1.
Canadian Army
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The Canadian Army is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. As of September 2013 the Army has 21,600 regular soldiers, about 24,000 reserve soldiers, the Army is supported by 5,600 civilian employees. It maintains regular forces units at bases across Canada, and is responsible for the Army Reserve. The Commander of the Canadian Army and Chief of the Army Staff is Lieutenant-General Paul Wynnyk, the name Canadian Army only came into official use beginning in 1940, from before Confederation until the Second World War the official designation was Canadian Militia. On 1 April 1966, as a precursor to the unification of Canadas armed services, Mobile Command was renamed Land Force Command in the 1993 reorganization of the Canadian Armed Forces. In August 2011, Land Force Command reverted to the title of the Canadian Army. Some current regiments of the Canadian Army trace their origins to these pre-Confederation militia, Regular Canadian troops participated in the North West Rebellion in 1885, the South African War in 1899, and, in much larger numbers, constituted the Canadian Expeditionary Force in First World War. In 1940, during Second World War, the Permanent Active Militia was renamed the Canadian Army, supplemented by the non-permanent militia, the Army participated in the Korean War and formed part of the NATO presence in West Germany during the Cold War. Despite Canadas usual support of British and American initiatives, Canadas land forces did not directly participate in the Vietnam War or the Iraq War, Command of the Army is exercised by the Commander of the Canadian Army within National Defence Headquarters located in Ottawa. It serves as a headquarters to command a divisional-level deployment of Canadian or allied forces on operations. It includes a number of schools and training organizations, such as the Combat Training Centre at CFB Gagetown, New Brunswick, the position was renamed Chief of the Land Staff in 1993. Following the reversion of Land Forces to the Canadian Army in 2011, officers are selected in several ways, The Regular Officer Training Plan, where candidates are educated at the Royal Military College of Canada or at civilian Canadian universities. Direct Entry officer Plan, for those who hold a university degree or technology diploma. Candidates complete their degrees while serving in the Army, university Training Plan, designed to develop selected serving non-commissioned members for service as career officers in the Regular Force. Normally, candidates selected for this plan will attend RMC or a university in Canada. Special Requirements Commissioning Plan, is designed to meet the needs of the officer occupations, subsidized special education, which includes the Medical Officer Training Plan or Dental Officer Training Plan. In addition there were other commissioning plans such as the Officer Candidate Training Plan, Canadian infantry and armoured regimental traditions are strongly rooted in the traditions and history of the British Army. Many regiments were patterned after regiments of the British Army, other regiments developed independently, resulting in a mixture of both colourful and historically familiar names
2.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
3.
39 Canadian Brigade Group
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39 Canadian Brigade Group is a Canadian Forces formation of the Canadian Army under the 3rd Canadian Division. The brigade group is composed of Canadian Forces Primary Reserve units,39 CBG Headquarters is located in the West Point Grey neighborhood of Vancouver at the former RCAF Station Jericho Beach. The brigade group is made of approximately 1,500 soldiers located in reserve units located in communities across British Columbia, most of the soldiers in 39 CBG are reservists, serving part-time within their communities. Soldiers of 39 CBG are trained in supporting domestic and also expeditionary operations, every year many members of 39 CBG volunteer to serve all over the world in UN and NATO deployments. 39 CBG is supported by other units that provide specialist duties, such as medical services. These units do not fall under the 39 CBG command structure, however, the medical needs of 39 CBG, such as tending to wounded troops in the field, are provided by two field ambulance units. These two units are part of the Royal Canadian Medical Service and 1 Health Services Group,11 Field Ambulance in Victoria 12 Field Ambulance in Vancouver The military police support for 39 CBG is provided by the Canadian Forces Military Police. The military police assigned to the brigade is 12 Military Police Platoon and is based out of the Colonel Sherman Armoury in Richmond. 12 Military Police Platoon reports to its parent units,15 Military Police Company, Military intelligence services for 39 CBG are provided by the Vancouver detachment of 6 Intelligence Company, based out the Jericho Garrison. The unit headquarters is at CFB Edmonton and operates detachments in several brigade groups. 6 Int Coy operates detachments in, Edmonton Vancouver Winnipeg Exercise Cougar Salvo is 39 CBGs annual field training exercise which combines the brigade as a whole, every year, the exercise is held in a different location, usually in British Columbia. In 2006, it was held in the streets of Kamloops, in 2007, however, it has been held in other locations, such as in the United States. In 2012, Exercise Cougar Salvo was held in Boise, Idaho
4.
New Westminster
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New Westminster is a historically important city in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia, Canada, and is a member municipality of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. Before the settlers arrived from various parts of the world, the now known as New Westminster was inhabited by Qayqayt First Nation. The discovery of gold in B. C. and the arrival of gold seekers from the south prompted fear amongst the settlers that Americans may invade to take over this land. Subsequent to the enactment of the Pre-emption Act of 1860, Moody settled the Lower Mainland and selected the site and founded the new capital, everything is large and magnificent, worthy of the entrance to the Queen of England’s dominions on the Pacific mainland. My imagination converted the silent marshes into Cuyp-like pictures of horses, the water of the deep clear Frazer was of a glassy stillness, not a ripple before us, except when a fish rose to the surface or broods of wild ducks fluttered away. It was suggested by Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment that the site be proclaimed Queensborough, Governor James Douglas proclaimed the new capital with this name on February 14,1859. From this naming by the Queen, the City gained its official nickname, a year later New Westminster became the first City in British Columbia to be incorporated and have an elected municipal government. It became an outfitting point for prospectors coming to the Fraser Gold Rush, as all travel to the goldfield ports of Yale. Moreover, to pay for the expense of building roads into the Interior of the colony, in 1866, the colony of British Columbia and the colony of Vancouver Island were united as British Columbia. Cox then popped the lenses of Franklyns glasses from their frames so that the Nanaimo representative could see nothing at all of his speech, the subsequent vote was 13 to 8 against New Westminster. A smallpox epidemic devastated the New Westminster Band, reducing the members from about 400 people to under 100. Many of the remaining Qayqayt were assimilated into other local reserves and their reserve on Poplar Island was turned into an Aboriginal smallpox victim quarantine area. For decades, the Poplar Island reserve was designated as belonging to all coast tribes, in 1913 the federal government seized most of the New Westminster Bands reserve lands. In 1916 the remaining land on Poplar Island was turned over to the BC government, eighteen years earlier, in 1898, a devastating fire destroyed downtown New Westminster. In 1991, the New Westminster Armoury was recognized as a Federal Heritage building on the Register of the Government of Canada Heritage Buildings, New Westminster is located on the Burrard Peninsula, on the north bank of the Fraser River. It is 19 kilometres southeast of the City of Vancouver proper, adjacent to Burnaby and Coquitlam, a portion of New Westminster called Queensborough is located on the eastern tip of Lulu Island, adjacent to Richmond. The total land area is 15.3 square kilometres, New Westminster has changed markedly over time and by the results of its incorporation into the wider urbanization of the Lower Mainland. In 1878, the Government of Canada opened the British Columbia Penitentiary, BC Pen, or simply the Pen, as it was known, was located between the Sapperton neighbourhood and what is now Queens Park
5.
Chilliwack
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Chilliwack /ˈtʃɪləwæk/ is the 7th largest city in British Columbia, Canada. Historically an agricultural community, most of its 83,788 residents now are city-dwellers, Chilliwack is the seat of the Fraser Valley Regional District and its second largest city. This city is surrounded by mountains and recreational areas such as Cultus Lake and it is located 102 kilometres southeast of Vancouver. There are many activities in the area, including hiking, horseback riding, biking, camping, fishing. In Halqeméylem, the language of the Stó, lō communities around Chilliwack and Sardis and it also lends its name to the Chilliwack River, and group of aboriginal people, the Ts’elxweyeqw. The spelling of Chilliwack is sometimes a matter of confusion, prior to the amalgamation of the City of Chilliwack and the Municipality of Chilliwhack, there were two different spellings. Upon amalgamation, the current spelling of the city was adopted, anglicized spellings include Chilliwhyeuk and other versions closer to the original Halqeméylem. The archeological record shows evidence of Stó, lō people in the Fraser Valley, permanent structures in the Chilliwack area date from around 5,000 years ago. At the time of the first contact with Europeans it is estimated there were as many as 40,000 people living within Stó. In 1857, gold was discovered in the Fraser Canyon, by 1859, over 40,000 gold miners had trekked to the goldfields, most travelling through the Chilliwack area. By the mid-1860s, several farms had grown up around the steamboat landings on the Fraser River called Millers Landing, Minto Landing, Sumas Landing, the Township of Chilliwack was incorporated in 1873, the third municipality in British Columbia. Initial settlement was along the Fraser River at Chilliwack Landing, steamboats were the main mode of transportation, carrying goods and passengers between Chilliwack and New Westminster. After the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, many began to cross the Fraser River at Minto Landing to catch the train at Harrison Mills. A large subdivision called Centreville was built in 1881, the name Centreville was replaced In 1887 by the more popular Chilliwhack. The area was incorporated in 1908 as a municipality, the City of Chilliwack. The city and the township co-existed for 72 years, in 1984, they merged to form the District of Chilliwack. The District of Chilliwack became the City of Chilliwack in early 1999, Chilliwack is located in the Upper Fraser Valley,100 kilometres east of Vancouver on the Trans Canada Highway. The city is bounded on the north by the Fraser River, Chilliwack is surrounded by tall mountain peaks, such as Mount Cheam and Slesse Mountain, and large rivers
6.
