Front de libération du Québec detonated over 95 bombs, other targets included Montreal City Hall, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, armed forces recruiting offices, railway tracks, and army installations. By 1970,23 members of the FLQ were in prison, October 5, Montreal, Quebec, Two members of the Liberation Cell of the FLQ kidnap British Trade Commissioner James Cross from his home. The kidnappers are disguised as delivery men bringing a package for his recent birthday, once the maid lets them in, they pull out a rifle and a revolver and kidnap Cross. The terms of the note are the same as those found in June for the planned kidnapping of the U. S. consul. At this time, the police do not connect the two, October 8, Broadcast of the FLQ Manifesto in all French- and English-speaking media outlets in Quebec. Members of the Chenier cell of the FLQ kidnap Laporte, October 11, The CBC broadcasts a letter from captivity from Pierre Laporte to the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa. October 12, General Gilles Turcot sends troops to patrol the Montreal region, lawyer Robert Lemieux is appointed by the FLQ to negotiate the release of James Cross and Pierre Laporte. The Quebec Government appoints Robert Demers, October 13, Prime Minister Trudeau is interviewed by the CBC with respect to the military presence. In a combative interview, Trudeau asks the reporter, Tim Ralfe, when Ralfe asks Trudeau how far he would go Trudeau replies, Just watch me. October 14, Sixteen prominent Quebec personalities, including René Lévesque and Claude Ryan, FLQs lawyer Robert Lemieux urges Université de Montréal students to boycott classes in support of FLQ. October 15, Quebec City, The negotiations between lawyers Lemieux and Demers are put to an end, the Government of Quebec formally requests the intervention of the Canadian army in aid of the civil power pursuant to the National Defence Act. All three opposition parties, including the Parti Québécois, rise in the National Assembly and agree with the decision, on the same day, separatist groups are permitted to speak at the Université de Montréal. The rally frightens many Canadians, who view it as a prelude to outright insurrection in Quebec
35.
Oka Crisis
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The Oka Crisis or Oka Resistance was a land dispute between a group of Mohawk people and the town of Oka, Quebec, Canada, which began on July 11,1990, and lasted until September 26,1990. Sûreté du Québec Corporal Marcel Lemay was killed by a bullet, the dispute was the first well-publicized violent conflict between First Nations and the Canadian government in the late 20th century. The crisis developed from a dispute between the town of Oka and the Mohawk community of Kanesatake, Quebec. The town of Oka was developing plans to expand a golf course and it included pineland and a burial ground, marked by standing tombstones of their ancestors. The Mohawks had filed a claim for the allegedly sacred grove and burial ground near Kanesatake. The Mohawk claimed that the grant included about nine square miles reserved exclusively for their use. Although the Sulpician Seminary was supposed to hold the land in trust for them, in 1868, one year after Confederation, the chief of the Oka Mohawk people, Joseph Onasakenrat, wrote a letter to the seminary condemning it for illegally holding the land and demanding its return. The petition produced no results for the Mohawks, in 1869 Onasakenrat attacked the seminary with a small armed force, after giving the missionaries eight days to hand over the land. Local authorities ended this stand-off with force, in 1936, the seminary sold the remaining territory for development and vacated the area, under protest by the local Mohawk community. At the time still kept cattle on the common land. In 1961, the city built a private golf course. The Mohawk filed suit against its construction but, by the time the case was heard, construction also began on a parking lot and golf greens adjacent to the Mohawk cemetery. In 1977, the band filed a land claim with the federal Office of Native Claims regarding the land. The claim was accepted for filing, and funds were provided for research of the claim. Nine years later, the claim was rejected, on the grounds of failing to meet key legal criteria, in March 1989, the Club de golf dOka announced plans to expand the golf course by an additional 9 holes. Protests by Mohawks and others, as well as concern from the Quebec Minister of the Environment, led to negotiations, the tensions between native and non-native people in Canada have been high around communities bordering reserves, mainly over competing uses of land. Such tensions contributed to the Oka Crisis, in addition, he had approved development of sixty luxury condominiums in a section of the pines. As the Office of Native Claims had rejected the Mohawk claim on the three years earlier, his office did not consult the Mohawk on the plans
36.
