1.
Wiefelstede
–
Wiefelstede is a municipality in the Ammerland district, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated approximately 15 km northwest of Oldenburg and it is home to Brötje Automation GmbH, an automated aircraft assembly manufacturer. The St. Johannes Evangelical Lutheran church located in Wiefelstede is the oldest stone church in the Ammerland Region
Wiefelstede
2.
Marburg
–
Marburg is a university town in the German federal state of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district. The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has a population of approximately 72,000, having been awarded town privileges in 1222, Marburg served as capital of the landgraviate of Hessen-Marburg during periods of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. The University of Marburg was founded in 1527 and dominates the life in the town to this day. The settlement was protected and customs were raised by a castle built during the ninth or tenth century by the Giso. Marburg has been a town since 1140, as proven by coins, from the Gisos, it fell around that time to the Landgraves of Thuringia, residing on the Wartburg above Eisenach. In 1228, the widowed princess-landgravine of Thuringia, Elizabeth of Hungary, chose Marburg as her seat, as she did not get along well with her brother-in-law. The countess dedicated her life to the sick and would become after her death in 1231, aged 24. In 1264, St Elizabeths daughter Sophie of Brabant, succeeded in winning the Landgraviate of Hessen, hitherto connected to Thuringia, Marburg was one of the capitals of Hessen from that time until about 1540. Following the first division of the landgraviate, it was the capital of Hessen-Marburg from 1485 to 1500, Hessen was one of the more powerful second-tier principalities in Germany. Its old enemy was the Archbishopric of Mainz, one of the prince-electors, after 1605, Marburg became just another provincial town, known mostly for the University of Marburg. It became a backwater for two centuries after the Thirty Years War, when it was fought over by Hessen-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel. The Hessian territory around Marburg lost more than two-thirds of its population, Marburg is the seat of the oldest Protestant-founded university in the world, the University of Marburg, founded in 1527. It is one of the university towns in Germany, Greifswald, Erlangen, Jena, and Tübingen, as well as the city of Gießen. In 1529, Philipp I of Hesse arranged the Marburg Colloquy, to propitiate Martin Luther, when Romanticism became the dominant cultural and artistic paradigm in Germany, Marburg became interesting once again, and many of the leaders of the movement lived, taught, or studied in Marburg. They formed a circle of friends that was of importance, especially in literature, philology, folklore. Most famous internationally, however, were the Brothers Grimm, who collected many of their fairy tales here, the original building inspiring his drawing Rapunzels Tower stands in Amönau near Marburg. Across the Lahn hills, in the area called Schwalm, the costumes of little girls included a red hood, in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Prince-elector of Hessen had backed Austria. Prussia won and took the opportunity to invade and annex the Electorate of Hessen north of the Main River, however, the pro-Austrian Hesse-Darmstadt remained independent
Marburg
–
View of Marburg, dominated by
the castle and
St. Elizabeth's Church
Marburg
–
St. Elizabeth Church (Marburg)
Marburg
–
Marburg on the Lahn
Marburg
–
The Wettergasse in the Old City
3.
Theologian
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theologian
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theologian
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theologian
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theologian
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
4.
Lutheran
–
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
Lutheran
–
Martin Luther initiated the
Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Lutheran
–
Lutheran Rose Cross, in the middle we can see
Luther's seal.
Lutheran
–
Title page of the Swedish
Gustav Vasa Bible, translated by the Petri brothers, along with
Laurentius Andreae
Lutheran
–
The
University of Jena around 1600. Jena was the center of Gnesio-Lutheran activity during the controversies leading up to the Formula of Concord.
5.
New Testament
–
The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
New Testament
–
Books of the New Testament
New Testament
–
Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel, by
Rembrandt.
New Testament
–
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.
New Testament
–
Papyrus Bodmer VIII, at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, showing 1 and 2 Peter.
6.
University of Marburg
–
The Philipp University of Marburg, was founded in 1527 by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse as one of Germanys oldest universities, dating back to a Protestant foundation. As a state university it no longer has any religious affiliation and it was the main university of the principality of Hesse and remains a public university of that state. It now has about 25,000 students and 7,500 employees, making Marburg, a town of 72,000 inhabitants, though most subjects are grouped, the University of Marburg is not a campus university in the broader sense. About 12% of the students are international, the highest percentage in Hesse and it offers an International summer university programme every summer and has an awarded ERASMUS programme. Marburg is home to one of Germanys most traditional medical faculties, the German physicians union is called Marburger Bund. In 1609, the University of Marburg established the worlds first professorship in chemistry, in 2012 it opened the first German participative chemistry museum, called Chemicum. Its experimental course programme is aimed at encouraging people to pursue careers in science. 20 professors were expelled in 1933, among them Wilhelm Röpke who emigrated, the university is most famous for its life sciences research, but is also home to one of the few centers that conduct research on the middle east, the CNMS. The departments of psychology and geography enjoy a reputation and reached Excellence Group status in the Europe-wide CHE Excellence Ranking 2009. According to the 2012 QS Ranking, the university ranked among the top 30 German universities, the ARWU ranking which is more focused on research, ranks the university around 200, with its life sciences and social sciences department in the 151-200 range worldwide. The strong research is illustrated by its participation in several SFBs. These collaborative research centres are financed by the German Science Foundation DFG and they encourage researchers to cross the boundaries of disciplines, institutes, departments and faculties within the participating university. It retained that strength, especially in Philosophy and Theology for a time after World War II. S. S. Eliot Wilhelm Viëtor Historical detention room
University of Marburg
–
The administrative headquarters of the university
University of Marburg
–
University of Marburg
University of Marburg
–
The Central Lecture Hall Building, which has been built to cater for the increased number of students
University of Marburg
–
One of the two large university cafeterias and canteens is located on the bank of the Lahn river
7.
Historical Jesus
–
It also considers the historical and cultural context in which Jesus lived. Historical Jesus scholars typically contend that he was a Galilean Jew living in a time of messianic and apocalyptic expectations. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, whose example he may have followed and he preached salvation, cleansing from sins, and the Kingdom of God, using parables with startling imagery, and was said to be a teacher and believed in faith healing. Some scholars credit the apocalyptic declarations of the Gospels to him, while others portray his Kingdom of God as a moral one and he sent his apostles out to heal and to preach the Kingdom of God. Later, he traveled to Jerusalem in Judea, where he caused a disturbance at the Temple and it was the time of Passover, when political and religious tensions were high in Jerusalem. The Gospels say that the temple guards arrested him and turned him over to Pontius Pilate for execution, the movement he had started survived his death and was carried on by his brother James the Just and the apostles who proclaimed the resurrection of Jesus. Since the 18th century, three separate quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and developing new. The portraits of Jesus that have been constructed in these processes have often differed from each other, there are, however, overlapping attributes among the various portraits, and scholars who differ on some attributes may agree on others. Most contemporary scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed, and most biblical scholars, there is no indication that writers in antiquity who opposed Christianity questioned the existence of Jesus. However, there is disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus mentioned in the gospel narratives. There is no physical or archaeological evidence for Jesus, all sources are documentary, mainly Christian writings, such as the gospels and the purported letters of the apostles. The authenticity and reliability of sources has been questioned by many scholars. In conjunction with biblical sources, three mentions of Jesus in non-Christian sources have used in the historical analyses of the existence of Jesus. These are two passages in the writings of the Jewish historian Josephus, and one from the Roman historian Tacitus, Josephus Antiquities of the Jews, written around 93–94 AD, includes two references to the biblical Jesus Christ in Books 18 and 20. Roman historian Tacitus referred to Christus and his execution by Pontius Pilate in his Annals, book 15, other considerations outside Christendom are the possible mentions of Jesus in the Talmud. The Talmud speaks in detail of the conduct of criminal cases of Israel. On the eve of the Passover Yeshua was hanged, for forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostacy. The first date of the Sanhedrin judiciary council being recorded as functioning is 57 B. C. E, almost all modern scholars consider his baptism and crucifixion to be historical facts
Historical Jesus
–
Early Christian image of the
Good Shepherd. Fourth century.
Historical Jesus
–
Judean hills of Israel
Historical Jesus
–
The narrow streets of
Via Dolorosa, Jerusalem.
Historical Jesus
–
Antonio Ciseri 's 1862 depiction of
Ecce Homo, as Pontius Pilate delivers Jesus to the crowd
8.
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
–
It ranked tenth among the German states and had one vote in the Bundesrat of Germany and three members in the Reichstag. Its ruling family, the House of Oldenburg, also came to rule in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the first known count of Oldenburg was Elimar I. This was the case between 1262 and 1447, between 1463 and 1547, and between 1577 and 1617, the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and the bishop of Münster were also frequently at war with the counts of Oldenburg. In 1440, Christian succeeded his father Dietrich, called Fortunatus, in 1448 Christian was elected king of Denmark as Christian I, partly based on his maternal descent from previous Danish kings. Although far away from the Danish borders, Oldenburg was now a Danish exclave, the control over the town was left to the kings brothers, who established a short reign of tyranny. In 1450, Christian became king of Norway and in 1457, in 1460, he inherited the Duchy of Schleswig and the County of Holstein, an event of high importance for the future history of Oldenburg. In 1454, he handed over Oldenburg to his brother Gerhard, a wild prince, in 1483, Gerhard was compelled to abdicate in favor of his sons, and he died while on pilgrimage in Spain. Early in the 16th century, Oldenburg was again enlarged at the expense of the Frisians, one of Anthonys brothers, Christopher, won some reputation as a soldier. Anthonys grandson, Anthony Günther, who succeeded in 1603, considered himself the wisest prince who had yet ruled Oldenburg, jever had been acquired before he became count, but in 1624 he added Kniphausen and Varel to his lands, with which in 1647 Delmenhorst was finally united. He also obtained from the emperor the right to tolls on vessels passing along the Weser. In 1607 he erected a Renaissance schloss, after the death of Anthony Günther, Oldenburg fell again under Danish authority. By the German Mediatisation of 1803, Oldenburg acquired the Oldenburg Münsterland, between 1810 and 1814, Oldenburg was occupied by Napoleonic France. Oldenburg did not entirely escape from the Revolutions of 1848 that swept across Europe, in 1849 Augustus granted a constitution of a very liberal character to his subjects. In 1852 some modifications were introduced into the constitution, yet it remained one of the most progressive in the German Confederation, important alterations were made in the administrative system in 1855 and again in 1868, and government oversight on church affairs was ordered by a law of 1863. In 1866 he had sided with this power against the Austrian Empire and had joined the North German Confederation, counts, dukes and grand dukes of Oldenburg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
–
Oldenburg Castle
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
–
Flag
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
–
Eutin Castle
9.