The Maple Leaf Forever
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The Maple Leaf Forever is a Canadian song written by Alexander Muir in 1867, the year of Canadas Confederation. He wrote the work after serving with the Queens Own Rifles of Toronto in the Battle of Ridgeway against the Fenians in 1866. Muir was said to have been inspired to write this song by a maple tree which stood on his street in front of Maple Cottage. The song became popular in English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem. The tree which inspired Muirs song was felled during a windstorm on the night of 19/20 July 2013, residents have expressed their hope that the city will be able to start a new tree from one of the branches. According to other accounts, this was actually the original wording, Muir was attempting to express that under the Union Flag, the British and French were united as Canadians. The Maple Leaf Forever is also the regimental march of The Royal Westminster Regiment. Additionally, it is the Regimental Slow March of the Fort Henry Guard, the song makes reference to James Wolfe capturing Quebec in 1759 during the Seven Years War and the Battle of Queenston Heights and Battle of Lundys Lane during the War of 1812. CBC Radios Metro Morning show in Toronto ran a contest to find new lyrics for the song in 1997, the contest was won by Romanian immigrant, mathematician, and now a songwriter, actor and poet, Vladimir Radian, who came to Canada in the 1980s. This version received its first full orchestral treatment on June 27,1997, the new version removed all references to British-Canadian heritage and the Union Flag, but added a special reference to Quebecs provincial symbol, the fleur-de-lis. O, land of blue unending skies, Mountains strong and sparkling snow, A scent of freedom in the wind, to thee we brought our hopes, our dreams, For thee we stand together, Our land of peace, where proudly flies, The Maple Leaf forever. Chorus, Long may it wave, and grace our own, Blue skies and stormy weather, Within my heart, above my home, The Maple Leaf forever. Sur mers sauvages ou glaciers durs, Tant dhéros se sont suivis, En conquérant la peur, le froid, Et tant de braves, rouges ou blancs, Reposent ici ensemble, De noble sang, de tant de neige, Est née la feuille dérable. Refrain De leurs exploits, de leurs travaux, Et leur courage sublime, Dans leurs vieux rêves réunis, refrain Reprise Sur nos montagnes, dans nos prairies, À travers temps et sable, Aimons toujours la fleur de lys, Toujours, la feuille dérable. Oh, Maple Leaf, around the world, You speak as you rise high above, Of courage, peace and quiet strength, remind us all our union bound, By ties we cannot sever, Bright flag revered on every ground, The Maple Leaf forever. For life and peace and liberty, the Maple Leaf, our emblem dear, The Maple Leaf Forever. Long may it wave and God defend, The Maple Leaf Forever. Thro battle flame in lands afar, Our brave warriors side by side, For freedom, home, O Valiant hearts whose deeds proclaim, The Maple Leaf Forever
7.
Primary Reserve
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The reserve force is represented, though not commanded, at the national level by the Chief of Reserves and Cadets. This is usually a general or Rear Admiral. The Naval Reserve is the formation of the Royal Canadian Navy. It is organized into 24 Naval Reserve Divisions, shore-based training facilities located in communities across the country, each NRD has a small cadre of full-time reservists and regular force members to coordinate training and administration, but is for the most part directed by the divisions part-time leadership. Training is conducted year round with regular force counterparts at the three Canadian Forces Fleet Schools and reservists frequently deploy on regular force ships to augment ships companies. The Naval Reserve supplies all personnel for the 12 Kingston-class Maritime Coastal Defence Vessels, the Naval Reserve has a funded manning level of 4,000. The Army Reserve of the Canadian Army is the largest part of the Primary Reserve and it is sometimes referred to by its original and historic name, the Militia. During operations the Army Reserve is tasked to provide trained and equipped troops to augment the regular army. It forms the framework needed to raise an army during wartime. This fighting mission has not changed much since the Second World War and this perpetuates the regimental system in the reserve army so that it is available as such for the timely absorption of recruits in case of war or in aid of the civil power. Such as when the need may one day arise, to call out more than 26,000 supplementary reservists and cadet instructors, to reinforce the order of battle, however, in practice the regimental system exists as an important military institution for Canada. In addition to the tactical contribution provided for today’s Total Force they also provide a deep-rooted community tie, the true strength of the Army Reserve is the strong connection that the extended regimental family fosters with the community. Many of these activities are overseen by the honorary colonel. Although the vast Canadian geography and demographic factors impact unit composition they mostly functions in much the same way, during peacetime the Regimental establishment will only be the equivalent of a much reduced battalion of a couple hundred troops and less in some cases. The regiment’s subordinate units consist of one training company that may include a platoon devoted to inducting recruits, the Training Company provides candidates for basic courses run at the brigades Battle School and combat arms training conducted at the Divisional Training Centre. Once the soldiers are trade-qualified, they return to their units to serve in the company that is ready. Each unit will usually deploy a reduced company of two platoons, one of these consisting of younger soldiers who have just passed through qualification training. The battle group is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel selected on a rotational basis from one of the brigade units
8.
Regiment
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A regiment is a military unit. Their role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, in Medieval Europe, the term regiment denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted in one geographical area, by a leader who was often also the feudal lord of the soldiers. By the 17th century, a regiment was usually about a thousand personnel. In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task forces, brigades and other, similarly-sized operational units. By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most European continental armies had evolved into permanent units with distinctive titles and uniforms, when at full strength, an infantry regiment normally comprised two field battalions of about 800 men each or 8–10 companies. In some armies, an independent regiment with fewer companies was labelled a demi-regiment, a cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900 troopers, making up a single entity. With the widespread adoption of conscription in European armies during the nineteenth century, the regimental system underwent modification. Prior to World War I, a regiment in the French, German, Russian. As far as possible, the battalions would be garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regiment could be mobilized. A cavalry regiment by contrast made up an entity of up to 1,000 troopers. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both and this is often contrasted to the continental system adopted by many armies. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations, thus, in divisional administration, soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from an age group within a nation. In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army, e. g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment, a key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions of different origins, within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty
9.
47th Battalion (British Columbia), CEF
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The 47th Battalion, CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 47th Battalion was authorized on 7 November 1914 and embarked for Britain on 13 November 1915 and it disembarked in France on 11 August 1916, where it fought as part of the 10th Infantry Brigade, 4th Canadian Division in France and Flanders until the end of the war. By wars end the 47th had lost 899 men, One third of the fatalities,271 men, were killed in the last 100 days of the war. The battalion was disbanded on 30 August 1920, the 47th Battalion recruited in New Westminster, Vancouver and Victoria and was mobilized at New Westminster, British Columbia. The 47th Battalion had four officers commanding, Lt-Col W. N. Winsby,13 November 1915 –24 April 1917 Lt. Col, M. J. Francis,24 April 1917 –14 December 1917 Lt. Col. R. H. Webb, MC,14 December 1917 –24 April 1918 Lt. Col, H. L. Keegan, DSO,24 April 1918-demobilization One member of the 47th Battalion was awarded the Victoria Cross. Acting Corporal Filip Konowal was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the period 22–24 August 1917, at the Battle of Hill 70 in Lens, Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914-1919 by Col. G. W. L. Nicholson, CD, Queens Printer, Ottawa, Ontario,1962
10.
4th Canadian Division
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The 4th Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. The division was first created as a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War, during the Second World War the division was reactivated as the 4th Canadian Infantry Division in 1941 and then converted to armour and redesignated as the 4th Canadian Division. Beginning in 1916 the division adopted a distinctive green-coloured formation patch as its insignia, in 2013 it was announced that Land Force Central Area would be redesignated 4th Canadian Division. It is currently responsible for Canadian Army operations in the Canadian province of Ontario and is headquartered at Denison Armoury, the 4th Canadian Division was formed in the Britain in April 1916 from several existing units and others scheduled to arrive shortly thereafter. Under the command of Major-General David Watson, the Division embarked for France in August of that year where they served both in the Western Front in France and in Flanders until Armistice Day. The 4th Canadian Division was a part of the Canadian Corps in the Battle of Vimy Ridge, as a result, the Canadians became known as masters of offensive warfare and an elite fighting force. In the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917, the 4th Canadian Division was given the job of capturing Hill 145, however, when they attempted to capture the hill, they were hampered by fire from the Pimple, which was the other prominent height at Vimy Ridge. To capture Hill 145, forces which were supposed to attack the Pimple were redeployed and captured Hill 145, 10th Canadian Brigade, 44th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, April 1916 –11 November 1918, 47th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, April 1916 –11 November 1918. 11th Canadian Brigade, 54th Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –11 November 1918, 75th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 87th Battalion Canadian Infantry, june 1916 –11 November 1918, 102nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 12th Canadian Brigade, 38th Battalion Canadian Infantry. June 1916 –11 November 1918, 51st Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –13 November 1916, 72nd Battalion, CEF. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 73rd Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –19 April 1917, 78th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 85th Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1917 –11 November 1918, 87th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Pioneers, 67th Pioneer Battalion Canadian Infantry, the division proceeded overseas in 1942, with its two main convoys reaching the United Kingdom in August and October. The division spent almost two years training in the United Kingdom before crossing to Normandy in July 1944, the division participated in the later stages of the Battle of Normandy at the Falaise Pocket, the advance from Normandy and spent almost two months engaged at the Breskens Pocket
11.