Operation Medak Pocket
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The pocket was named after the village of Medak. The Croatian offensive temporarily succeeded in expelling rebel Serb forces from the pocket after several days of fighting, however, the operation ended in controversy after a skirmish with United Nations peacekeepers and accusations of serious Croatian war crimes against local Serb civilians. According to some Canadian sources, UNPROFOR personnel and Croatian troops exchanged heavy fire, in Canada, at the time, the battle was considered to be one of the most severe battles fought by the Canadian Forces since the Korean War. Much of the interior of the Lika region of southern Croatia was captured by the forces of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serb Krajina, despite this, sporadic sniping and shelling continued to take place between the two sides. Gospić, which was close to the front lines, was subjected to shellfire from the Serbian Army of Krajina. The town was of importance in securing lines of communication between Dalmatia and the rest of Croatia. The pocket was primarily an area with a combination of forest. It was fairly lightly inhabited before the attack, with about 400 Serb civilians residing in the area and was held by units of the SVKs 15th Lika Corps, the pocket adjoined Sector South, one of the four United Nations Protected Areas in Croatia. It was not actually in the UNPA but lay just outside in a so-called pink zone—RSK held territory outside the UNPAs, Croatian forces began their offensive at approximately 06,00 on 9 September 1993. The Croatians were largely armed with equipment captured from the Yugoslav Peoples Army, including M-84 tanks, as well as numbers of artillery pieces. The SVK was taken by surprise and fell back, after two days of fighting the Croatian forces had taken control of Divoselo, Čitluk and part of Počitelj. The salient was pinched out with the new front line running just in front of the village of Medak, in retaliation for the offensive, Serb forces began to use long-range artillery to shell the city of Karlovac and fired FROG-7 ballistic missiles into the Croatian capital Zagreb. The attack on Karlovac was especially brutal and dozens of civilians were killed, the SVK launched counter-attacks which retook some of the captured territory and brought the Croatian advance to a halt. It also threatened to attack 20 or 30 more targets throughout Croatia unless the captured territory was handed back, the two sides exchanged heavy artillery fire during 12–13 September, with the UN recording over 6,000 detonations in the Gospić-Medak area. On 13 and 14 September, Croatian Air Force MiG-21 aircraft attacked SVK artillery and rocket batteries in Banovina and Kordun, the offensive attracted strong international criticism and, facing political and military pressure at home and from abroad, the Croatian government agreed to a ceasefire. The United Nations commander in Croatia, General Jean Cot, arranged and mediated ceasefire discussions, on 15 September a ceasefire agreement was signed by General Mile Novaković, on behalf of the Serbian side and Major-General Petar Stipetić, on behalf of the Croatian side. The agreement required the Croatian forces to withdraw to the lines of 9 September. The Croatian withdrawal was scheduled for 1200 on 15 September, the UN forces, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel James Calvin, were instructed to interpose themselves between the Serb and Croatian forces
37.
Operation Mobile
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Operation Mobile was the name given to Canadian Forces activities in the 2011 military intervention in Libya. The United States counterpart to this was Operation Odyssey Dawn, the French counterpart was Opération Harmattan, the no-fly zone was proposed during the Libyan Civil War to prevent government forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi from carrying out air attacks on anti-Gaddafi forces and civilians. The demonstrations in Libya were part of the larger Arab Spring movement that began in the country of Tunisia on 18 December 2010, when demonstrations began in Libya, the government of Muammar Gaddafi responded with systematic attacks by air and ground forces, and repression of the protesters. In a speech, Gaddafi promised to chase down the protesters, several countries prepared to take immediate military action at a conference in Paris on 19 March. The no-fly zone was enforced by NATOs Operation Unified Protector, NATO took sole command of all operations in Libya from 06,00 GMT on 31 March, which effectively ended the U. S. Operation Odyssey Dawn, as all U. S. operations were absorbed into NATOs Unified Protector, the Canadian contribution continued to fall under Operation Mobile, which ceased activities on 1 November 2011. On 1 March, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that HMCS Charlottetown would deploy from Halifax on 2 March to take part in Canadian, Charlottetown departed CFB Halifax, and joined the Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 on 14 March, and arrived on station on 17 March. HMCS Charlottetown is a Halifax-class frigate under the command of Commander Craig Skjerpen with a crew of about 240 officers and sailors, with the other ships of Standing NATO Maritime Group 1, HMCS Charlottetown was engaged in regional maritime security operations in the central Mediterranean Sea. On 18 August, HMCS Vancouver took the place of HMCS Charlottetown for the remainder of the NATO mission in Libya, HMCS Charlottetown returned to Canada on 2 September. Task Force Libeccio was the air detachment participating in the enforcement of the zone in Libya authorized by Resolution 1973. The task force was named for the southwesterly wind that blows all year in the Mediterranean Sea. The force also included two CC-150 Polaris air-to-air refuelling detachment from 437 Transport Squadron at 8 Wing Trenton, Ontario, Task Force Libeccio reached the region on 18 March. CF-18 Hornets and CC-150 Polaris assets were based at Trapani-Birgi airbase in Sicily, Italy, CP-140 Aurora aircraft were based at Naval Air Station Sigonella in Sicily, Italy. 1 × CH-124 Sea King HMCS Vancouver, a Halifax-class frigate,1 × CH-124 Sea King Canadian Special Operations Forces Command Joint Task Force 2 An additional six CF-18s were placed on standby in Canada, ready to deploy immediately if called upon. Canada expected to take part in bombings as soon as the following night, HMCS Charlottetown also began patrolling the waters north of Libya in order to help to enforce a NATO blockade of Libya. Defence Minister Peter MacKay stated that another six CF-18 fighter jets are on standby to deploy if needed,22 March Two CF-18s again flew missions on Tuesday,22 March. However they had to abandon their attack on a Gaddafi Libyan airfield as the high possibility of collateral damage was against the strict rules of engagement. For a second day a CC-150 tanker refuelled Canadian aircraft as well as other coalition aircraft,23 March The third day marked the first time Canadian jets bombed Libya since the campaign began
38.