Abitur
–
Abitur is a university-preparatory school leaving qualification in Germany, Lithuania, Finland, and Estonia. It is conferred to students who pass their exams at the end of their secondary education. As a matriculation examination, Abitur can be compared to A-level, Matura or the International Baccalaureate Diploma, thus, it encompasses the functions of both a school graduation certificate and a college entrance exam. The official term in Germany for this certificate of education is Allgemeine Hochschulreife, in 2005, a total of 231,465 students passed the Abitur exam in Germany. The numbers have risen steadily and in 2012, a total of 305,172 students obtained the Allgemeine Hochschulreife and this number, reflecting those who pass the traditional Abitur at their high school, is, however, lower than the total count. Adding the 51,912 students who obtained the Hochschulreife at vocational training schools, if those who obtain the Fachhochschulreife are also added, then the total of those who obtained the right to study at a university or a Fachhochschule is 501,483. Until the 18th century, every German university had its own entrance examination, in 1788 Prussia introduced the Abiturreglement, a law, for the first time within Germany, establishing the Abitur as an official qualification. It was later established in the other German states. In 1834, it became the university entrance exam in Prussia. Since then, the German state of Hesse allows students with Fachhochschulreife to study at the universities within that state, the academic level of the Abitur is comparable to the International Baccalaureate, the GCE Advanced Level and the Advanced Placement tests. Indeed, the requirements for the International Baccalaureate differ little from the German exam requirements. It is the only school-leaving certificate in all states of Germany that allows the graduate to move directly to university, the other school leaving certificates, the Hauptschulabschluss and the Realschulabschluss, do not allow their holders to matriculate at a university. However, the Abitur is not the path to university studies. Students who successfully passed a Begabtenprüfung are also eligible, a person who does not hold the Abitur and did not take an aptitude test may still be admitted to university by completing at least the 10th grade and doing well on an IQ-Test. The official meaning behind the word Abitur in Germany is Zeugnis der allgemeinen Hochschulreife, during the two final years of secondary school studies and in their final exams, students receive grades on a scale of 15 to 0 points. The points are weighted and then added up and converted to the grade on a scale from 1 to 6. Student who receive 13.72 points or more on average in all courses, in German, the European Baccalaureate is called europäisches Abitur, and the International Baccalaureate is called internationales Abitur, both not to be confused with the German Abitur. The term Fachabitur was used in all of Western Germany for a variation of the Abitur until the 1990s and this qualification includes only one foreign language
Abitur
–
The German Abitur is typically attained at a
Gymnasium, such as
Internatsgymnasium Torgelow in
Mecklenburg.
Abitur
–
This German Abiturient wrote on his car: "Class of 2008, Not knowing anything, but knowing where it is written; Abipedia" (a
portmanteau word compiled from Abitur and
Wikipedia)
10.
Oldenburg
–
Oldenburg or simply Oldenburg is an independent city in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany. During the French annexation in the wake of the Napoleonic war against Britain, the city is situated at the Rivers Hunte and Haaren, in the northwestern region between the cities of Bremen in the east and Groningen in the west. It has a population of 160,907, the city is the place of origin of the House of Oldenburg. Before the end of the German Empire, it was the administrative centre, archaeological finds point to a settlement dating back to the 8th century. The place was first mentioned in 1108 as Aldenburg in connection with Elimar I who is now seen as the first count of Oldenburg. The town gained importance due to its location at a ford of the navigable Hunte river, Oldenburg became the capital of the County of Oldenburg, a small state in the shadow of the much more powerful Hanseatic city of Bremen. In the 17th century, Oldenburg was a town in a time of war and turmoil and its population. In 1667, the town was struck by a plague epidemic and, shortly after. The Danish kings, who were also counts of Oldenburg at the time, were not much interested in the condition of the town and it was only then that the destroyed buildings in the city were rebuilt in a neoclassicist style. The Grand Duchy now became the Free State of Oldenburg, with the city remaining the capital, in the 1928 city elections, the Nazi Party received 9. 8% of the vote, enough for a seat on the Oldenburg city council. In the September 1930 Oldenburg state elections, the Nazi Partys share of the rose to 27. 3%, and on May 29,1932. By that autumn, a campaign of Aryanization began, forcing the sale of formerly Jewish-owed properties at steep discounts, in 1945, after World War II, the State of Oldenburg was part of the British zone of occupation. The British military government of the Oldenburg region resided in the city, several displaced persons camps were set up in the city that had suffered only 1. 4% destruction during the bombing campaigns of World War II. About 42,000 refugees migrated into Oldenburg, which raised the number of residents to over 100,000. In 1946, the Free State of Oldenburg was dissolved, the city was now capital of the district. In 1978, the district was dissolved and succeeded by the newly formed Weser-Ems administrative region, the State of Lower Saxony dissolved all of the Regierungsbezirke by the end of 2004 in the course of administrative reforms. Local elections take place five years. The city council has 50 seats, the lord mayor is elected directly by the citizens
Oldenburg
–
Oldenburg
Oldenburg
–
Schloss Oldenburg
Oldenburg
–
Schloss Oldenburg and square in 2012
Oldenburg
–
Young Nathan Marcus Adler, chief Rabbi of the Oldenburg Jewish community in the 19th century
11.
Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theology
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theology
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theology
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theology
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
12.
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
Monument to Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the main building. Artist: Paul Otto
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
Seal of the Universitas Humboldtiana Berolinensis (
Latin)
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
Statue of
Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University, from 1883 by artist Reinhold Begas. Note the Spanish inscription describing him as "the second discoverer of Cuba".
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
The Berlin University in 1850.
13.
Epistles of St Paul
–
The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the 13 New Testament books which have the name Paul as the first word, hence claiming authorship by Paul the Apostle. Among these letters are some of the earliest extant Christian documents and they provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity and as part of the canon of the New Testament they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics. The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first, in the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are, This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, the only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians. In modern editions, the formally anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Pauls letters and this practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts. With hardly any exceptions, though, the manuscripts do include Hebrews somewhere among Pauls letters. The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts, omitted, F and G In all of these epistles besides Epistle to the Hebrews, Paul does claim to be the author and writer. However, the letters may have been forgeries, as that seems to have been a problem among the early church as a whole. “The Problem of Anonymity and Pseudonymity in Christian Literature of the First Two Centuries. ”Journal of Theological Studies 12, bahr, Gordon J. “Paul and Letter Writing in the First Century. ”Idem, “The Subscriptions in the Pauline Letters. ”Journal of Biblical Literature 2, 27–41. Journal of Biblical Literature 107, 469–94, craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Dan O. Via, Jr. Philadelphia, Fortress,1988, “‘Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing’, Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity. ”Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.4, 629–46. A Theological Introduction to Pauls Letters, “Ancient Amanuenses and the Pauline Epistles. ”New Dimensions in New Testament Study. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C, idem, “On the Form, Function, and Authority of the New Testament Letters. ”D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Paul the Letter-Writer, His World, His Options, His Skills, the Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Idem, “The Codex and the Early Collection of Paul’s Letters. ”Bulletin for Bulletin Research 8, idem, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing, Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. “Composition and Dictation in New Testament Books. ”Journal of Theological Studies 18, wall, Robert W. “Introduction to Epistolary Literature. ”The Marcionite Prologues to the Pauline Epistles Chronological Order of Pauls Letters Chronology of Pauls Letters
Epistles of St Paul
–
Events in the Life of
Paul according to
Acts of the Apostles
14.
Breslau
–
Wrocław is the largest city in western Poland. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, Wrocław is the historical capital of Silesia and Lower Silesia. Today, it is the capital of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, at various times in history, it has been part of the Kingdom of Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Germany. It became part of Poland in 1945, as a result of the changes after the Second World War. The population of Wrocław in 2016 was 637,075, making it the fourth-largest city in Poland, the city hosted the Eucharistic Congress in 1997 and the Euro 2012 football championships. Wrocław is classified as a city by GaWC, with the ranking of high sufficiency. In 2016, the city was a European Capital of Culture, also in this year, Wrocław hosted the Theatre Olympics, World Bridge Games and the European Film Awards. In 2017, the city is the host of the IFLA Annual Conference, the first municipal seal stated Sigillum civitatis Wratislavie. A simplified name is given, in 1175, as Wrezlaw, the Czech spelling was used in Latin documents as Wratislavia or Vratislavia. At that time, Prezla was used in Middle High German, in the middle of the 14th century, the Early New High German form of the name, Breslau, began to replace its earlier versions. The city is believed to be named after Wrocisław or Vratislav. It is also possible that the city was named after the duke of the Silesians or after an early ruler of the city called Vratislav. The citys name in other languages is available at the list of names of European cities, persons born or living in the city are known as Vratislavians. In ancient times at or near Wrocław was a place called Budorigum and it has been mapped to the ancient Claudius Ptolemy map of the years 142-147 AD. The city of Wrocław originated at the intersection of two routes, the Via Regia and the Amber Road. Settlements in the area existed from the 6th century onward, when during migration period, Slavic tribe Ślężans settled on the Oder, the city was first recorded in the 10th century as Vratislavia, the Bohemian duke Vratislaus I founded here a Bohemian stronghold. Vratislavia was possibly derived from the dukes name Vratislav, in 985, Duke Mieszko I of Poland conquered Silesia including Wrocław. The town was mentioned explicitly in the year 1000 AD in connection with a founding of a bishopric during the Congress of Gniezno
Breslau
Breslau
Breslau
Breslau
15.
Uta Ranke-Heinemann
–
Uta Ranke-Heinemann is a German theologian, academic and author. She holds the chair of History of Religion at the University of Duisburg-Essen in Essen and her father Gustav Heinemann was an SPD politician and president of Germany 1969–74. Her mother Hilda Heinemann, a descendant of Albrecht von Haller studied theology under Rudolf Bultmann at the University of Marburg, in 1944, Hilda brought Uta to Bultmann as a refugee after Essen was heavily bombed. Uta lived with Rudolf Bultmanns family until the end of the war 1945 and she was the first and only girl at the Burggymnasium Essen, which was founded in the 9th century and passed her final examinations with distinction, the only one of her class. Abitur with distinction was rare at the time, the last one at Burggymnasium happened 30 years before. After nearly seven years study of Protestant theology in Bonn, Basel, Oxford, before 1954 no doctorate in Catholic theology for women was possible. She had been a classmate of Joseph Ratzinger, when they were students together at the University of Munich in 1953/54. In 1969 Ranke-Heinemann became the first woman to hold a chair of theology at a German university and she subsequently held the Essen University chair of ancient church history and the New Testament. In 1987 Bishop of Essen Franz Hengsbach withdrew her license to teach Catholic theology for disputing the virgin birth of Jesus and this effectively disqualified her from the post she had held for three years. Ranke-Heinemann considered herself excommunicated according to can,751 CIC for doubting an article of Catholic faith, but no explicit excommunication was pronounced against her. Since then she held a chair of the history of religion until her retirement, after the death of her husband 9.11.2001 she declared her Departure from traditional Christianity — though not from Jesus, who said Blessed are the peacemakers. She added her thoughts about finding her husband after her death to her book Putting Away Childish Things. Rudolf Bultmann, René Descartes and Immanuel Kant showed her how to be a Christian and her sevenfold negative creed is the following, The Bible is not the word of God but the word of men. That God exists in three persons is the imagination of men, Jesus is man and not God. Mary is the mother of Jesus and not the mother of God, God created heaven and earth, but hell is a product of human fantasy. The devil and original sin do not exist, a bloody redemption at the Cross is a pagan sacrificial slaughtering of a human being, based on a model from the religious Stone Age. Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven, Women, sexuality,1992 edition translated as, Ranke-Heinemann, Uta. Putting away childish things, the Virgin birth, the empty tomb, and other fairy tales you dont need to believe to have a living faith
Uta Ranke-Heinemann
–
Uta Ranke-Heinemann
16.