Filip Konowal
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Filip Konowal VC was a highly decorated Ukrainian Canadian soldier. He is the only Eastern European recipient of the Victoria Cross and he was also entitled to the Cross of St George, 4th Class. He is the patron of Royal Canadian Legion Branch 360 in Toronto, Konowal was born to a peasant family on 15 September 1888 in Kutkivtsi, in the Podolia Governorate of the Russian Empire near the border with Austria-Hungary. At an early age, he worked as a mason alongside his father, soon after his marriage, he decided to join the Imperial Russian Army, where he served as an instructor in hand-to-hand combat. After demobilization, Konowal returned home and took up work as a feller in Siberia, departing from Vladivostok, Konowal crossed the Pacific Ocean to Vancouver, British Columbia, and continued working as a feller, gradually making his way east. By the beginning of 1914, Konowal had lost his job as a feller, on 12 July 1915, Konowal enlisted in the 77th Canadian Infantry Battalion, and on 19 June 1916, left Halifax for Liverpool. After arriving in England, Konowal was promoted to acting corporal and was transferred to the 47th Battalion of the 4th Canadian Division, in August 1916, the 4th Division arrived in France, and took part in the assault on Vimy Ridge in April 1917. From 22–24 August 1917, during the Battle of Hill 70 in Lens, France, he was recognized for gallantry in the face of the enemy. Konowals medal was presented by King George V, and he was promoted to sergeant. The two men went for dinner at a restaurant, Diedek left early in order to look at some bicycles at the home of William Artich, Konowal became aware of a commotion and went to investigate. A fight had started between Artich and Diedek, by the time Konowal arrived, Diedek had been viciously beaten and Artich was armed with a knife. Konowal managed to control over the weapon and killed Artich with a single stab to the chest. Konowal did not attempt to flee the scene, when police came, the First World War veteran stated, Ive killed fifty-two of them, that makes the fifty-third. Veterans rallied to his cause and raised money to bail Konowal in October 1919. Medical experts unanimously agreed that a gunshot wound to the head was likely making Konowal mentally unstable. The jury agreed and he was not guilty by reason of insanity. By the end of period, his condition had improved dramatically. He eventually found employment as a caretaker at the House of Commons in Ottawa, Konowal married a French-Canadian woman, Juliette Leduc-Auger, in 1934 and adopted her two sons, Roland and Albert
12.
Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
13.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
14.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
15.
Mission, British Columbia
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Mission, the core of which was formerly a separate municipality known as Mission City, is a district municipality in the Lower Mainland region of the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is situated on the bank of the Fraser River where it backs onto mountains. Mission is the 6th largest district municipality in British Columbia, with a population of 38,833, unlike the other Fraser Valley municipalities, Mission is mostly forested upland with only small floodplains lining the shore of the Fraser River. Some benches of farmland rise in succession northwards above the developed area of the city. Mission was once the heart of the industry in the Fraser Valley, with Home of the Big Red Strawberry as Missions slogan in the 1930s. Over 40% of Mission is actually tree farm, making it one of two communities with municipal tree farms. Missions tree farm celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2008 and it was incorporated in 1892 and is 225.78 km2 in size. The District of Mission uses the current Council-Manager system of local government, the present Mayor and Council, was elected on November 15,2014. The current mayor is Randy Hawes, a notable past mayor is James Atebe. The Town of Mission City began as a land promotion, soon afterwards, Harry Brown French, an American from New York, came to the city and founded the Mission Regional Chamber of Commerce on June 19,1893. It was the first Board of Trade in B. C, some of the early houses and commercial buildings were, in fact, specifically designed to be reminiscent of small towns in southern Ontario in order to encourage buyers. The name Mission City was chosen due to the proximity to the historic St. Marys Mission of the Oblate order just east of town. The rail bridge at Mission doubled duty as a one-way alternating vehicular bridge until 1973, Mission Citys original retail core was in the small area of lowland between the CPR mainline and the river. Following the great flood of 1894 a few years after the towns founding, following the 1894 flood, abandoned buildings and lots in the old downtown were taken over by Chinese merchants and workers, creating a Chinatown which lasted until the 1920s. It was built by the British Columbia Electric Railway to provide power to the street railway. The Stave Falls Power Co. operated a railway for passenger. During the construction of the Ruskin Dam the railway was rebuilt at a higher elevation so as to skirt the new Hayward Lake reservoir, the rail line has long been discontinued, but the old grade and its trestles are now part of a recreation trail circling the reservoir. Population in the Stave Falls area is now away from the dams, west along the Dewdney Trunk towards Maple Ridge, in a rural farm-and-wilderness area south of Rolley Lake Provincial Park
16.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south
17.
Hotel Vancouver
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The Hotel Vancouver is a hotel located on West Georgia Street at Burrard Street, in the heart of Downtown Vancouver, British Columbia. Constructed at 111 metres high, its architects were John S. Archibald and it became part of the Canadian Pacific Hotels chain after that company purchased CN Hotels in 1988. CP Hotels was later purchased by Fairmont Hotels and Resorts and this building is the third hotel to be named Hotel Vancouver. The second hotel was in a grand Italianate revival style, and was considered one of the hotels of the British Empire. In the time of building the names of the Spanish Grill, the Panorama Roof, the Timber Club, the Pacific Empire Ballroom. It had several ballrooms and lounges, as well as an adjacent opera house cum cinema, the first two Hotel Vancouvers were between Howe and Granville Streets on the south side of West Georgia Street. The current building, a block away across the plaza of the then-provincial courthouse and on the same side of Georgia. A large art-deco sound stage used for theatre and musical broadcasts was located on the ground floor. It was here, in the Panorama Roof Ballroom, that Dal Richards, on May 1,1940 young Dal Richards, his 11-piece band and a then-unknown 13-year-old Juliette were booked to replace Mart Kenney and His Western Gentlemen, Canadas leading dance band at the time. No-one could have known that Dals initial six-week contract would stretch into 25 years of regular performances, a weekly CBC Radio show was broadcast nationally from the Panorama Roof Ballroom of the Hotel Vancouver for many years
18.
CFB Borden
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Canadian Forces Base Borden is a Canadian Forces base located in Ontario. The historic birthplace of the Royal Canadian Air Force, CFB Borden is home to the largest training wing in the Canadian Armed Forces, the base is run by Canadian Forces Support Training Group and reports to the Canadian Defence Academy in Kingston. At the height of the First World War, the Borden Military Camp opened at a location on a glacial moraine west of Barrie in 1916 to train units for the Canadian Expeditionary Force and it was named for Sir Frederick Borden, Minister of Militia. In May 1916, the Barrie and Collingwood companies of the 157th Battalion, CEF, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel D. H. MacLaren, Camp Borden was selected in 1917 for a military aerodrome, becoming the first flying station of the Royal Flying Corps Canada. During the inter-war period, the aerodrome was used as the location for the nascent Royal Canadian Air Force and was renamed RCAF Station Borden. Camp Bordens training grounds were expanded in 1938 to house the Canadian Tank School, the Siskins were a Royal Canadian Air Force aerobatic flying team that was established in 1929 at Camp Borden. The BCATPs No.1 Service Flying Training School was located here until 1946, relief landing fields were located at Alliston and Edenvale. A third landing field, known locally as Leachs Field, was operated by Camp Borden from the 1920s to the 1950s, the L-shaped airstrip was rudimentary, the runways at Leachs Field utilized the existing ground surface. It was primarily used for touch-and-go flying, during the Cold War, Bordens importance as an RCAF facility in Ontario declined in favour of CFB Trenton, CFB Uplands and CFB North Bay. The February 1,1968 unification of the RCAF with the Royal Canadian Navy, the military facilities consisting of Camp Borden and RCAF Station Borden were grouped under a new name, Canadian Forces Base Borden. In a 1990s reorganization of the Canadian Forces following the end of the Cold War, the eight surviving Royal Flying Corps hangars at the base have been designated a National Historic Site of Canada. The Ontario Heritage Foundation, Ministry of Culture and Recreation erected a plaque in 1976, Camp Borden was established during the First World War as a major training centre of Canadian Expeditionary Force battalions. The Camp was officially opened by Sir Sam Hughes, Minister of Militia and Defence, on July 11,1916 and this military reserve, comprising over twenty square miles, was soon occupied by some 32,000 troops. Following the armistice Camp Borden continued as an important army and air force centre, the Canadian Armys Regular Force and reserve force army units use a number of training schools and large portions of the bases 22,300 acres training area for manoeuvres. The Toronto Police Services Emergency Task Force also trains there occasionally, CFB Borden hosts the Blackdown Cadet Training Centre, a facility established for training army cadets. This facility has also hosted air cadets and sea cadets since 2003, CFB Bordens residential area houses one regulation-sized golf course. Circled Pine Golf Course opened in 1952, the course is open to the public and serving Military. The base previously housed a 9-hole links style course, Anderson Park, in August 2010, the Canadian department of Defence announced a C$209 million series of projects to construct new facilities, and upgrade existing facilities, at CFB Borden
19.