Operation Impact
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The Canadian Armed Forces’ contribution to the coalition against ISIL was later dubbed Operation Impact. On 30 March 2015, the Canadian Parliament voted to extend the mission to targets in Syria, all airstrikes by the Canadian fighter aircraft ended as of 15 February 2016. As part of the Canadian reorganization of the operation in February 2016 and this force was later augmented in mid-May 2016 by three Bell CH-146 Griffon helicopters. On 20 July, it was announced by Defense Minister Harjit Sajjan that Canada was deploying a field hospital in support of United States, the hospital requires 60 personnel, however the Minister said that the number of committed to the overall operation would not climb. The hospitals deployment would be for one year, on 4 September 2014, the Canadian government announced that it would deploy up to 100 Canadian special forces to Iraq in a non-combat advisory role to the military operation against ISIL in Iraq. Later it was confirmed that 69 Canadian forces were operating in Iraq, in the territory ISIL has occupied, it has conducted a campaign of unspeakable atrocities against the most innocent of people”, also ISIL “has specifically targeted Canada and Canadians, Harper said. Harper left open the possibility of Canadian involvement also in the US-led intervention in Syria against ISIL,2014 The first Canadian airstrike against an Islamic State target in Iraq occurred on 2 November 2014. It was reported that CF-18s successfully destroyed heavy engineering or construction equipment used to divert the Euphrates River near the city of Fallujah, on 11 November, CF-18s dropped laser guided bombs near the city of Baiji, in Northern Iraq. The Department of National Defence stated that the strike targeted equipment that could have used to attack coalition assets. On 17 November, a used by ISIS was struck by CF-18s. It was believed to be a site for the construction of roadside bombs, on 19 November 2014, two CF-18s attacked ISIL positions northwest of Kirkuk. On 27 November 2014, it was confirmed that Canadian jets had not performed any air strikes for several days, on 28 November, Canadian CF-18s supported Iraqi security force operations around Hīt in Anbar Province, performing strikes against ISIL positions. On 30 November Canadian fighter jets struck ISIL forces southeast of Mosul in a controlled by the group. Striking ISIL forces near Mosul, CF-18s from Canada attacked mortar positions, Canadian CF-18s continued to partake in coalition attacks, striking ISIL positions consisting of two bunkers and two machine gun emplacement northeast of Mosul on 5 December. Two CF-18s struck ISIL positions east of Al Qaim, destroying a bunker on 10 December and they were supported by a CP-140 Aurora performing reconnaissance. Airstrikes intensified later in December, with ISIL targets successfully struck on 17 December,19 December,20 December,22 December and 24 December, Canadian airstrikes continued, attacking near Fallujah on 31 December. 2015 Canadian aircraft attacked ISIL targets in two areas on 1 January 2015, northwest of Baghdad and around Al-Qaim. Canadian airstrikes continued, supporting ground operations around Haditha on 8 January 2015
39.
Canadian Forces base
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A Canadian Forces Base or CFB is a military installation of the Canadian Forces. For a facility to qualify as a Canadian Forces Base, it must station one or more major units, minor installations are named Canadian Forces Station or CFS. A Canadian Forces Station could host a single minor unit, many of these facilities are now decommissioned for administrative purposes and function as detachments of a larger Canadian Forces Base nearby. Note, Primary lodger units at Canadian Forces Bases used by the Canadian Army are regiments of the Canadian Army. Hubert, Quebec CFB St. Coinciding with personnel and equipment reductions was the controversial decision to close a number of bases. For example, the CF Leadership and Recruit School at St. Jean, Quebec, is now a unit of CFB Montreal. Other facilities are now used as training grounds for reserve/militia units, List of Royal Canadian Air Force stations List of Royal Canadian Navy stations
40.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
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