Hermann Gunkel
–
Hermann Gunkel, a German Old Testament scholar, founded form criticism. He also became a representative of the history of religions school. His major works cover Genesis and the Psalms, and his major interests centered on the tradition behind written sources. Gunkel was born in Springe, Kingdom of Hanover, where his father and grandfather were Lutheran pastors and he studied at the University of Göttingen and the University of Giessen. He eventually taught at universities in addition to those of Berlin and Halle. Gunkel started his career in New Testament studies at Göttingen in 1888, however, he was soon transferred to Halle and told to concentrate on the Hebrew Bible by the Prussian academic appointments authority. He went on to teach in Berlin, where he made many inter-disciplinary contacts and his 1895 book, Creation and Chaos in the Primeval Era and the Eschaton, compared the symbolism in Genesis and Revelation 12. In 1901, he produced the first of three editions of commentary on Genesis, Genesis Translated and Explained, in 1907, Gunkel finally obtained a full professorship at the University of Giessen. There he produced the third and final edition of Genesis in 1910 and he moved to the University of Halle-Wittenberg in 1920. He published another work, his commentary on the book of Psalms, The Psalms. Introduction to the Psalms was his last major project, brought to completion by his student Joachim Begrich in 1933, Gunkel founded the series Research into the Religion and Literature of the Old and New Testaments with Wilhelm Bousset. He also co-edited with Leopold Zscharnack the second edition of the German religious encyclopedia Religion in History, Gunkel became a leading representative of the History of Religions school, which addressed the history of traditions behind the biblical text. In addition to Gunkel, the group also included Albert Eichhorn, William Wrede, Heinrich Hackmann, Alfred Rahlfs, Johannes Weiss, Wilhelm Bousset, Ernst Troeltsch. Gunkel and the thought that the oral traditions that form the origins of the Hebrew Bible were directly tied to other Near Eastern religions. Gunkel arguably produced his most important work in his commentary on Genesis, in these works he created the new critical methodology of form criticism. Form criticism examined the genres used in the text to identify the Sitz im Leben that produced the text. This approach was based on the assumption that each genre is associated with a particular social and historical situation. Form criticism allowed scholars to go behind these larger literary sources by identifying the smaller and older sources used by their authors, the Influence of the Holy Spirit
Hermann Gunkel
–
Hermann Gunkel
17.
Johannes Weiss
–
Johannes Weiss was a German Protestant theologian and Biblical exegete. Weiss was born in Kiel as son of Bernhard Weiss, a perpetual scholar, he studied in the University of Marburg, the University of Berlin, the University of Göttingen, and the University of Breslau. He then taught as a professor at Göttingen since 1890, at Marburg since 1895 and he wrote many influential books and papers, and was instrumental in the development of New Testament Biblical criticism. He was held in the highest regard by his contemporaries, Weiss was famous for making the first comprehensive exegesis of the Gospels from an eschatological perspective. This greatly influenced several generations of Biblical scholars, as a corollary, Weiss believed that the authentic teachings of the historical Jesus would be inapplicable to those who did not hold his first-century apocalyptic worldview. Weiss also developed form criticism in its application to the New Testament and this tool enabled Weiss to conclude that I Corinthians is a collection of excerpts from letters by the Apostle Paul, and not a single letter in its own right. Weiss is particularly notable for giving the name Q to the hypothetical sayings source used by the authors of the Gospel of Matthew, many hold that Q stood for Quelle, the German word for source, but some recent scholarship indicates that the letter Q was chosen arbitrarily. Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes,1892, Jesus von Nazareth, Mythus oder Geschichte
Johannes Weiss
–
Johannes Weiss
18.
Hans Jonas
–
Hans Jonas was a German-born philosopher, from 1955 to 1976 the Alvin Johnson Professor of Philosophy at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Jonass writings were influential in different spheres. For example, The Gnostic Religion, based on his research on the Gnosis. The Imperative of Responsibility centers on social and ethical problems created by technology, Jonas insists that human survival depends on our efforts to care for our planet and its future. He formulated a new and distinctive supreme principle of morality, Act so that the effects of action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life. Murray Bookchin and Leon Kass both referred to Hans Jonass work as major, or primary, inspiration and he was one of the first philosophers to concern himself with ethical questions in biological science. Jonass career is divided into three periods defined by his three primary works, but in reverse order, studies of gnosticism, studies of philosophical biology. Jonas was born in Mönchengladbach, on 10 May 1903, during his study years his academic advisors included Edmund Husserl and Rudolf Bultmann. In Marburg he met Hannah Arendt, who was pursuing her PhD there. Heidegger joined the Nazi Party in 1933, which may have disturbed Jonas, as he was Jewish, certainly, in 1964 Jonas would repudiate his mentor Heidegger, for his affiliation with the Nazis. He left Germany for England in 1933, and from England he moved to Palestine in 1934, there he met Lore Weiner, to whom he became betrothed. In 1940 he returned to Europe to join the British Army which had been arranging a special brigade for German Jews wanting to fight against Hitler and he was sent to Italy, and in the last phase of the war moved into Germany. Thus, he kept his promise that he would return only as a soldier in the victorious army, in this time he wrote several letters to Lore about philosophy, in particular philosophy of biology, that would form the basis of his later publications on the subject. Immediately after the war he returned to Mönchengladbach to search for his mother, having heard this, he refused to live in Germany again. He returned to Palestine and took part in Israels war of independence in 1948, Jonas taught briefly at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem before moving to North America. In 1950 he left for Canada, teaching at Carleton University, from there he moved in 1955 to New York City, where he was to live for the rest of his life. He was a fellow of the Hastings Center and Professor of Philosophy at New School for Social Research from 1955 to 1976, from 1982 to 1983 Jonas held the Eric Voegelin Visiting Professorship at the University of Munich. He died at his home in New Rochelle, New York, on 5 February 1993, the Gnostic Religion, The Message of the Alien God & the Beginnings of Christianity ISBN 0-8070-5801-7 The Phenomenon of Life, Toward a Philosophical Biology OCLC373876
Hans Jonas
–
Birth house of Hans Jonas in Mönchengladbach
Hans Jonas
–
In front of the house, two
Stolpersteine were installed in 2008. The left one commemorates the philosopher's mother Rosa Jonas, murdered in Auschwitz in 1942
19.
Hannah Arendt
–
Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden, the daughter of Martha and Paul Arendt. She grew up in Königsberg and Berlin, at the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Arendts family was assimilated and she later remembered, With us from Germany. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it, Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering antisemitism as an adult. Arendt later wrote about Varnhagen that she was my very closest woman friend, during the philosophy course taught by Heidegger, she fell in love with her married professor, and a relationship began. In 1929, when Heidegger failed to recognize her at a station, Arendt was devastated, writing, When I was a small child. I had read the tale about Dwarf Nose, whose nose gets so long nobody recognizes him anymore. My mother pretended that had happened to me, I still vividly recall the blind terror with which I kept crying, but I am your child, I am your Hannah. —That is what it was like today. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, the dissertation was published in 1929. In 1932, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings, Heidegger wrote back to her and in his letter did not seek to deny the rumors, and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. Arendt was prevented from habilitating because she was Jewish and she researched antisemitism for some time before being arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1933. While in France, she worked to support and aid Jewish refugees, in 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship. In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, like many others, Arendt was able to leave Gurs after a few weeks, and left France in 1941 with her husband and her mother, traveling via Portugal to the United States. They relied on visas illegally issued by the American diplomat Hiram Bingham, varian Fry, another American humanitarian, paid for their travel and helped obtain the visas. Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community, from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, during World War II, Arendt worked for Youth Aliyah, a Zionist organization, which saved thousands of children from the Holocaust and settled them in the British Mandate of Palestine
Hannah Arendt
–
Hannah Arendt from a 1988 German stamp among the
Women in German history series
20.
Confessing Church
–
The following statistics are an aid in understanding the context of the political and theological developments discussed in this article. §24 of the Peace of Augsburg guaranteed members of other than the rulers the freedom of emigration with all their possessions. The Peace of Augsburg protected Catholicism and Lutheranism, but not Calvinism, thus, in 1613, when John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg converted from Lutheranism to Calvinism, he could not exercise the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia accorded the principle of cuius regio, for instance, Saxon Augustus II the Strong converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism in 1697, but did not exercise his cuius regio, eius religio privilege. A conqueror or successor to the throne who adhered to a different creed from his new subjects usually would not complicate his takeover by imposing conversions and these enlarged realms spawned diaspora congregations, as immigrants settled in areas where the prevailing creeds differed from their own. This juxtaposition of beliefs in turn brought about more frequent personal changes in denomination, in a major departure, the legislature of the North German Confederation instituted the right of irreligionism in 1869, permitting the declaration of secession from all religious bodies. The Protestant Church in Germany was and is divided into geographic regions, in the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the then-existing monarchies and republics established regional churches, comprising the respective congregations within the then-existing state borders. In the case of Protestant ruling dynasties, each church affiliated with the regnal houses. Church and State were, therefore, to a large extent combined on a regional basis, in the aftermath of World War I with its political and social turmoil, the regional churches lost their secular rulers. With revolutionary fervor in the air, the church leaders had to contend with socialists. A compromise was reached — one which favored the Protestant church establishment, there would no longer be state churches, but the churches remained public corporations and retained their subsidies from the state governments for services they performed on behalf of the government. In turn, on behalf of the churches, the state governments collected church fees from those taxpayers enlisted as parishioners and these fees were, and still are, used to finance church activities and administration. The theological faculties in the continued to exist, as did religious instruction in the schools, however. The governing structure of the churches effectively changed with the introduction of chairpersons elected by church synods instead of being appointed by the state, many Protestants voted for the Nazis in the elections of summer and autumn 1932 and March 1933. The churches did not reject National Socialism on principle, the idea of a strong authority and a close bond between throne and altar, of the kind that existed in the empire between 1871 and 1918, was in keeping with Protestant tradition. Had reservations about the democratic Weimar Republic and sympathized with political forces – such as the German National Peoples Party – that idealized the past, the German Christian movement in the Protestant Church developed in the late Weimar period. They were, for the most part, a group of fanatic Nazi Protestants who were organized in 1931 to help win elections of presbyters and this was reinforced by the Luther Renaissance Movement of Professor Emmanuel Hirsch. German Christianity emphasized the distinction between the visible and invisible church, for the German Christians, the church on earth was not the fellowship of the holy spirit described in the New Testament28 but a contrast to it, a vehicle for the expression of race and ethnicity
Confessing Church
–
Synodal elections 1933: German Christians and Confessing Church campaigners in Berlin
Confessing Church
–
Meeting house of the Evangelical
Dahlem Congregation, Berlin
Confessing Church
–
Plaque commemorating the second Reich Synod of Confession on the outside wall of the meeting house
21.