5th Canadian Division
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The 5th Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. It was first created as a formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War and it was stood down during the war only to be reactivated through the renaming from 1st Canadian Armoured Division to the 5th Canadian Division during the Second World War. In both wars the division was recognized by the distinctive Maroon patch worn on the sleeve of its soldiers, the 5th Canadian Division of the Canadian Corps was formed during World War I. The 5th began assembling in Britain in February,1917, but was broken up in February 1918 before it was fully formed. Its men were used as reinforcements for the other four Canadian divisions, helping to maintain the over-strength Divisions of 22, 13th Canadian Brigade, 128th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Absorbed by the 15th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 134th Battalion Canadian Infantry, absorbed by the 12th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 160th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Absorbed by the 4th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 164th Battalion Canadian Infantry, absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 202nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – May 28,1918, absorbed by the 9th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 208th Battalion Canadian Infantry. May 1917 – January 3,1918, absorbed by the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Reserve Battalions. 14th Canadian Brigade, 125th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – April 16,1918. Absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 150th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 6th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 156th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 6th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 161st Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 4th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 15th Canadian Brigade, 104th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – February 15,1918, absorbed by the 13th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 119th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – April 16,1918, absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 185th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – February 15,1918, absorbed by the 17th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 198th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1917 – March 9,1918, absorbed by the 3rd Canadian Reserve Battalion, 199th Battalion Canadian Infantry
20.
Farnham
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Farnham is a town in Surrey, England, within the Borough of Waverley. The town is 34.5 miles WSW of London in the extreme west of Surrey, by road Guildford is 11 miles to the east and Winchester a further 28 miles along the same axis as London. Farnham is the largest town in Waverley, and one of the five largest conurbations in Surrey and it is of historic interest, with many old buildings, including a number of Georgian houses. A short distance southeast of the centre are the ruins of Waverley Abbey, Moor Park House. Farnham is twinned with Andernach in Germany and it is drained by the River Wey which is navigable only to canoes at this point. The geology of the area continues to influence the town, both in terms of communications, scenic and botanic variety and the local industries of agriculture. Farnham Geological Society is an organisation in the town. Farnham lies in the valley of the North Branch of the River Wey, which rises near Alton, merges with the South Branch at Tilford, the mainly east-west alignment of the ridges and valleys has influenced the development of road and rail communications. The land rises to more than 180 metres above sea level to the north of the town at Caesars Camp which, with the part of the Park. There are a number of holes in the Park where this stratum meets the chalk. Farnham has a maritime climate, free from extreme temperatures, with moderate rainfall. The nearest official weather station to Farnham is Alice Holt Lodge, the highest temperature recorded was 35. 4C, in July 2006. In an average year, the warmest day would reach 29. 1C, the lowest temperature recorded was -14. 0C in February 1986. On average,58.6 nights of the year will register an air frost, annual rainfall averages 799mm, with at least 1mm of rain reported on 122.4 days. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 observation period, there is a Neolithic long barrow at nearby Badshot Lea, now destroyed by quarrying. Occupation of the continued to grow through the Bronze Age. Two bronze hoards have been discovered on Crooksbury Hill, and further artefacts have been found, particularly at sites in Green Lane and near the Bourne spring in Farnham Park. A significant number of Bronze Age barrows occur in the area, including a triple barrow at Elstead, Hill forts from the early Iron Age have been identified locally at Botany Hill to the south of the town, and at Caesars Camp to the north
21.
Hove
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Hove /ˈhoʊv/ is a town on the south coast of England, immediately to the west of its larger neighbour Brighton, with which it forms the unitary authority Brighton and Hove. It forms a conurbation with Brighton and some smaller towns. As part of government reform, Brighton and Hove were merged, to form the borough of Brighton. In 2000, the new borough officially attained city status, Hove is bordered by Brighton to the east and Portslade-by-Sea in the west, the distance between the boundaries being some 2.25 mi. During mid 19th-century building work near Palmeira Square, workmen levelled a substantial burial mound, a prominent feature of the landscape since 1200 BC, the 20 feet -high tumulus yielded, among other treasures, the Hove amber cup. Made of translucent red Baltic Amber and approximately the size as a regular china tea cup. There are entries for Brighton and Portslade and small settlements like Hangleton. Hove is an ancient coastal settlement with St Andrews Church being established in the 12th century, Hove remained insignificant for centuries, consisting of just a single street running north-south some 250m from the church, which by the 16th century was recorded as being in ruins. Hangleton Manor is a well-preserved 16th-century flint manor building and it is believed to have been built c.1540 for Richard Belingham, twice High Sheriff of Sussex, whose initials are carved into a fireplace, and whose coat of arms adorns a period plaster ceiling. The Manor is currently serving as a pub-restaurant and whilst it was once on open downland, however, The Ship Inn had been built at the seaward end of the street in around 1702. The census of 1801 recorded only 101 residents, by 1821, the year the Prince Regent was crowned George IV, Hove was still a small village but the population had risen to 312. The dwellings were still clustered on either side of Hove Street and this isolated location was ideal for smuggling and there was considerable illicit activity. Hove smugglers became notorious, with often being stored in the now partially repaired St. Andrews Church. Tradition has it that The Ship Inn was a rendezvous for the smugglers. In 1818 there was a battle on Hove beach between revenue men and smugglers, from which the latter emerged as the victors. As part of the drive by Parliament to combat smuggling. Also at the bottom of Hove Street was the bull-ring, at a bull-bait in 1810 the bull escaped, scattering spectators before being recaptured and dragged back to the ring. This was the last bull-bait to take place in Hove, the fertile coastal plain west of the Brighton boundary had significant deposits of brickearth and by c.1770 a brickfield had been established on the site of what would become Brunswick Square
22.
Thetford
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Thetford is a market town and civil parish in the Breckland district of Norfolk, England. It is on the A11 road between Norwich and London, just south of Thetford Forest, after World War II Thetford became an ‘overspill town’ taking people from London, as a result of which its population increased substantially. The civil parish, covering an area of 29.55 km2, has a population of 24,340, the Iceni were a Celtic tribe living in Norfolk and parts of Cambridgeshire. Archaeological evidence suggests that Thetford was an important tribal centre during the late Iron Age, a ceremonial grove was uncovered there during excavations. In 1979, a hoard of Romano-British metalwork, known as the Thetford treasure was located just outside Thetford and they are currently on display and under curation at the British Museum. Thetford, an important crossing of the River Little Ouse, draws its name from the Anglo-Saxon Theodford or peoples ford, the nearby River Thet was later named after the town. On 20 November 869, Edmund the Martyr – the last native King of the East Angles – was killed in East Anglia by Vikings, for a time Edmund was England’s patron saint. The Domesday Book lists William of Bello Fargo as the Bishop of Thetford in 1085, Castle Hill, to the south-east of the town centre, is a Norman motte though no trace remains of the castle which once surmounted it. The mound is open to the public, and provides excellent views of the town from its summit and it is in a public park, near the Three Nuns Bridges and close to the town centre overlooking the rivers. Thetford also contains the ruins of a 12th-century Cluniac priory, Thetford Priory, open to the public, was closed during the Reformation. Both the Priory and the Bell Inn, also in Thetford, were featured for their alleged hauntings on the television series Ghosthunters, the Black Horse public house dates from the mid 18th century, and is grade II listed. The Norfolk Lent Assizes were held at Thetford from 1264 because there was only one Assize for both Norfolk and Suffolk, Thetford, being close to the border between the two, was convenient for both. However, after pressure, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1832 to transfer them to Norwich. There had been pressure to do so for many years, from the 1950s Thetford became a London overspill town. In 1953 the Thetford Borough Council approached the London County Council to become part of the expansion scheme. An agreement was signed in 1957 and work began on new housing estates to accommodate 5,000 Londoners, in 1960 another 5,000 Londoners moved to Thetford increasing the population to about 17,000 people. An additional 1,500 houses were built by 1965, development then shifted to the Abbey Farm estate to the north of the river, construction of which started in 1967, with 1,000 houses, public open spaces and footpaths. The British Trust for Ornithology moved its headquarters into the former Nunnery, south of the town centre, Thetford was the birthplace of Thomas Paine and his statue stands on King Street, holding a quill and his book Rights of Man, upside down
23.
Norfolk
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Norfolk /ˈnɔːrfək/ is a county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the west and north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea and, to the north-west, The Wash. With an area of 2,074 square miles and a population of 859,400, of the countys population, 40% live in four major built up areas, Norwich, Great Yarmouth, Kings Lynn and Thetford. The Broads is a network of rivers and lakes in the east of the county, the area is not a National Park although it is marketed as such. It has similar status to a park, and is protected by the Broads Authority. Norfolk was settled in times, with camps along the higher land in the west. A Brythonic tribe, the Iceni, inhabited the county from the 1st century BC to the end of the 1st century AD, the Iceni revolted against the Roman invasion in AD47, and again in 60 led by Boudica. The crushing of the second opened the county to the Romans. During the Roman era roads and ports were constructed throughout the county, situated on the east coast, Norfolk was vulnerable to invasions from Scandinavia and Northern Europe, and forts were built to defend against the Angles and Saxons. Norfolk, Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, the influence of the Early English settlers can be seen in the many place names ending in -ton and -ham. Endings such as -by and -thorpe are also common, indicating Danish place names, in the 9th century the region came under attack. In the centuries before the Norman Conquest the wetlands of the east of the county began to be converted to farmland, and settlements grew in these areas. Migration into East Anglia must have high, by the time of the Domesday Book survey it was one of the most densely populated parts of the British Isles. During the high and late Middle Ages the county developed arable agriculture, the economy was in decline by the time of the Black Death, which dramatically reduced the population in 1349. During the English Civil War Norfolk was largely Parliamentarian, the economy and agriculture of the region declined somewhat. During the Industrial Revolution Norfolk developed little industry except in Norwich which was an addition to the railway network. In the 20th century the county developed a role in aviation, during the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since, with the establishment of large fields for growing cereals and oilseed rape. Norfolks low-lying land and easily eroded cliffs, many of which are chalk and clay, make it vulnerable to the sea, the low-lying section of coast between Kelling and Lowestoft Ness in Suffolk is currently managed by the Environment Agency to protect the Broads from sea flooding
24.
Algiers
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Algiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the portion of Algeria. The casbah and the two form a triangle. A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street, Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian, the bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri and he had earlier built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards, thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, in 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards, Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers. Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy, repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars over Algiers attacks on shipping, among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period
25.
RMS Cameronia (1920)
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Cameronia was a British ocean liner which was built in 1920 by William Beardmore & Co Ltd, Port Glasgow for the Anchor Line. She was requisitioned for use as a troopship in the Second World War, in 1953 she was requisitioned by the Ministry of Troop Transport and renamed Empire Clyde. The ship was built by William Beardmore & Co Ltd, Port Glasgow as yard number 584 and she was launched on 23 December 1919, and completed in September 1920. The ship was 552 feet 4 inches long, with a beam of 70 feet 4 inches and she had a16,297 GRT and 9,607 NRT. She was propelled by six Beardmore-built steam turbines, double reduction geared, which could propel her at 16 knots. Cameronia was built for the Anchor Line, which was owned by Cunard Line and she was a sister ship to Lancastria. Although she was launched in December 1919, a strike delayed her final completion, in April 1921, Cameronia was towed to Cherbourg, France for final fitting out. She had accommodation for 265 1st class,370 2nd class and 1,100 3rd class passengers, Cameronia departed Glasgow on 11 May 1921 on her maiden voyage to Liverpool and New York. Cameronia was placed under the management of the Henderson Brothers Ltd and her port of registry was Glasgow. The Code Letters KHSQ and United Kingdom Official Number 144242 were allocated, in October 1925, Cameronia rescued the crew of a United States Coast Guard cutter that had caught fire. She was in collision with the Norwegian steamship Hauk the following month and her steering gear failed on a voyage in January 1926 and she returned to Glasgow for repairs. In August 1926, a collision with Cunards Samaria was avoided by 6 feet, Cameronia underwent a refit in 1928 to correct her tendency to pitch heavily. In 1929, another refit saw her accommodation refitted to cabin/tourist class and she now had accommodation for 290 cabin class,431 tourist class and 698 3rd class passengers. In 1934, Cameronias Code Letters were changed to GDXS and she was laid up on the Clyde in December 1934. In 1935, the Anchor Line went into liquidation, and Cameronia was one of the assets purchased by Anchor Line Ltd and she remained laid up until the autumn of 1935, when she entered service as a troopship. In spring 1936, she was refitted and returned to use as an ocean liner. Cameronia participated in the 1937 Spithead Naval Review, where she was used as a floating grandstand, War was declared in September 1939. Cameronia departed Glasgow on 5 September, during the voyage to New York, she rescued some of the survivors from Athenia, and was the first British ship to enter New York after war had been declared
26.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
27.
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
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The Eighth Army was a field army and one of the best-known formations of the British Army during the Second World War, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns of World War II. Subordinate units came from Australia, British India, Canada, Free French Forces, Greece, New Zealand, Poland, Rhodesia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Significant formations which passed through the Army included, British V Corps, British X Corps, British XIII Corps, British XXX Corps, I Canadian Corps, II Polish Corps. The Eighth Army was formed from the Western Desert Force in September 1941 and it gained its number from the fact that the French Army had fielded seven field armies previously in the same war, whereas the British had fielded the British Expeditionary Force. At its creation, the Eighth Army comprised two Corps, XXX Corps under Lieutenant-General Willoughby Norrie and XIII Corps under Lieutenant-General Reade Godwin-Austen, XXX Corps was made up of 7th British Armoured Division, the South African 1st Infantry Division and the 22nd Guards Brigade. XIII Corps composed of the 4th Indian Infantry Division, the 2nd New Zealand Division, the Eighth Army also included the Tobruk garrison, and the Polish Carpathian Brigade. In reserve, the Eighth Army had the 2nd South African Infantry Division making a total of seven divisions. By the time the army was fighting the Second Battle of El Alamein, it had reached a size of over 220,000 men in 10 divisions and several independent brigades. Despite achieving a number of successes, Rommel was forced to concede Tobruk and was pushed back to El Agheila by the end of 1941. In February 1942 Rommel had regrouped his forces sufficiently to push the over-extended Eighth Army back to the Gazala line, just west of Tobruk. Both sides commenced a period of building their strength to launch new offensives but it was Rommel who took the initiative first, ritchie proved unable to halt Rommel and was replaced when Auchinleck himself took direct command of the army. The Panzer Army Afrika were eventually stopped by Auchinleck at the First Battle of El Alamein, gott was killed in an air crash on his way to take up his command and so Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery was appointed in his place. Alexander and Montgomery were able to resist the pressure from Churchill, building the Armys strength and adding a pursuit formation, X Corps, to the Armys XIII and XXX Corps. The Eighth Army then participated in the Italian Campaign which began with the Allied invasion of the island of Sicily, when the Allies subsequently invaded mainland Italy, elements of the Eighth Army landed in the toe of Italy in Operation Baytown and at Taranto in Operation Slapstick. After linking its left flank with the U. S. Fifth Army, led by Mark W. Clark, which had landed at Salerno on the west coast of Italy south of Naples, together these two armies made up the Allied Armies in Italy (later redesigned 15th Army Group, under General Sir Harold Alexander. At the end of 1943, General Montgomery was transferred to Britain to begin preparations for Operation Overlord, Command of the Eighth Army was given to Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese, previously the commander of XXX Corps, which was being returned to England. Following three unsuccessful attempts in early 1944 by the U. S. S, Fifth Army in order to mount a major offensive with them
28.
Guardiagrele
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Guardiagrele is a town and comune in the province of Chieti, part of the Abruzzo region of central Italy. It is in the foothills of the Maiella mountain at an elevation of around 576 metres, Guardiagrele is the seat of the Maiella National Park, and was part of the club Borghi più belli dItalia. The biggest church in Guardiagrele is Santa Maria Maggiore of which it has written, The façade presents a splendid 14th-century gothic portal. The Coronation of the Virgin sculpture group in the lunette is also magnificent. Under the colonnaded portico, next to the door, is the splendid fresco by Andrea De Litio portraying Saint Christopher. Museums include, Museo Civico Museo del Costume e della Tradizione della Nostra Gente Museo del Duomo, the patron saints of Guardiagrele are Saint Donatus of Arezzo and Saint Emidius. Annually between the 6th and 8 August there is a festival celebrating these saints in which the effigy of Donatus is paraded around the streets of Guardiagrele and it is traditional to eat porchetta at this time. In the 11th century Archimandrite Saint Nicholas the Greek led a group of fleeing the Saracens who had occupied Calabria. In 1338 his body was moved to Guardiagrele and interred in la Chiesa di San Francesco and his saints day is celebrated on the third Sunday of May. The church preserved in its choirbooks the important Guardiagrele Codex, of works by Landini. Morgan De Sanctis, footballer Modesto Della Porta, poet I Borghi più belli dItalia - Entry on Guardiagrele Examples of the poetry of the dialect poet Modesto della Porta
29.
Sangro
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The Sangro is a river in eastern central Italy, known in ancient times as Sagrus from the Greek Sagros or Isagros, Ισαγρος. It rises in the middle of Abruzzo National Park near Pescasseroli in the Apennine Mountains and it flows southeast past Pescasseroli, Opi and Villetta Barrea and flows into the artificial lake Lago di Barrea. It then flows northeast through Alfedena, Castel di Sangro, Ateleta, Quadri, from there it flows northeast and joins the Aventino River, and thence into the Adriatic Sea south of Punta Cavelluccio. During World War II, the mouth of the Sangro was part of the series of German military fortifications known as the Gustav Line, the Eighth Army crossed the Sangro on 23 November 1943. This crossing was the beginning of the Allied offensive on the Winter Line defenses east of the Apennines
30.