National Socialism
–
National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
National Socialism
–
Foreground, left to right: Führer
Adolf Hitler;
Hermann Göring; Minister of Propaganda
Joseph Goebbels;
Rudolf Hess
National Socialism
–
Nazis alongside members of the far-right
reactionary and
monarchist German National People's Party (DNVP), during the brief Nazi-DNVP alliance in the
Harzburg Front from 1931 to 1932
National Socialism
–
Johann Gottlieb Fichte, considered one of the fathers of German nationalism
22.
Martin Heidegger
–
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, for Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think cannot be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. Heideggers later work includes criticisms of technologys instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as enframing, treating all of Nature as a reserve on call for human purposes. Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Germany, the son of Johanna, raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being proficient at skiing. In the two following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent. He served as a soldier during the year of World War I, working behind a desk. During the 1930s, critics of Heideggers espousal of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the unheroic nature of his service in WWI, in 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp, Heideggers students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy, the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther and he also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler. In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit, when Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburgs election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers and his students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers Party on 1 May
Martin Heidegger
–
Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger
–
The Mesnerhaus in
Meßkirch, where Heidegger grew up
Martin Heidegger
–
Heidegger's stone-and-tile chalet clustered among others at Todtnauberg
Martin Heidegger
–
Heidegger's grave in Meßkirch
23.
Existentialism
–
While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
Existentialism
–
From left to right, top to bottom:
Kierkegaard,
Dostoyevsky,
Nietzsche,
Sartre
Existentialism
–
French philosophers
Jean-Paul Sartre and
Simone de Beauvoir
Existentialism
–
French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, and playwright
Albert Camus
24.
Form criticism
–
Form criticism is a method of biblical criticism that classifies units of scripture by literary pattern and then attempts to trace each type to its period of oral transmission. Form criticism seeks to determine a units original form and the context of the literary tradition. It later came to be applied to the Gospels by Karl Ludwig Schmidt, Martin Dibelius, Rudolf Bultmann, over the past few decades, form criticisms emphasis on oral tradition has waned in Old Testament studies. This is largely because scholars are skeptical about our ability to distinguish the original oral traditions from the literary sources that preserve them. As a result, the method as applied to the Old Testament now focuses on the Bibles literary genres, Form criticism begins by identifying a texts genre or conventional literary form, such as parables, proverbs, epistles, or love poems. It goes on to seek the sociological setting for each texts genre, for example, the sociological setting of a law is a court, or the sociological setting of a psalm of praise is a worship context, or that of a proverb might be a father-to-son admonition. Having identified and analyzed the texts genre-pericopes, form criticism goes on to ask how these smaller genre-pericopes contribute to the purpose of the text as a whole, as developed by Rudolf Bultmann and others, form criticism attempts to rediscover the original kernel of meaning of a text. This process has been described as demythologising, although the word must be used with caution, myth is not intended to convey a sense of untrue, but the significance of an event in the narrators agenda. What, ultimately, does the mean by it. Form criticism thus attempts to reconstruct the theological opinions of the primitive church, studies based on form criticism state that the Evangelists drew upon oral traditions when composing the canonical gospels. This oral tradition consisted of distinct components. Parables and aphorisms are the bedrock of the tradition, pronouncement stories, scenes that culminate with a saying of Jesus, are more plausible historically than other kinds of stories about Jesus. However, Today it is no exaggeration to claim that a spectrum of main assumptions underlying Bultmanns Synoptic Tradition must be considered suspect. Walter Brueggemann Rudolf Bultmann Hermann Gunkel Klaus Koch Martin Noth Gerhard von Rad Claus Westermann Armerding, grand Rapids, Eerdmans,1983, pp. 43–66. An Introduction to Old Testament Study, guide to Biblical Scholarship, New Testament, Philadelphia,1967. Tucker, Gene M. Form Criticism of the Old Testament, tucker, Gene M. Form Criticism, OT, pp. 342–345 in Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume. Keith Crim, gen. ed. Nashville, Abingdon,1976, the Growth of the Biblical Tradition, The Form-Critical Method. Tucker, Gene M. Form Criticism of the Old Testament, Form criticism, Dictionary. com Form criticism, Encyclopædia Britannica Online Biblical criticism, at Religious Tolerance web site
Form criticism
–
Rudolf Bultmann
25.
Gospel of John
–
The Gospel According to John is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament. It traditionally appears fourth, after the gospels of Matthew, Mark. John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection, although the Gospel of John is anonymous, Christian tradition historically has attributed it to John the Apostle, son of Zebedee and one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. C. K. Barrett, and later Raymond E. Brown, suggested that a tradition developed around the Johannine Community, and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel. The discovery of a number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church. The discourses contained with this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the debate at the time of composition. It is notable that in John, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions. The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections, a prologue, a Book of Signs, a Book of Glory, the narrative of Jesus public ministry, beginning with the introduction of the first disciples of Jesus. It consists of seven miracles, or signs, interspersed with long dialogues, discourses, Amen, amen sayings, in John it is this, and not the cleansing of the Temple, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed. The narrative of Jesus Passion, Resurrection, and post-Resurrection appearances and this is followed by Jesus Farewell Discourse, an account of his betrayal, arrest, trial, death, burial, post-Resurrection appearances, and final commission for his followers. Jesus mocking and crowning with thorns, the Ecce homo, the discovery of the empty tomb, the noli me tangere, the Great Commission, and the incredulity of Thomas. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel, that may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, a large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel. The Gospel of John is anonymous, traditionally, Christians have identified the author as the Disciple whom Jesus loved mentioned in John 21,24, who is understood to be John son of Zebedee, one of Jesus Twelve Apostles. These identifications, however, are rejected by the majority of biblical scholars. Nevertheless, the author of the fourth Gospel is sometimes called John the Evangelist, a significant minority consider the traditional account of John the Apostles authorship to be genuine. In addition, the ancient external attestation for Johannine authorship is strong, John is usually dated to AD 90–110. It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue, scholars believe that the text went through two to three redactions, or editions, before reaching its current form. John, which regularly describes Jesus opponents simply as the Jews, is more hostile to the Jews than any other body of New Testament writing
Gospel of John
–
Books of the
New Testament
Gospel of John
–
Stained glass depiction of St. John at
St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in
Charleston, South Carolina.
Gospel of John
–
The
Rylands Papyrus is perhaps the earliest New Testament fragment; dated from its handwriting to about 125.
26.
Signs Gospel
–
The Signs Gospel or the semeia source is a hypothetical gospel account of the life of Jesus Christ which some scholars have suggested could have been a primary source document for the Gospel of John. This theory has its basis in source criticism, since the commentary of Rudolf Bultmann was published in 1941, the hypothesis of a semeia source has gained some acceptance. One possible construction of the internal states that the Beloved Disciple wrote an account of the life of Jesus. However, this disciple died unexpectedly, necessitating that a revised gospel be written, in other words, it may be that John “is the source of the Johannine tradition but not the final writer of the tradition. The hypothesis of the Gospel of John being composed in layers over a period of time originated in the work of Rudolf Bultmann in 1941, Bultmann suggested that the author of John depended in part on an author who wrote an earlier account. This hypothetical Signs Gospel listing Christs miracles was independent of, and not used by and it was believed to have been circulating before the year 70 AD. Bultmanns conclusion was so controversial that heresy proceedings were instituted against him, nevertheless, this hypothesis has not disappeared. Scholars such as Raymond E. Brown believe that the author of the Signs Gospel to be the Beloved Disciple. They argue that the disciple who formed this community was both a person and a companion of Jesus Christ. Brown also suggests that the Beloved Disciple had been a follower of John the Baptist before joining Jesus and it is now widely agreed that the Gospel of John draws upon a tradition of Miracles of Jesus which is substantially independent of the three synoptic gospels. The Jesus Seminar has detected at least two distinct writing styles contained in the Gospel of John, the later style contains midrash and theological essays placed in the mouth of Jesus. The other - earlier - style is the original Signs Gospel and it is simple, direct and historical in style and can be reconstructed as follows, Text of the Signs Gospel
Signs Gospel
–
Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian, 18th century (
Iconostasis of
Transfiguration Church,
Kizhi Monastery,
Karelia,
Russia).
27.
Quest for the historical Jesus
–
The quest for the historical Jesus refers to academic efforts to provide a historical portrait of Jesus. These quests are distinguished from earlier approaches because they rely on the method to study biblical narratives. While textual analysis of biblical sources had taken place for centuries, the enthusiasm shown during the first quest diminished after Albert Schweitzers critique of 1906 in which he pointed out various shortcomings in the approaches used at the time. The second quest began in 1953 and introduced a number of new techniques, in the 1980s a number of scholars gradually began to introduce new research ideas, initiating a third quest characterized by the latest research approaches. These biographies attempted to apply some historical techniques to a version of the gospel accounts. By late 19th century, hundreds of Lives of Jesus were written, some of these were purely sensational, They were not produced because any new data had appeared, but because some people read and interpreted the gospels in new ways. These stories of the Lives of Jesus were often romanticized, highly psychological or included new elements which did not appear in any of the gospels or other historical documents, Mark Powell states that the production of these Lives of Jesus were typically driven by three elements,1. The imposition of a scheme which dictated the theme of the work. The exclusion of parts of the gospel accounts that did not fit in the scheme,3. The addition of new material which did not appear in any of the gospels to fill in the gaps in the story, andreas J. Köstenberger states that in many cases these stories portrayed Jesus like the questers themselves rather than a first-century Jewish figure. The underlying theme used by the authors of the various Lives of Jesus during the first quest varied, in some cases it aimed to praise Christianity, in other cases to attack it. Reimarus wrote a treatise which rejected miracles and accused the Bible authors of fraud, later, Gotthold Lessing posthumously published Reimarus thesis. Baron dHolbach who had no interest in recovering a historical Jesus but to criticize religion wrote Ecce Homo -The History of Jesus of Nazareth and published it anonymously in Amsterdam in 1769. The book was translated into English by George Houston, and published in 1799 and then 1813, David Strauss, at the age of 27 years, pioneered the search for the Historical Jesus by rejecting all supernatural events as mythical elaborations. His 1835 work, Life of Jesus, was one of the first and most influential analyses of the life story of Jesus. He adds that there are two periods of academic research in the quest for the historical Jesus, namely, the period before David Strauss. Johannes Weiss and William Wrede brought the eschatological aspects of the ministry of Jesus to the attention of the academic world, both Weiss and Wrede were passionately anti-liberal and their presentations aimed to emphasize the unusual nature of the ministry and teachings of Jesus. Wrede wrote on the Messianic Secret theme in the Gospel of Mark, Albert Kalthoff, in the chapter Was There An Historical Jesus
Quest for the historical Jesus
–
Albert Schweitzer, whose book
The Quest of the Historical Jesus coined the term.