Gurkha
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The name may be traced to the medieval Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath who has a historic shrine in Gorkha. The word itself derived from Go-Raksha, raksha becoming rakha, rakhawala means protector and is derived from raksha as well. Ethnically, Chhetri or Khas, Thakuri, Gurung and Magar mainly were the Gorkha tribes who united erstwhile Gorkha kingdom, but today, Gorkha soldiers mostly belong to the Gurung, Chhetri, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sunuwar there is no ethnicity based restriction to join. There are Gurkha military units in the Nepalese, British and the Indian army enlisted in Nepal, United Kingdom and India. Although they meet many of the requirements of Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions regarding mercenaries, Gurkhas are closely associated with the khukuri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife, and have a well known reputation for fearless military prowess. The former Indian Army Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, once stated that If a man says he is not afraid of dying, he is either lying or he is a Gurkha. During the Anglo-Nepalese War between the Gorkha Kingdom and the East India Company, the Gorkhali soldiers made an impression on the British and their war cry was and is to this very day, Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali. In the peace treaty the parties agreed that Gorkhalis could be recruited to serve under contract in the East India Companys army, once more I hear the laughter with which you greeted every hardship. Once more I see you in your bivouacs or about your fires, on forced march or in the trenches, now shivering with wet and cold, now scorched by a pitiless and burning sun. Uncomplaining you endure hunger and thirst and wounds, and at the last your unwavering lines disappear into the smoke, bravest of the brave, most generous of the generous, never had country more faithful friends than you. Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab started recruiting Gurkha soldiers in his army, the elite wing of his Sikh Khalsa Army, the Fauj-i-Khas had one rajman of Gurkhas. The rajman was known for its excellent morale, gallantry, discipline, the well-known Gurkha freedom-fighter Balbhadra Kunwar was an officer in the Gorkha rajman. One of the best battles in which the Gurkhas served was the Battle of Nowshera, even though the Sikhs were losing in the beginning, Maharaja Ranjit Singh launched a decisive charge at the Afghan positions. The Gurkhas climbed the Pir Saibak hill, and together with their Sikh comrades, after the battle, Ranjit Singh personally met and awarded the Gurkhas, and promoted Balbhadra Kunwar into the captain of the regiment. The Gurkhas served also during the Sino-Sikh War, where they were praised for their excellent skirmishing at the Tibetan Hills and they also fought the First Anglo-Sikh War, where the Dogra commanders of the Sikh Khalsa Army, betrayed their forces and delivered battle plans to British. After the Treaty of Lahore, this regiment was added into the Bengal Army, the Anglo-Nepalese war was fought between the Gurkha Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, david Ochterlony and the British political agent William Fraser were among the first to recognize the potential of Gurkha soldiers in British service. During the war the British were keen to use defectors from the Gurkha army and his confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lieutenant Ross called the Nasiri regiment
31.
Irish Regiment of Canada
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The 2nd Battalion, Irish Regiment of Canada is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army based in Sudbury, Ontario. It is part of the 4th Canadian Divisions 33 Canadian Brigade Group, the Irish regiment was founded in 1915 with headquarters in Toronto. The modern incarnation was formed in Sudbury in 1965 by the conversion of the 58th Field Artillery Regiment, in 1931 they became the only kilted Irish Regiment in the world with the adoption of their unique tartan often called OSaffron designed by Thomas Gordon Ltd. of Glasgow. They also share the caubeen headdress common to other Irish regiments, there its personnel were absorbed by the 3rd Reserve Battalion, CEF on 6 January 1917 to provide reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field. The battalion disbanded on 21 May 1917, the 208th Battalion, CEF was authorized on 15 July 1916 and embarked for Great Britain on 3 May 1917. There it provided reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field until its personnel were absorbed by the 2nd Reserve Battalion, CEF, the battalion disbanded on 15 September 1920. The 1st Battalion, CMGC, CEF, which was organized in France on 27 March 1918 from the Brigade machine gun companies of the 1st Canadian Division and it provided machine gun support to the 1st Canadian Division in France and Flanders until the end of the war. The battalion was disbanded on 15 November 1920, the 30th Field Battery, CFA, CEF, was authorized on 20 April 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 5 February 1916. The battery disembarked in France on 14 July 1916, where it provided artillery support as part of the 8th Army Brigade, CFA, CEF in France. The battery disbanded on 1 November 1920, the 53rd Field Battery, CFA, CEF was authorized on 15 July 1916 as the 53rd Overseas Depot Battery, CEF, and embarked for Great Britain on 19 September 1916. The battery disembarked in France on 21 August 1917, where it provided artillery support as part of the 13th Brigade, CFA, CEF, in France. The battery disbanded on 1 November 1920, details from the regiment were placed on service on 26 August 1939 and then placed on active service on 1 September 1939 as the Irish Regiment of Canada, CASF, for local protection duties. Those details called out on active service disbanded on 31 December 1940, the regiment mobilized the Irish Regiment of Canada, CASF for active service on 24 May 1940. It was redesignated as the Irish Regiment of Canada, CASF on 12 August 1940 and it embarked for Great Britain on 28 October 1942. It landed in mainland Italy on 10 November 1943, as part of the 11th Infantry Brigade, between 20 and 27 February 1945, the battalion moved with the 1st Canadian Corps to North-West Europe as part of OPERATION GOLDFLAKE, where it fought until the end of the war. The overseas battalion disbanded on 31 January 1946, the 53rd Field Battery mobilized as the 53rd Field Battery, RCA, CASF on 1 September 1939. On 1 June 1940 it amalgamated with the 26th Field Battery, RCA, CASF and was redesignated as the 26th/53rd Field Battery, RCA, CASF. On 1 January 1941 this amalgamation ceased and it was redesignated as the 53rd Field Battery, RCA, CASF and as the 53rd Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, RCA, CASF the same day
32.
Battle of Monte Cassino
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The Battle of Monte Cassino was a costly series of four assaults by the Allies against the Winter Line in Italy held by Axis forces during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The intention was a breakthrough to Rome, at the beginning of 1944, the western half of the Winter Line was being anchored by Germans holding the Rapido-Gari, Liri and Garigliano valleys and some of the surrounding peaks and ridges. Together, these formed the Gustav Line. Monte Cassino, a historic hilltop abbey founded in AD529 by Benedict of Nursia, dominated the town of Cassino. Lying in a historic zone, it had been left unoccupied by the Germans. They had manned some positions set into the slopes below the abbeys walls. Repeated pinpoint artillery attacks on Allied assault troops caused their leaders to conclude the abbey was being used by the Germans as an observation post, fears escalated along with casualties and in spite of a lack of clear evidence, it was marked for destruction. On 15 February American bombers dropped 1,400 tons of high explosives, the raid failed to achieve its objective, as German paratroopers occupied the rubble and established excellent defensive positions amid the ruins. Between 17 January and 18 May, Monte Cassino and the Gustav defences were assaulted four times by Allied troops, the German defenders were finally driven from their positions, but at a high cost. The capture of Monte Cassino resulted in 55,000 Allied casualties, with German losses being far fewer, estimated at around 20,000 killed and wounded. On the western front, the American Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks Fifth Army made slow progress in the face of difficult terrain, wet weather, the original estimates that Rome would fall by October 1943 proved far too optimistic. Highway 6 ran through the Liri valley, dominated at its entrance by the rugged mass of Monte Cassino above the town of Cassino. Excellent observation from the peaks of several hills allowed the German defenders to detect Allied movement and direct highly accurate artillery fire, preventing any northward advance. Running across the Allied line was the fast flowing Rapido River, there the Liri river joined the Gari to form the Garigliano River, which continued on to the sea. Nevertheless, some Allied reconnaissance aircraft maintained they observed German troops inside the monastery. The main central thrust by the U. S. II Corps would commence on 20 January with the U. S. 36th Infantry Division making an assault across the swollen Gari river five miles downstream of Cassino. Simultaneously the French Expeditionary Corps, under General Alphonse Juin would continue its right hook move towards Monte Cairo, VI Corps, under Major General John P. Lucas, was due to make an amphibious landing on 22 January. The intelligence assessment of Allied prospects was therefore over-optimistic and they hardly had time to prepare the new assault, let alone take the rest and reorganization they really needed after three months of attritional fighting north from Naples
33.
Gustav Line
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The Winter Line was a series of German military fortifications in Italy, constructed during World War II by Organisation Todt and commanded by Albert Kesselring. The series of 3 lines was designed to defend a western section of Italy, focused around the town of Monte Cassino, through which ran the important Highway 6 which led uninterrupted to Rome. The two subsidiary lines, the Bernhardt Line and the Hitler Line ran much shorter distances from the Tyrrehnian sea to just North East of Cassino where they would merge into the Gustav Line. Relative to the Gustav Line, the Hitler Line stood to the North-West, the Gustav Line, though ultimately broken, effectively slowed the Allied advance for months between December 1943 and June 1944. Major battles in the assault on the Winter Line at Monte Cassino, the center of the Gustav line crossed the main route north to Rome at strategically crucial Highway 6. It followed the Liri Valley and was anchored around the mountains behind the town of Cassino, a bloody and protracted battle was waged over the monastery, known as the Battle of Monte Cassino. The north end of the line was held by the town of Ortona. On the western side of the Apennines were two lines, the Bernhardt Line in front of the main Gustav positions, and the Hitler Line some 5 miles to the rear. The Winter Line was fortified with gun pits, concrete bunkers, turreted machine-gun emplacements, barbed-wire and it was the strongest of the German defensive lines south of Rome. About 15 German divisions were employed in the defence and it took the Allies from mid-November 1943 to June 1944 to fight through all the various elements of the Winter Line, including the well-known battles at Monte Cassino and Anzio. The offensive on the Bernhardt line was launched on December 1,1943 as part of Operation Raincoat. British and American troops took the terrain around Monte Camino and the Mingano Gap within a week, other authorities use the Winter Line name interchangeably with the Gustav Line as defined above. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, from the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, smith, Col. Kenneth V. WWII Campaigns, Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, German Tactics in the Italian Campaign. La Tattica tedesca nella Campagna dItalia, in Linea Gotica avanposto dei Balcani, roma, Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas. The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943-1945, hitler’s Fortresses, German Fortifications and Defences 1939-45. Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R
34.
Hitler Line
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The Hitler Line was a German defensive line in central Italy during the Second World War. The strong points of the line were at Aquino and Piedimonte, in May 1944, the line was renamed the Senger Line, after General von Senger und Etterlin, one of the generals commanding Axis forces in the area. This was done at Hitlers insistence, in order to minimise any propaganda significance should the line be penetrated, the line was a so-called switch line, joining the Gustav Line at Monte Cairo and providing a fall-back position behind the Gustav Line should it be penetrated. The line was breached on 24 May 1944 on the British Eighth Armys front by the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, the Polish Corps captured Piedimonte on 25 May and the line collapsed. The next German line was the Caesar C line, the Italian Campaign, Breaking the Hitler line – CBC Digital Archives – Medium-Radio/Program-CBC Radio News/ Broadcast Date-May 23,1944
35.
Liri
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The Liri is one of the principal rivers of central Italy, flowing into the Tyrrhenian Sea a little below Minturno under the name Garigliano. The Liris source is in the Monte Camiciola, elevation 1,701 metres and it flows at first in a southeasterly direction through a long trough-like valley, parallel to the general direction of the Apennines, until it reaches the city of Sora. In the upper part of Isola del Liri it receives the waters of Fibreno, one branch makes a 28-metre high waterfall situated in the centre, a unique case in Europe. A dam is built on the river after the conjunction with the Sacco River at Ceprano, the last important Liris tributary is the Melfa, with which it joins near Aquino. After Cassino it receives the waters of the Gari, and afterwards it is known as Garigliano, the Liri-Garigliano system has a total water drainage basin of 5,020 square kilometres. The surrounding area was devastated by Hannibal during his invasion in response to the locals having burnt the bridges over the river, in 238 BC, the adjacent city of Fregella was the site of a crushed rebellion against Roman rule. Her grove and temple were not only objects of veneration to the people of the neighboring town of Minturnae. Immediately adjoining its mouth was a marsh, formed probably by the stagnation of the river itself. About 70 miles upstream from its mouth, the river passes what used to be Lake Fucino, the Roman emperor Claudius had a tunnel dug through the ridge in an attempt to drain the lake, which had no natural outlet, to the Liri. The later emperor Hadrian tried to improve the tunnel but, after the fall of the empire, tunnel maintenance was not maintained and it was blocked by silt and debris, allowing the lake to refill. A new tunnel was completed in the 1860s, and the basin of the lake still drains to the Liri via that tunnel. During the Italian Campaign of the Second World War, the German defenses of the Gustav Line followed the Liri valley. Manco, Alberto, The Italian hydronym, lagno, Università di Napoli LOrientale, p. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Bunbury. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
36.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
37.
Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians)
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Lord Strathconas Horse is a regular armoured regiment of the Canadian Army. Currently based in Edmonton, Alberta, the regiment is part of 3rd Canadian Divisions 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, members of the regiment are commonly called Strathconas or Strats as a short form. It was one of the last regiments in the British Empire to be created and raised by an individual, Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona. The regiment is composed of a regimental headquarters and four primary squadrons, A, B, Reconnaissance. In September 2006, B Squadron deployed to Afghanistan using the Leopard C2, each year the squadron that distinguishes itself with the highest efficiency rating in the regiment earns the title Prince of Wales Squadron for the year. The regiment has seven affiliated cadet corps in Alberta and British Columbia, Lord Strathconas Horse operates with 40 Leopard 2s and 12 Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicles. This was until the 2006 announcement that the Royal Canadian Dragoons would be re-equipped with a squadron of Leopards, the current commanding officer is Lieutenant-Colonel Mark Lubiniecki CD and the regimental sergeant major is Chief Warrant Officer R. J. Clarke MMM, CD. The colonel-in-chief of the regiment is Charles, Prince of Wales, there it fought as part of the 3rd Mounted Brigade and 4th Infantry Brigade, II Division, until its departure from the theatre of operations on 20 January 1901. The unit disbanded on 9 March 1901, the regiment was placed on active service at the start of the Great War on 6 August 1914 for instructional and camp administration duties. On 14 September 1914 the regiment mobilized Lord Strathconas Horse, CEF, on 5 May 1915 it disembarked in France, where it fought dismounted in an infantry role with Seeleys Detachment, 1st Canadian Division. On 27 January 1916, the regiment remounted and resumed its role as part of the 1st Canadian Cavalry Brigade, with whom it continued to fight in France. The overseas regiment disbanded on 6 November 1920, the regiment embarked for Britain on 13 November 1941 and landed in Italy on 8 November 1943, where it fought as part of the 5th Armoured Brigade, 5th Canadian Armoured Division. On 16 February 1945 the regiment moved with the 1st Canadian Corps to North-West Europe as part of OPERATION GOLDFLAKE, the overseas regiment was disbanded on 1 March 1946. On 1 September 1945 a second Active Force component of the regiment was mobilized for service in the Pacific theatre of operations designated as the 2nd–2nd Armoured Car Regiment, RCAC, CASF. It was redesignated as the 2nd Armoured Regiment, RCAC, CASF) on 1 March 1946, a, B and C Squadrons fought independently in Korea from 19 April 1951 to 27 July 1953 as part of the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade Group, 1st Commonwealth Division. The Squadrons were equipped with M4A3E8 Sherman tanks, the Battle Captain, Capt Norman A. Shackleton, the 1st Troop Leader, Lt. CC Van Straubenzee, and the 3rd Troop Leader, Lt. F. G. Woodrow, as well as half of the NCOs and soldiers were Strathconas, two members of 56 Recce Squadron died, Lt. Charles C. Van Straubenzee on 10 May 1957 and Tpr. George E. McDavid on 29 Nov 1957, other Squadrons of the regiment served there and in Cyprus
38.
Battle of Anzio
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The operation was opposed by German forces in the area of Anzio and Nettuno. Any delay could result in the occupation of the mountains by the defenders, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U. S. Fifth Army, understood that risk, but Clark did not pass on his appreciation of the situation to his subordinate, Lucas, the initial landing achieved complete surprise with no opposition and a jeep patrol even made it as far as the outskirts of Rome. While Lucas consolidated, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in the Italian theatre and his artillery units had a clear view of every Allied position. The Germans also stopped the pumps and flooded the reclaimed marsh with salt water, planning to entrap the Allies. For weeks a rain of shells fell on the beach, the marsh, the harbour, after a month of heavy but inconclusive fighting, Lucas was relieved and sent home. His replacement was Major General Lucian K. Truscott, who had commanded the U. S. 3rd Infantry Division. The Allies broke out in May, at the end of 1943, following the Allied invasion of Italy, Allied forces were bogged down at the Gustav Line, a defensive line across Italy south of the strategic objective of Rome. The terrain of central Italy had proved ideally suited to defense, Operation Shingle was originally conceived by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in December 1943, as he lay recovering from pneumonia in Marrakesh. His concept was to two divisions at Anzio, bypassing German forces in central Italy, and take Rome, the strategic objective of the current Battle of Rome. By January he had recovered and was badgering his commanders for a plan of attack, accusing them of not wanting to fight but of being interested only in drawing pay and eating rations. General Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied Armies in Italy, had considered such a plan since October using five divisions. However, the 5th Army did not have the troops nor the means to transport them, Clark proposed landing a reinforced division to divert German troops from Monte Cassino. This second landing, however, instead of failing similarly, would hold the shingle for a week in expectation of a breakthrough at Cassino, the Anzio beachhead is at the northwestern end of a tract of reclaimed marshland, formerly the Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields. Previously uninhabitable due to mosquitoes carrying malaria, in Roman times armies marched as quickly as possible across it on the military road, the Via Appia. The marsh was bounded on one side by the sea and on others by mountains, the Monti Albani, the Monti Lepini, overall these mountains are referenced by the name Monti Laziali, the mountains of Lazio, the ancient Latium. Invading armies from the south had the choice of crossing the marsh or taking the other road to Rome. The marshes were turned into land in the 1930s under Benito Mussolini
39.