Quest for the historical Jesus
–
Rudolf Bultmann believed that what matters is that Jesus lived and was crucified, not what happened during his life.
Quest for the historical Jesus
–
The
criterion of embarrassment developed during the second quest was applied to the
Baptism of Jesus.
Quest for the historical Jesus
–
Jesus teaching his disciples,
James Tissot, c. 1890
28.
Pre-existence of Christ
–
The doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ asserts the ontological or personal existence of Christ before his incarnation. One of the relevant Bible passages is John 1, 1–18 where, in the Trinitarian interpretation, there are other non-Trinitarian views that question the aspect of personal pre-existence or the aspect of divinity or both. This doctrine is reiterated in John 17,5 when Jesus refers to the glory which he had with the Father before the world was during the Farewell Discourse, John 17,24 also refers to the Father loving Jesus before the foundation of the world. The concept of the pre-existence of Christ is a tenet of the doctrine of the Trinity. Theologian Bernard Ramm noted that It has been teaching in historic Christology that the Logos. That the Son so existed before the incarnation has been called the pre-existence of Christ, other aspects of Christology explore the incarnation of this Divine being as the man Jesus. In the words of the Nicene Creed, Christ came down from heaven, some Protestant theologians believe that God the Son emptied himself of divine attributes in order to become human, in a process called kenosis, while others reject this. In some Early Christian sarcophagi, the Logos is distinguished with a beard, for example, Tertullian in Against Marcion Ch.21 sees a pre-existent appearance of Christ in the fiery furnace of one who is like the son of man. The identification of specific appearances of Christ is increasingly common in literature from the 1990s onwards. For example, W. Terry Whalin states that the person in the fiery furnace is Christ. Other non-Trinitarian Christians with belief in pre-existence may have different or similar interpretations of such verses, orthodox Christian faith believes that Jesus of Nazareth was personally identical with the eternally pre-existent Son of God or Logos. His personal being did not originate when his visible human history began and he did not come into existence as a new person around 5 BC. He exists personally as the eternal Son of God, to adopt tensed language from Nicaea I and state that Christ always existed could easily be misleading. Through sharing in the attribute of eternity he exists timelessly. Even the classical definition of eternity left by Boethius, interminabilis vitae tota simul et perfecta possessio, all-at-once positively and endless negatively recall time and temporal duration. Eternity and eternal life, however, are not to be reduced to any such temporal duration and these considerations also show up some dangers in the very term pre-existence. To speak of the Son of God as pre-existing his incarnation and even the creation of the world could be taken to imply a before and after for his personal. Hence, one strains language when one speaks of the Logos personally existing and being active before the incarnation and it is another question with the humanity assumed at the virginal conception
Pre-existence of Christ
–
God resting after creation - Christ depicted as the creator of the world,
Byzantine mosaic in
Monreale,
Sicily. Depictions of
God the Father became prevalent only by the 15th century, and Jesus was often shown as a substitute before then.
Pre-existence of Christ
–
In principio erat verbum,
Latin for At the beginning there was the Word, from the
Clementine Vulgate,
Gospel of John, 1:1–18.
Pre-existence of Christ
–
In medieval art God was usually depicted in the
Garden of Eden and other pre-Incarnation subjects as
God the Son, already with the appearance of
Jesus, as here in
The Garden of Earthly Delights by
Hieronymus Bosch.
Pre-existence of Christ
–
Christology
29.
Legalism (theology)
–
Legalism is alleged against any view that obedience to law, not faith in Gods grace, is the pre-eminent principle of redemption. On the Biblical viewpoint that redemption is not earned by works, the words legalism or legalist do not occur in the Old or New Testaments. Legalisms root word, law, occurs frequently in the New Testament, in 1921, Ernest De Witt Burton stated that in Gal. 2,16, nomou is here evidently used and this is divine law as the legalist defined it. The Greek of Pauls day lacked any term corresponding to the position of legalism, legalist, or legalistic. One concept of legalism, the belief that salvation can be earned by obedience to laws, is referred to in various New Testament books, generally, however, these cases are referred to as the Judaizer controversy, rather than a legalism controversy, but the two are related. Legalism refers to any doctrine which states salvation comes strictly from adherence to the law and it can be thought of as a works-based religion. Groups in the New Testament said to be falling into this category include the Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes, Judaizers, and Nicolaitans. They are legalists because they emphasized obeying the Law of Moses, in the case of the Pharisees and Scribes, Jesus condemned their legalism in Matthew 23. The Pharisees love of the praises of men for their strict adherence is said to be an example of legalism. Legalism is sometimes confused with obedience, New Testament books such as Romans, speak of grace and obedience together. An example is found in Romans 1,5 speaking of Christ through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles, the goal of receiving the grace was to bring about obedience of faith. Here grace, faith and obedience are tied together, other references are in Acts 5,29,32, Romans 16,19,2 Corinthians 7,15, Hebrews 5,9. Legalism is also confused with discipline, which is spoken of in a positive light. See 1 Corinthians 9,17,1 Timothy 4,7,2 Timothy 1,7 and Hebrews 12, a third common misunderstanding of legalism is the word law. Law in many places in the Bible refers to the Law of Moses, in Galatians the Judaizers were trying to insist that salvation required that a person be circumcised prior to obeying the Law of Christ. The faith here is the Law of Christ and the law here is the Law of Moses, the legalism of the Judaizers was that obedience to the law of Moses was necessary to be saved. Legalism in the New Testament is believed by some as being revealed by the life of Saul prior to his conversion, some believe that Saul sought to redeem himself by his works of persecution of the church and its ultimate destruction
Legalism (theology)
–
Icon of
James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the
Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:19–29, c. AD 50.
30.
Myth
–
A myth is any traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon. The word myth is derived from the Greek word mythos, which means story. Mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths, myth can mean sacred story, traditional narrative or tale of the gods. A myth can also be a story to explain why something exists, human cultures usually include a cosmogonical or creation myth, concerning the origins of the world, or how the world came to exist. The active beings in myths are generally gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, or animals, most myths are set in a timeless past before recorded time or beginning of the critical history. A myth can be a story involving symbols that are capable of multiple meanings, a myth is a sacred narrative because it holds religious or spiritual significance for those who tell it. Myths also contribute to and express a cultures systems of thought and values, myths are often therefore stories that are currently understood as being exaggerated or fictitious. According to Albert A. Anderson, a professor of philosophy, in these works, the term had several meanings, conversation, narrative, speech, story, tale, and word. Like the related term logos, mythos expresses whatever can be delivered in the form of words, Anderson contrasts the two terms with ergon, a Greek term for action, deed, and work. The term mythos lacks an explicit distinction between true or false narratives, in the context of the Theatre of ancient Greece, the term mythos referred to the myth, the narrative, the plot, and the story of a theatrical play. According to David Wiles, the Greek term mythos in this era covered an entire spectrum of different meanings, from undeniable falsehoods to stories with religious, according to philosopher Aristotle, the spirit of a theatrical play was its mythos. The term mythos was also used for the material of Greek tragedy. The tragedians of the era could draw inspiration from Greek mythology, David Wiles observes that modern conceptions about Greek tragedy can be misleading. It is commonly thought that the ancient audience members were familiar with the mythos behind a play. However, the Greek dramatists were not expected to faithfully reproduce traditional myths when adapting them for the stage and they were instead recreating the myths and producing new versions. Storytellers like Euripides relied on suspense to excite their audiences, in one of his works, Merope attempts to kill her sons murderer with an axe, unaware that the man in question is actually her son. According to an ancient description of reactions to this work. They rose to their feet in terror and caused an uproar, David Wiles points that the traditional mythos of Ancient Greece, was primarily a part of its oral tradition
Myth
–
Prometheus (1868) by
Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of
Hesiodus and possibly
Aeschylus (the
Greek trilogy
Prometheus Bound,
Prometheus Unbound and
Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity at its creation.
Myth
–
1929
Belgian banknote, depicting
Ceres,
Neptune and
caduceus.
Myth
–
Fu Xi and
Nüwa represented as half-snake, half-human creatures
31.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
32.
Early Christianity
–
Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
Early Christianity
–
St. Clement I was an Apostolic Father.
Early Christianity
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
33.
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Theodor Jaspers was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and he was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept this label. Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a farming community. He showed an early interest in philosophy, but his fathers experience with the legal system undoubtedly influenced his decision to study law at University of Heidelberg. It soon became clear that Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, in 1910 he married Gertrud Mayer, the sister of his close friends Gustav Mayer and Ernst Mayer. Jaspers became dissatisfied with the way the community of the time approached the study of mental illness. In 1913 Jaspers habilitated at the faculty of the Heidelberg University. The post later became a permanent philosophical one, and Jaspers never returned to clinical practice, during this time Jaspers was a close friend of the Weber family. In 1921, at the age of 38, Jaspers turned from psychology to philosophy and he became a philosopher, in Germany and Europe. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Jaspers was considered to have a Jewish taint due to his Jewish wife, in 1938 he fell under a publication ban as well. Many of his long-time friends stood by him, however, and he was able to continue his studies, but he and his wife were under constant threat of removal to a concentration camp until 30 March 1945, when Heidelberg was liberated by American troops. In 1948 Jaspers moved to the University of Basel in Switzerland and he remained prominent in the philosophical community and became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland living in Basel until his death on his wifes 90th birthday in 1969. Jaspers dissatisfaction with the understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry. He published a paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. Although it did not broach new ideas, this introduced a rather unusual method of study. Not unlike Freud, Jaspers studied patients in detail, giving information about the patients as well as notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms. This has become known as the method and now forms a mainstay of psychiatric. Jaspers set down his views on mental illness in a book which he published in 1913 and this work has become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas found within it
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Jaspers in 1946
Karl Jaspers
–
Karl Jaspers: Allgemeine Psychopathologie, first print 1913.
34.