Po (river)
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The Po is a river that flows eastward across northern Italy. The Po flows either 652 km or 682 km – considering the length of the Maira, the headwaters of the Po are a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face of Monviso. The Po ends at a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea near Venice and it has a drainage area of 74,000 km² in all,70,000 in Italy, of which 41,000 is in montane environments and 29,000 on the plain. The Po is the longest river in Italy, at its widest point its width is 503 m, the Po extends along the 45th parallel north. The river flows through many important Italian cities, including Turin, Piacenza and it is connected to Milan through a net of channels called navigli, which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a delta at the southern part of which is Comacchio. The Po valley was the territory of the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided into Cispadane Gaul, the Po begins in the Alps, and is in Italy, and flows eastward. The river is subject to heavy flooding, consequently, over half its length is controlled with argini, or dikes. The slope of the valley decreases from 0. 35% in the west to 0. 14% in the east and it is characterized by its large discharge. The vast valley around the Po is called the Po Basin or Po Valley, in 2002, more than 16 million people lived there, at the time nearly ⅓ of the population of Italy. The two main uses of the valley are for industry and for agriculture, both major uses. The industrial centres, such as Turin and Milan, are located on higher terrain and they rely for power on the numerous hydroelectric stations in or on the flanks of the Alps, and on the coal/oil power stations which use the water of the Po basin as coolant. Drainage from the north is mediated through several large, scenic lakes, the streams are now controlled by so many dams as to slow the rivers sedimentation rate, causing geologic problems. The main products of the farms around the river are cereals including – unusually for Europe – rice, the latter method is the chief consumer of surface water, while industrial and human consumption use underground water. The Po Delta wetlands have been protected by the institution of two parks in the regions in which it is situated, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna. The Po Delta Regional Park in Emilia-Romagna, the largest, consists of four parcels of land on the bank of the Po. Executive authority resides in an assembly of the presidents of the provinces, the mayors of the comuni and they employ a Technical-Scientific Committee and a Park Council to carry out directives. In 1999 the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was added to Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, the 53,653 ha of the park contain wetlands, forest, dunes and salt pans
40.
Gothic Line
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The Gothic Line was a German defensive line of the Italian Campaign of World War II. Adolf Hitler had concerns about the state of preparation of the Gothic Line, in response to this order, Kesselring renamed it the Green Line in June 1944. Initially this line was breached during Operation Olive, but Kesselrings forces were able to retire in good order. Operation Olive has been described as the biggest battle of materials ever fought in Italy, over 1,200,000 men participated in the battle. The battle took the form of a manoeuvre, carried out by the British Eighth Army. Fifth Army against the German 10th Army and German 14th Army, Rimini, a city which had been hit by previous air raids, had 1,470,000 rounds fired against it by allied land forces. This would have required the U. S and this last redoubt proved the Germans determination to continue fighting. Nevertheless, it was fortunate for the Allies that at this stage of the war the Italian partisan forces had become effective in disrupting the German preparations in the high mountains. By September 1944, German generals were no longer able to move freely in the area behind their lines because of partisan activity. One of his colleagues who ignored this caution—Wilhelm Crisolli —was caught, Fifth Army to take part in the landings in southern France, Operation Dragoon. Whilst this would threaten Germany from the rear, Churchill was more concerned to forestall the Russians advancing into central Europe, Chiefs of Staff had strongly opposed this strategy as diluting the Allied focus in France. However, following the Allied successes in France during the summer, Chiefs relented, and there was complete agreement amongst the Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Second Quebec Conference on 12 September. It was the shortest route to his objective, the plains of Lombardy and he mounted a deception operation to convince the Germans that the main blow would come on the Adriatic front. On 4 August, Alexander met Lieutenant-General Leese, the British Eighth Army commander and he suggested a surprise attack along the Adriatic coast. On the coast, Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, the British Eighth Army commander, had Polish II Corps with 5th Kresowa Division in the front line and the 3rd Carpathian Division in reserve. To the left of the Poles was Canadian I Corps which had the Canadian 1st Infantry Division in the front line, for the opening phase the corps artillery was strengthened with the addition of the British 4th Infantry Divisions artillery. West of the Canadians was British V Corps with the British 46th Infantry Division manning the right of the front line. In reserve were the British 56th Infantry and 1st Armoured Divisions, further to the rear was the British 4th Division, waiting to be called forward to join the corps
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Conca (river)
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The Conca is a river in the Marche and Emilia-Romagna regions of Italy. Its source is Monte Carpegna, which is in the Montefeltro part of the province of Pesaro e Urbino, the river flows northeast near Macerata Feltria and Mercatino Conca before crossing into the province of Rimini. The river then flows past Morciano di Romagna before entering the Adriatic Sea southeast of Misano Adriatico, during World War II, the British and their allies defeated the Germans in a battle near the Conca. The Conca was part of the German defenses known as the Gothic Line and this battle took place in 1944 and was known as Operation Olive
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Riccione
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Riccione is a comune in the Province of Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. As of 2007 Riccione had an population of 34,868. The oldest archaeological findings in Ricciones area date to the 2nd century BC, at the time of the Roman Republic, it was known as Vicus Popilius and a bridge over the Rio Melo river. After an obscurity period, in 1260 it was acquired by the Agolanti family, connected to the lords of Rimini, in the 17th century some watchtowers were built on the seaside against assaults by pirates. Origins of the tourist fame of Riccione date to the late 19th century, in the 1930s there were some 30,000 tourists a year, with some 80 hotels existing. Benito Mussolini had a villa here in 1934. Every two years, a called the Festival Del Sol takes place. Tourism in Riccione is massive, including young people attracted by its great nightlife. The Adriatic coast in Emilia Romagna is called Riviera Romagnola and it has plenty of night clubs, Riccione also attracts families with children, thanks to its theme parks, hotels organize baby sitting for kids all day in the hotel and on the beach. The scores of hotels on the Riviera, one next to the other, the main streets of Riccione, viale Dante and viale Ceccarini have numerous night spots, bars, and hotels, in the night and they are the best place for shopping and eating during the day. The seafront is a boulevard, shaped by a road and an equally developed bicycle lane. Cycling is popular in the Emilia Romagna area and a number of Ricciones hotels have teamed up to capitalise on this and these hotels provide specific facilities for cycling tourists, including bike hire, cycle storage and tour guides. One of the event in Riccione beaches is the pink night. There are parties on the all the night for an entire week end. From 4 to 15 September 2007, Riccione hosted the World Masters Athletics Championships, from 29 June to 6 July 2007, Riccione hosted the CSIT championships. Riccione has a new swimming pool with 50-metre lanes indoors and outdoors, every year, it hosts international competitions. The city has hosted the FINA World Masters Championships in swimming, diving, water polo, open water, minor sport events are the beach line festival, tennis beach competitions. On the beach there are clubs and kitesurf clubs as well
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The Governor General's Horse Guards
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The Governor Generals Horse Guards is an armoured reconnaissance infantry regiment in the Primary Reserve of the Canadian Army, part of 4th Canadian Divisions 32 Canadian Brigade Group. Based in Toronto, it is the most senior regiment in Canada. The regiment maintains a structure, with squadrons and units for deployment and active duty, training, ceremony, cadets. The Field Squadron is the squadron and is manned by trained. It provides soldiers for Canadian Forces missions outside of Canada, and is expected to mobilize in national emergencies, the Training Support Squadron develops new soldiers skills to enable them to join the Field Squadron. This includes personal development through the completion of preliminary trade courses, Training Support Squadron staff also support operational planning and exercises by taking the role of an enemy unit against members of the Field Squadron in unit-level training. As of January 1,2014, the squadron was disbanded and folded into the regiments HQ squadron. The Regimental Support Group is commanded by the Regular Force Cadre Operations Officer, the full brass and reed military band provides concerts and music for regimental functions, other military events, and civilian engagements. The band includes three specialized musical sub-units, the Fanfare Trumpeters, the Brass Quintet, and the Woodwind Quintet, the Cavalry Squadron provides a horse-mounted ceremonial presence at public and regimental events, to perpetuate Canadian cavalry traditions. The Governor Generals Horse Guards Association is open to all active, the association exists to keep former members informed and in touch with each other and the regiment. The unit was removed from service on 24 July 1885. The Governor Generals Body Guard contributed volunteers for the Canadian contingents in the field, the 4th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles CEF was authorized on 7 November 1914 and embarked for Britain on 18 July 1915. It disembarked in France on 24 October 1915, there it fought as part of the 2nd Brigade Canadian Mounted Rifles until 31 December 1915, when it converted to infantry and was allocated to the 8th Infantry Brigade, 3rd Canadian Division. The regiment was redesignated as the 4th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, the battalion disbanded on 6 November 1920. The 7th Regiment, Canadian Mounted Rifles was authorized on 7 November 1914, the regiment was broken-up in Canada, and supplied the 2nd Canadian Divisional Cavalry Squadron and two squadrons formed the Canadian Mounted Rifles Depot in England. The regiment disbanded on 11 April 1918, the 216th Battalion, CEF was authorized on 15 July 1916 and embarked for Britain on 18 April 1917. There, its personnel were absorbed by the 3rd Reserve Battalion and those details called out on active service disbanded on 31 December 1940. Subsequently, the regiment mobilized as the 2nd Canadian Motorcycle Regiment and it embarked for Britain on 9 October 1941 and landed in Italy on 19 December 1943 as part of the 5th Armoured Brigade, 5th Canadian Armoured Division