Haeccity
–
Haecceity is a persons or objects thisness, the individualising difference between the concept a man and the concept Socrates. Haecceity is a translation of the equivalent term in Aristotles Greek to ti esti or the what is. Charles Sanders Peirce later used the term as a reference to an individual. Haecceity may be defined in some dictionaries as simply the essence of a thing, however, such a definition deprives the term of its subtle distinctiveness and utility. While terms such as haecceity, quiddity, noumenon and hypokeimenon all evoke the essence of a thing, they each have subtle differences, haecceity thus enabled Scotus to find a middle ground in the debate over universals between Nominalism and Realism. Harold Garfinkel is the founder of ethnomethodology, and teacher of Harvey Sacks and he used the word haecceity in his seminal Studies in Ethnomethodology, to enhance the indexical inevitable character of any expression, behavior or situation. According to him, the display the social order they refer to within the settings of the situation they contribute to define. In his famous paper generally referred to as Parsons Plenum, Garfinkel used the term Haecceities to indicate the importance of the infinite contingencies in both situations and practices, Garfinkel was drawing on phenomenology and Edmund Husserl, logic and Bertrand Russell, and perception theory and Nelson Goodman. Phenomenology is the field of studying the phenomena as such, Gilles Deleuze uses the term to denote entities that exist on the Plane of Immanence. The usage was likely chosen in line with his concept of difference and individuation. Gerard Manley Hopkins drew on Scotus — whom he described as “of reality the rarest-veined unraveller” — to construct his theory of inscape. James Joyce made similar use of the concept of haecceitas to develop his idea of the secular epiphany, james Wood refers extensively to haecceitas in developing an argument about conspicuous detail in aesthetic literary criticism. E. Gilson, The Philosophy of the Middle Ages A. Heuser, The Shaping Vision of Gerald Manley Hopkins E. Longpre, duns Scotus Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. London and New York, Continuum,2004, vol.2 of Capitalism and Schizophrenia. ISBN Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, New York, Columbia University Press,1994. Harold Garfinkel, Evidence for Locally Produced, Naturally Accountable Phenomena of Order, Logic, Meaning, Method, etc
Haeccity
35.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
36.
Philosophy of religion
–
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, philosophy of religion is, the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It is an ancient discipline, being found in the earliest known manuscripts concerning philosophy, and relates to other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology. It is designed such that it can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers, some aspects of Philosophy of religion has classically been regarded as a part of metaphysics. In Aristotles Metaphysics, the necessarily prior cause of motion was an unmoved mover. This, according to Aristotle, is God, the subject of study in theology, although the term did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, perhaps the earliest strictly philosophical writings about religion can be found in the Hindu Upanishads. Around the same time, the works of Daoism and Confucianism also dealt, in part, the Buddhist writing in the Pali canon contains acute philosophical thinking, and we have in Buddhism a very shrewd grasp of the nature of religion as philosophy illuminates it. The philosophy of religion has been distinguished from theology by pointing out that, for theology, also, theology is responsible to an authority that initiates its thinking, speaking, and witnessing. Philosophy bases its arguments on the ground of timeless evidence, three considerations that are basic to the philosophy of religion concerning deities are, the existence of God, the nature of God, and the knowledge of God. There are several positions with regard to the existence of God that one might take. Pantheism - the belief that God exists as all things of the cosmos, panentheism - the belief that God encompasses all things of the cosmos but that God is greater than the cosmos, God is both immanent and transcendent. Deism - the belief that God does exist but does not interfere with human life, monotheism - Usually defined as the belief that a single deity exists which is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent created everything. Polytheism - the belief that deities exist which rule the universe as separate. Henotheism - the belief that multiple deities may or may not exist, henology - believing that multiple avatars of a deity exist, which represent unique aspects of the ultimate deity. Agnosticism - the belief that the existence or non-existence of deities or God is currently unknown or unknowable, a weaker form of this might be defined as simply a lack of certainty about gods existence or nonexistence. Atheism - the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, apatheism - a complete disinterest in, or lack of caring for, whether or not any deity or deities exists. Possibilianism These are not mutually exclusive positions, for example, agnostic theists choose to believe God exists while asserting that knowledge of Gods existence is inherently unknowable. Similarly, agnostic atheists reject belief in the existence of all deities, the attempt to provide proofs or arguments for the existence of God is one aspect of what is known as natural theology or the natural theistic project. This strand of natural theology attempts to justify belief in God by independent grounds, there is plenty of philosophical literature on faith and other subjects generally considered to be outside the realm of natural theology
Philosophy of religion
–
Aristotle
Philosophy of religion
–
Kierkegaard
Philosophy of religion
–
Aquinas
37.
Afterlife
–
The afterlife is the concept of a realm, or the realm itself, in which an essential part of an individuals identity or consciousness continues to exist after the death of the body. Belief in an afterlife, which may be naturalistic or supernatural, is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death, in this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or Otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics, in metaphysical models, theists generally believe some type of afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions, tend to believe in an afterlife, the Sadducees were an ancient Jewish sect that generally believed that there was a God but no afterlife. Reincarnation refers to a concept found among Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, Rosicrucians, Theosophists, Spiritists. Reincarnation is also a belief described in Kabbalistic Judaism as gilgul neshamot and this succession leads toward an eventual liberation. One consequence of reincarnationist beliefs is that our current lives are both afterlife and a beforelife, according to those beliefs events in our current life are consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or Karma. In most denominations, heaven is a condition of reward for the righteous to go after they die, traditionally defined as eternal union with God. In contrast to heaven, hell is a condition of punishment and torment for the wicked, traditionally defined as eternal separation from God and confinement with other sinful souls and fallen angels. So they are seen as existing in a state of natural. In other Christian denominations it has described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion. The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the Catholic Church, the tradition of the church, by reference to certain texts of scripture, speaks of a cleansing fire although it is not always called purgatory. Anglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief, traditional African religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. For each soul remains distinct and each represents a new soul. In some societies like the Mende, multiple beliefs coexist, the Mende believe that people die twice, once during the process of joining the secret society, and again during biological death after which they become ancestors. However, some Mende also believe that people are created by God they live ten consecutive lives. One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly, the afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its known as ka
Afterlife
Afterlife
–
Domenico Beccafumi 's Inferno: a Christian vision of hell
Afterlife
–
Mictlan
Afterlife
38.
Faith
–
Faith is confidence or trust in a person or thing, or the observance of an obligation from loyalty, or fidelity to a person, promise, engagement. The word faith may refer to a particular system of religious belief. The term faith has numerous connotations and is used in different ways, the English word faith is thought to date from 1200–50, from the Middle English feith, via Anglo-French fed, Old French feid, feit from Latin fidem, accusative of fidēs, akin to fīdere. James W. Fowler proposes a series of stages of faith-development across the human life-span and his stages relate closely to the work of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg regarding aspects of psychological development in children and adults. Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others, intuitive-Projective, a stage of confusion and of high impressionability through stories and rituals. Mythic-Literal, a stage where provided information is accepted in order to conform with social norms, individuative-Reflective, In this stage the individual critically analyzes adopted and accepted faith with existing systems of faith. Disillusion or strengthening of faith happens in this stage, based on needs, experiences and paradoxes. This stage is called negotiated settling in life, no hard-and-fast rule requires individuals pursuing faith to go through all six stages. There is a probability for individuals to be content and fixed in a particular stage for a lifetime. Stage 6 is the summit of faith development and this state is often considered as not fully attainable. There is a spectrum of opinion with respect to the epistemological validity of faith. Fideism is a theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other. It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, the word and concept had its origin in the mid- to late-19th century by way of Catholic thought, in a movement called Traditionalism. The Roman Catholic Magisterium has, however, repeatedly condemned fideism, in the Baháí Faith, faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good deeds, ultimately the acceptance of the divine authority of the Manifestations of God. In the religions view, faith and knowledge are required for spiritual growth. Faith involves more than outward obedience to authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings. Faith is an important constituent element of the teachings of Gautama Buddha— in both the Theravada and the Mahayana traditions, the teachings of Buddha were originally recorded in the language Pali and the word saddhā is generally translated as faith. Faith in Buddhism centers on the understanding that the Buddha is an Awakened being, on his role as teacher, in the truth of his Dharma
Faith
–
Mino da Fiesole, Faith (Armani).
Faith
–
Triumph of Faith over
Idolatry by
Jean-Baptiste Théodon (1646–1713)
Faith
–
Shinto faith.
39.
Intelligent design
–
Intelligent design is a creationist religious argument for the existence of God, presented by its proponents as an evidence-based scientific theory about lifes origins but found to be pseudoscience. Proponents claim that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, the leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute, a politically conservative think tank based in the United States. Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer, both irreducible complexity and specified complexity present detailed negative assertions that certain features are too complex to be the result of natural processes. Proponents then conclude by analogy that these features are evidence of design, from the mid-1990s, the intelligent design movement, supported by the Discovery Institute, advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula. This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U. S. District Judge John E. Teaching of evolution was effectively suspended in U. S. Young Earth creationists promoted creation science as a scientific explanation of the world in which we live. This frequently invoked the argument from design to explain complexity in nature as demonstrating the existence of God, the argument from design, the teleological argument or argument from intelligent design, has been advanced in theology for centuries. It can be summarised briefly as Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer, nature is complex, Thomas Aquinas presented it in his fifth proof of Gods existence as a syllogism. In 1802, William Paleys Natural Theology presented examples of intricate purpose in organisms, Creation science prefigured the intelligent design arguments of irreducible complexity, even featuring the bacterial flagellum. In the United States, attempts to introduce creation science in schools led to court rulings that it is religious in nature, and thus cannot be taught in public school science classrooms. Barbara Forrest writes that the intelligent design movement began in 1984 with the book The Mystery of Lifes Origin, Reassessing Current Theories, Thaxton, a chemist, with two other authors, and published by Jon A. Buells Foundation for Thought and Ethics. Thaxton held a conference in 1988, Sources of Information Content in DNA, in November of that year, Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paleys argument from design. At the Sources of Information Content in DNA conference in 1988, Intelligent design avoids identifying or naming the intelligent designer—it merely states that one must exist—but leaders of the movement have said the designer is the Christian God. The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case, variations on the phrase appeared in YEC publications, a 1967 book co-written by Percival Davis referred to design according to which basic organisms were created. The first systematic use of the term, defined in a glossary and claimed to be other than creationism, was in Of Pandas and People, co-authored by Davis, a Discovery Institute report says that Charles B. Thaxton, editor of Pandas, had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist, Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference, and later recalled that The term intelligent design came up. It thus represents the start of the intelligent design movement. Intelligent design was the most prominent of around fifteen new terms it introduced as a new lexicon of creationist terminology to oppose evolution without using religious language, although presented as a scientific textbook, philosopher of science Michael Ruse considers the contents worthless and dishonest
Intelligent design
–
Watchmaker analogy
Intelligent design
–
The concept of
irreducible complexity was popularised by
Michael Behe in his 1996 book,
Darwin's Black Box.
Intelligent design
–
William A. Dembski proposed the concept of
specified complexity.
Intelligent design
–
The
Discovery Institute 's Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture used banners based on "
The Creation of Adam " from the
Sistine Chapel. Later it used a less religious image, then was renamed the
Center for Science and Culture.
40.
Miracle
–
A miracle is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws. Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being, magic, a miracle worker, other such miracles might be, survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or beating the odds. Some coincidences may be seen as miracles, a true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible or impossible to confirm by their nature. The former position is expressed for instance by Thomas Jefferson and the latter by David Hume, theologians typically say that, with divine providence, God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the existence of God, a miracle is a phenomenon not explained by known laws of nature. Criteria for classifying an event as a miracle vary, often a religious text, such as the Bible or Quran, states that a miracle occurred, and believers may accept this as a fact. British mathematician J. E. Littlewood suggested that individuals should statistically expect one-in-a-million events to happen to them at the rate of one per month. By Littlewoods definition, seemingly miraculous events are actually commonplace, the Aristotelian view of God does not include direct intervention in the order of the natural world. Jewish neo-Aristotelian philosophers, who are influential today, include Maimonides, Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon. Directly or indirectly, their views are still prevalent in much of the religious Jewish community, in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus Spinoza claims that miracles are merely lawlike events whose causes we are ignorant of. We should not treat them as having no cause or of having a cause immediately available, rather the miracle is for combating the ignorance it entails, like a political project. According to the philosopher David Hume, a miracle is a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent. According to the Christian theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher every event, even the most natural and usual, james Keller states that The claim that God has worked a miracle implies that God has singled out certain persons for some benefit which many others do not receive implies that God is unfair. If God intervenes to save life in a car crash. Thus an all-powerful, all-knowing and just God, as predicated in Christianity, the Haedong Kosung-jon of Korea records that King Beopheung of Silla had desired to promulgate Buddhism as the state religion. However, officials in his court opposed him, in the fourteenth year of his reign, Beopheungs Grand Secretary, Ichadon, devised a strategy to overcome court opposition. Ichadon schemed with the king, convincing him to make a proclamation granting Buddhism official state sanction using the royal seal, Ichadon told the king to deny having made such a proclamation when the opposing officials received it and demanded an explanation. Instead, Ichadon would confess and accept the punishment of execution, Ichadon prophesied to the king that at his execution a wonderful miracle would convince the opposing court faction of Buddhisms power
Miracle
–
The
Raising of Lazarus, (c. 1410) from the
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,
Musée Condé, France.
Miracle
–
A 16th-century
Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the
Miraj. Muhammad's face is veiled, a common practice in
Islamic art.
41.
Problem of evil
–
The problem of evil refers to the question of how to reconcile the existence of evil with an omnibenevolent, omniscient and omnipotent God. An argument from evil attempts to show that the co-existence of evil, attempts to show the contrary have traditionally been discussed under the heading of theodicy. Besides philosophy of religion, the problem of evil is also important to the field of theology, the problem of evil is often formulated in two forms, the logical problem of evil and the evidential problem of evil. The problem of evil has been extended to life forms, to include animal suffering from natural evils. Responses to various versions of the problem of evil, meanwhile, a wide range of responses have been made against these arguments. There are also discussions of evil and associated problems in other philosophical fields, such as secular ethics. But as usually understood, the problem of evil is posed in a theological context, the problem of evil refers to the challenge of reconciling belief in an omniscient, omnipotent and omnibenevolent God, with the existence of evil and suffering in the world. The problem may be described either experientially or theoretically, the problem of evil is also a theoretical one, usually described and studied by religion scholars in two varieties, the logical problem and the evidential problem. Originating with Greek philosopher Epicurus, the argument from evil is as follows, If an omnipotent, omniscient. There is evil in the world, Therefore, an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent God does not exist. This argument is of the modus tollens, and is logically valid, If its premises are true. To show that the first premise is plausible, subsequent versions tend to expand on it, such as modern example. God is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, an omnibenevolent being would want to prevent all evils. An omniscient being knows every way in which evils can come into existence, an omnipotent being has the power to prevent that evil from coming into existence. A being who knows every way in which an evil can come into existence, who is able to prevent that evil from coming into existence, If there exists an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent God, then no evil exists. Both of these arguments are understood to be presenting two forms of the problem of evil. They attempt to show that the propositions lead to a logical contradiction. If God lacks any one of these qualities—omniscience, omnipotence, or omnibenevolence—then the logical problem of evil can be resolved, process theology and open theism are other positions that limit Gods omnipotence and/or omniscience
Problem of evil
–
William L. Rowe 's famous example of
natural evil: "In some distant forest lightning strikes a dead tree, resulting in a forest fire. In the fire a fawn is trapped, horribly burned, and lies in terrible agony for several days before death relieves its suffering."
Problem of evil
–
"The Deluge", by
John Martin, 1834. Oil on canvas.
Yale University
Problem of evil
–
Thetis gives her son Achilles weapons forged by Hephaestus (detail of Attic
black-figure hydria, 575–550 BC)
42.
Religious belief
–
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case, with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief, pistis and doxa, simplified, we may say that pistis refers to trust and confidence, while doxa refers to opinion and acceptance. The English word orthodoxy derives from doxa, Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the belief to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas. However, belief does not require active introspection and circumspection, for example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise, since belief is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks, how a physical organism can have beliefs. Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. Plato dismisses this possibility of a relation between belief and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule. Among American epistemologists, Gettier and Goldman, have questioned the true belief definition. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation, philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject and an object of belief, Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs and dispositional beliefs. For example, if asked do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas, a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief, if the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Jerry Fodor is one of the defenders of this point of view. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this understanding of belief. In these cases science hasnt provided us with a detailed account of these theories
Religious belief
–
We are influenced by many factors that ripple through our minds as our beliefs form, evolve, and may eventually change
Religious belief
–
This article is about the general concept. For other uses, see
Belief (disambiguation).
Religious belief
–
Philosopher Jonathan Glover warns that belief systems are like whole boats in the water; it is extremely difficult to alter them all at once (e.g., it may be too stressful, or people may maintain their biases without realizing it).
43.
Soul
–
In many religious, philosophical and mythological traditions, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living being. Depending on the system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal. In Judeo-Christianity, only human beings have immortal souls, for example, the Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas attributed soul to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal. Other religions hold that all organisms have souls, as did Aristotle, while some teach that even non-biological entities possess souls. The latter belief is called animism, Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. Anima mundi is the concept of a world soul connecting all living organisms on planet Earth, the Modern English word soul, derived from Old English sáwol, sáwel, was first attested in the 8th-century poem Beowulf v.2820 and in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50. Further etymology of the Germanic word is uncertain, the Koine Greek word ψυχή psychē, life, spirit, consciousness, is derived from a verb meaning to cool, to blow, and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to σῶμα, meaning body. Vulgate, et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corpus animam autem non possunt occidere sed potius eum timete qui potest et animam et corpus perdere in gehennam. Authorized King James Version And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul, vulgate Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem. KJV And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, Paul of Tarsus used ψυχή and πνεῦμα specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש nephesh and רוח ruah. The ancient Greeks used the word alive for the concept of being ensouled, the soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual breath that animates the living organism. Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals an award of joy or sorrow drawing near in dreams. Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being, Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato believed this as well, however. Thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger, eros is located in the stomach and is related to ones desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a caste system. According to Platos theory, the soul is essentially the same thing as a states class system because, to function well
Soul
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a
fresco by
Raphael.
Soul
–
The souls of Pe and
Nekhen towing the royal bargue on a relief of
Ramesses II 's temple in Abydos.
Soul
–
Soul carried to Heaven by
William Bouguereau
Soul
–
The Damned Soul. Drawing by
Michelangelo Buonarroti c. 1525
44.
Spirit
–
The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus breath, has many different meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body. It can also refer to a subtle as opposed to gross material substance, the word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. e. A manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person, the term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities. In the Bible, the Spirit, specifically denotes the Holy Spirit, the English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath, but also spirit, soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, soul, in Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma, breath, motile air, spirit, and psykhē, soul. The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French, the distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions, Arabic nafs opposite rūħ, Hebrew neshama or nephesh נֶ֫פֶשׁ nép̄eš opposite ruach. In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, October 20,1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit, the mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. Spirit and Life are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have pushed back. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho mean ‘spirit’ no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus”. In spiritual and metaphysical terms, spirit has acquired a number of meanings, An incorporeal but ubiquitous, unlike the concept of souls a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being. This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism, note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul, belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit life or aether rather than spirit, people usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness. In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood, Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience. Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect, all spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes. In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being, individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with The Spirit. This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness, the experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief. Christian spiritual theology can use the term Spirit to describe God, or aspects of God — as in the Holy Spirit, Spirit forms a central concept in pneumatology
Spirit
–
Theodor von Holst, Bertalda, Assailed by Spirits, c. 1830
45.
Theodicy
–
Theodicy, in its most common form, is an attempt to answer the question of why a good God permits the manifestation of evil. Unlike a defense, which tries to demonstrate that Gods existence is possible in the light of evil. The German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz coined the term theodicy in 1710 in his work Théodicée, Irenaeus German philosopher Max Weber saw theodicy as a social problem, based on the human need to explain puzzling aspects of the world. Sociologist Peter L. Berger argued that religion arose out of a need for order. Following the Holocaust, a number of Jewish theologians developed a new response to the problem of evil, sometimes called anti-theodicy, which maintains that God cannot be meaningfully justified. As an alternative to theodicy, a defense has been proposed by the American philosopher Alvin Plantinga, similar to a theodicy, a cosmodicy attempts to justify the fundamental goodness of the universe, and an anthropodicy attempts to justify the goodness of humanity. As defined by Alvin Plantinga, theodicy is the answer to the question of why God permits evil, the word theodicy derives from the Greek words Θεός Τheos and δίκη dikē. Theos is translated God and dikē can be translated as either trial or judgement, thus, theodicy literally means justifying God. In the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nick Trakakis proposed an additional three requirements which must be contained within a theodicy, Common sense views of the world, widely held historical and scientific opinion. As a response to the problem of evil, a theodicy is distinct from a defence, a defence attempts to demonstrate that the occurrence of evil does not contradict Gods existence, but it does not propose that rational beings are able to understand why God permits evil. A theodicy seeks to show that it is reasonable to believe in God despite evidence of evil in the world, defenses propose solutions to the logical problem of evil, while theodicies attempt to answer the evident problem. German philosopher Max Weber interpreted theodicy as a problem. Weber framed the problem of evil as the dilemma that the good can suffer and the evil can prosper and he identified two purposes of theodicy, to explain why good people suffer, and why people prosper. Sociologist Peter L. Berger characterised religion as the attempt to build order out of a chaotic world. He believed that humans could not accept that anything in the world was meaningless and saw theodicy as an assertion that the cosmos has meaning and order, despite evidence to the contrary. Berger presented an argument similar to that of Weber, but suggested that the need for theodicy arose primarily out of the situation of human society and he believed that theodicies existed to allow individuals to transcend themselves, denying the individual in favour of the social order. The term theodicy was coined by German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz in his 1710 work, written in French, Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, bayle argued that, because the Bible asserts the coexistence of God and evil, this state of affairs must simply be accepted. Voltaire also includes the theme in his novel, Candide
Theodicy
–
Gottfried Leibniz coined the term "theodicy" in an attempt to justify God's existence in light of the apparent imperfections of the world.
46.
Aristotelian theology
–
Aristotelian theology and the scholastic view of God have been influential in Western intellectual history. In his first philosophy, later called the Metaphysics, Aristotle discusses the meaning of being as being, thus captivated, their tireless performance is entirely the result of their own desire. This is one way in which the movers are said to be unmoved, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle discusses actuality and potentiality. The former is perfection, realization, fullness of being, the latter imperfection, incompleteness, the former is the determining, the latter the determinable principle. The unmoved movers are entirely actual, Actus Purus, because they are unchanging, all material beings have some potentiality. The Physics introduces matter and form and the four causes—material, formal, efficient, for example, to explain a statue, one can offer, The material cause, that out of which the statue is made, is the marble or bronze. The formal cause, that according to which the statue is made, is the shape that the sculptor has learned to sculpt, the efficient cause, or agent, is the sculptor. The final cause, is that for the sake of which the statue is made, contrary to the later so-called traditional view of prime matter, Aristotle asserts that there can be no pure potentiality without any actuality whatsoever. All material substances have unactualized potentials, Aristotle argues that, although motion is eternal, there cannot be an infinite series of movers and of things moved. Therefore, there must be some, who are not the first in such a series, because they eternally inspire uniform motion in the celestial spheres, the unmoved movers must themselves be eternal and unchanging. The life of the unmoved mover is self-contemplative thought, according to Aristotle, the gods cannot potentially be distracted from this eternal self-contemplation because, in that instant, they would cease to exist. John Burnet noted The Neoplatonists were quite justified in regarding themselves as the heirs of Pythagoras, and, in their hands, philosophy ceased to exist as such. And this tendency was at all along, hardly a single Greek philosopher was wholly uninfluenced by it. In later days, Apollonios of Tyana showed in practice what this sort of thing must ultimately lead to, the theurgy and thaumaturgy of the late Greek schools were only the fruit of the seed sown by the generation which immediately preceded the Persian War. Aristotles principles of being influenced Anselms view of God, whom he called that than which nothing greater can be conceived, Anselm thought that God did not feel emotions such as anger or love, but appeared to do so through our imperfect understanding. The incongruity of judging being against something that not exist. Many medieval philosophers made use of the idea of approaching a knowledge of God through negative attributes, for example, we should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term, all we can safely say is that God is not nonexistent. We should not say that God is wise, but we can say that God is not ignorant and we should not say that God is One, but we can state that there is no multiplicity in Gods being
Aristotelian theology
–
Aristotelianism
Aristotelian theology
–
Aristotle, by
Francesco Hayez
47.
Brahman
–
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient and it is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle, in the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality. Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman, personal, impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman in each being, Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self, puligandla states it as the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world, while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that cannot be exactly defined. In Vedic Sanskrit, Brahma, brahman from root bṛh-, means to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote. Brahmana, from stems brha + Sanskrit -man- from Indo-European root -men- which denotes some manifested form of power, inherent firmness. In later Sanskrit usage, Brahma, brahman means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, the concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta, this is discussed below. Brahm is another variant of Brahman, Brahmā, Brahman, means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i. e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. These are distinct from, A brāhmaṇa, is a commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. A brāhmaṇa, means priest, in this usage the word is rendered in English as Brahmin. This usage is found in the Atharva Veda. Ishvara, in Advaita, is identified as a partial manifestation of the ultimate reality
Brahman
–
Impact of a drop of water in water, a common analogy for Brahman and the
Ātman
Brahman
–
Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.
Brahman
48.
Demiurge
–
In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the demiurge is an artisan-like figure responsible for the fashioning and maintenance of the physical universe. The term was adopted by the Gnostics, depending on the system, they may be considered to be either uncreated and eternal, or considered to be the product of some other entity. The philosophical usage and the proper noun derive from Platos Timaeus, written c.360 BC and this is accordingly the definition of the demiurge in the Platonic and Middle Platonic philosophical traditions. In the various branches of the Neoplatonic school, the demiurge is the fashioner of the real, perceptible world after the model of the Ideas, Plato, as the speaker Timaeus, refers to the Demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue Timaeus, c.360 BC. The main character refers to the Demiurge as the entity who fashioned and shaped the material world, Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent, and hence desirous of a world as good as possible. The world remains imperfect, however, because the Demiurge created the world out of a chaotic, Platos work Timaeus is a philosophical reconciliation of Hesiods cosmology in his Theogony, syncretically reconciling Hesiod to Homer. In Numeniuss Neo-Pythagorean and Middle Platonist cosmogony, the Demiurge is second God as the nous or thought of intelligibles and sensibles, Plotinus and the later Platonists worked to clarify the Demiurge. To Plotinus, the second emanation represents a second cause. In order to reconcile Aristotelian with Platonian philosophy, Plotinus metaphorically identified the demiurge within the pantheon of the Greek Gods as Zeus, the first and highest aspect of God is described by Plato as the One, the source, or the Monad. This is the God above the Demiurge, and manifests through the work of the Demiurge, the Monad emanated the demiurge or Nous from its indeterminate vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself, causing self-reflection. This self-reflection of the indeterminate vitality was referred to by Plotinus as the Demiurge or creator, the second principle is organization in its reflection of the nonsentient force or dynamis, also called the one or the Monad. Plotinus form of Platonic idealism is to treat the Demiurge, nous as the contemplative faculty within man which orders the force into conscious reality. In this he claimed to reveal Platos true meaning, a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Platos text. This tradition of creator God as nous, can be validated in the works of philosophers such as Numenius. Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus Enneads, no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Platos Timaeus. The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the Demiurge on the works of Numenius. The figure of the Demiurge emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, here, at the summit of this system, the Source and Demiurge coexist via the process of henosis. The One is further separated into spheres of intelligence, the first and superior sphere is objects of thought, then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge, identifying it with the perfect or Divine nous with the intellectual triad being promoted to a hebdomad
Demiurge
–
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in
Bernard de Montfaucon ’s L’antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.
Demiurge
–
Drawing of the leontocephaline found at the
Mithraeum of C. Valerius Heracles and sons, dedicated 190 AD at
Ostia Antica, Italy (CIMRM 312).
49.
Holy Spirit
–
Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is a term found in English translations of the Bible that is understood differently among the Abrahamic religions. Holy Spirit is stated to be a realm beyond the ability of words to properly convey and it must be experienced, realized, kindled within like a holy fire. The term is used to describe aspects of other religions. The word Spirit appears as either alone or with words, in the Hebrew Bible. Combinations include expressions such as the Holy Spirit, Spirit of God, the word Spirit is rendered as רוּחַ in Hebrew-language parts of the Old Testament. In its Aramaic parts, the term is rûacḥ, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, translates the word as πνεῦμα. This is the word that is used throughout the New Testament. The English term Spirit comes from its Latin origin, spiritus, the alternative term, Holy Ghost, comes from Old English translations of spiritus. The Hebrew Bible contains the term Spirit of God in the sense of the might of a unitary God and this meaning is different from the Christian concept of Holy Spirit as one personality of God in the Trinity. According to theologian Rudolf Bultmann, there are two ways to think about the Holy Spirit, animistic and dynamistic, both kinds of thought appear in Jewish and Christian scripture, but animistic is more typical of the Old Testament whereas dynamistic is more common in the New Testament. The distinction coincides with the Holy Spirit as either a temporary or permanent gift, in the Old Testament and Jewish thought, it is primarily temporary with a specific situation or task in mind, whereas in the Christian concept the gift resides in man permanently. The Holy Spirit also has an equivalent in non-Abrahamic Hellenistic mystery religions and they included a distinction of the Spirit and psyche, which Paul the Apostle later incorporated into his epistles. According to proponents of the History of religions school, the Christian concept of the Holy Spirit cannot be explained from Jewish ideas alone without reference to the Hellenistic religions. However, according to theologian Erik Konsmo, the views are so dissimilar that the only legitimate connection one can make is with the term πνεῦμα itself, Another link with ancient Greek thought is the Stoic idea of the Spirit as anima mundi—or world soul—that unites all people. In his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote, cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zenos creative fire, had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or spirit, to describe it. The Hebrew language phrase ruach ha-kodesh is a used in the Hebrew Bible. It literally means spirit of the holiness or spirit of the holy place, the Hebrew terms ruacḥ qodshəka, thy holy spirit, and ruacḥ qodshō, his holy spirit also occur. The Holy Spirit in Judaism generally refers to the aspect of prophecy
Holy Spirit
–
Depiction of the Christian Holy Spirit
as a dove, by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in the
apse of
Saint Peter's Basilica.
50.
Pandeism
–
Pandeism is a theological doctrine which combines aspects of pantheism with aspects of deism. It holds that the deity became the universe and ceased to exist as a separate. Pandeism is proposed to explain, as it relates to deism, why God would create a universe and then abandon it, and as to pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe. The word pandeism is a blend of the root words pantheism and deism, combining Ancient Greek, πᾶν pan all with Latin. It was perhaps first coined in the present meaning in 1859 by Moritz Lazarus, Pandeism falls within the traditional hierarchy of monistic and nontheistic philosophies addressing the nature of God. For the history of the words, pantheism and deism, see the overview of deism section. Weinstein noted the distinction between pantheism and pandeism, stating even if only by a letter, we fundamentally differ Pandeism from Pantheism and it has also been suggested that many religions may classify themselves as pantheistic but fit more essentially under the description of panentheistic or pandeistic. The earliest seeds of pandeism coincide with notions of monotheism, which generally can be traced back to the Atenism of Akhenaten, Weinstein in particular identified the idea of primary matter derived from an original spirit as found by the ancient Egyptians to be a form of pandeism. Weinstein similarly found varieties of pandeism in the views held in China, India, especially in the Hindu Bhagavad Gita. He similarly found that ideas of pandeism were reflected in the ideas of Heraclitus, religious studies professor, F. E. Peters, however, found with respect to the Pythagoreans and the Milesians that hat appeared. At the center of the Pythagorean tradition in philosophy, is another view of psyche that seems to owe little or nothing to the pan-vitalism or pan-deism that is the legacy of the Milesians. Gottfried Große in his 1787 interpretation of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, describes Pliny, a contemporary statement of this idea is that, Since God is not a being, he is therefore not intelligible. This means not only that we understand him, but also that he cannot understand himself. Creation is a kind of effort by God to understand himself. Of Nicholas of Cusa, who wrote of the enfolding of creation in God and the unfolding of the human mind in creation, Weinstein wrote that he was, to a certain extent. This was reiterated by others including Discover editor Corey S. Powell, in the 1820s to 1830s, pandeism received some mention in Italy. Nannetti further specifically criticized pandeism, declaring, To you, fatal Pandeist, the laws that create nature are contingent and mutable, not another being in substance with forces driven by motions and developments. Neither Nannetti nor the 1838 author defines pandeism distinctly enough to distinguish it from pantheism
Pandeism
–
Physicist and philosopher
Max Bernhard Weinstein wrote that 6th century BC philosopher
Xenophanes of Colophon spoke as a pandeist in stating that there was one god which "abideth ever in the selfsame place, moving not at all" and yet "sees all over, thinks all over, and hears all over."
Pandeism
–
Italian theologian
Giordano Bruno was charged with heresy and burned at the stake for propounding what has been deemed by some commentators to be a pandeistic ideology.
Pandeism
–
Pandeism has been proposed to be a traditional religious view that accords with modern science.
