1.
Gossip
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Gossip is idle talk or rumor, especially about the personal or private affairs of others, the act of is also known as dishing or tattling. Gossip has been researched in terms of its evolutionary psychology origins and this has found gossip to be an important means by which people can monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity. Indirect reciprocity is an interaction in which one actor helps another and is then benefited by a third party. Gossip has also identified by Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary biologist. Social media has also provided a faster way to share gossip. In only a matter of minutes, harmful gossip and rumors can spread online from one place in the world to another, the term is sometimes used to specifically refer to the spreading of dirt and misinformation, as through excited discussion of scandals. Some newspapers carry gossip columns which detail the social and personal lives of celebrities or of élite members of certain communities. The word is from Old English godsibb, from god and sibb, in the 16th century, the word assumed the meaning of a person, mostly a woman, one who delights in idle talk, a newsmonger, a tattler. In the early 19th century, the term was extended from the talker to the conversation of such persons, the verb to gossip, meaning to be a gossip, first appears in Shakespeare. The term originates from the bedroom at the time of childbirth, giving birth used to be a social, ladies only, event, in which a pregnant womans female relatives and neighbours would gather. As with any social gathering there was chattering and this is where the term came to mean talk of others. Peter Vajda identifies gossip as a form of violence, noting that it is essentially a form of attack. Gossip is thought by many to one person while disempowering another. Accordingly, many companies have policies in their employee handbooks against gossip. TLK Healthcare cites as examples of gossip, tattletailing to the boss without intention of furthering a solution or speaking to co-workers about something else has done to upset us. Low self-esteem and a desire to fit in are frequently cited as motivations for workplace gossip, breaks existing bonds by ostracizing individuals within an organization. Enhances ones social status/power/prestige within the organization, inform individuals as to what is considered socially acceptable behavior within the organization. This causes the gossipers coercive power to increase, reward, when a gossiper tells positive information about a person, their recipient might believe that the gossiper will also spread positive information about them
2.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
3.
Gray wolf
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The gray wolf or grey wolf, also known as the timber wolf or western wolf, is a canine native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America. It is the largest extant member of its family, with males averaging 43–45 kg, like the red wolf, it is distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size and less pointed features, particularly on the ears and muzzle. Its winter fur is long and bushy, and predominantly a mottled gray in color, although pure white, red. As of 2005,37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 and it is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species, such as the eastern wolf, coyote, and golden jackal to produce fertile hybrids. It is an animal, travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair. The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range, with only humans and it feeds primarily on large ungulates, though it also eats smaller animals, livestock, carrion, and garbage. The gray wolf is one of the worlds best known and well researched animals, although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies, the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies. The English wolf stems from the Old English wulf, which is thought to be derived from the Proto-Germanic *wulfaz. The Latin lupus is a Sabine loanword, both derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *wlqwos/*lukwos. The species Canis lupus was first recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758, the thirty-seven subspecies of Canis lupus are listed under the designated common name of wolf in Mammal Species of the World third edition that was published in 2005. The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf, also known as the common wolf, the subspecies includes the domestic dog, dingo, eastern wolf and red wolf, but lists C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as synonyms of C. l. lupus. However, the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged, ecological factors including habitat type, climate, prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly influence the wolfs genetic population structure and cranio-dental plasticity. The domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore and a descendant from one of those now-extinct wolf populations, in 2013, a genetic study found that the wolf population in Europe was divided along a north-south axis and formed five major clusters. Three clusters were identified occupying southern and central Europe in Italy, the Carpathians, another two clusters were identified occupying north-central Europe and the Ukrainian steppe. The Italian wolf consisted of a population with low genetic diversity. Wolves from Croatia, Bulgaria, and Greece formed the Dinaric-Balkans cluster, the wolves from the Carpathians were more similar to the wolves from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe than they were to wolves from north-central Europe. These clusters may have been the result of expansion from glacial refugia, an adaptation to environments, and landscape fragmentation. These six wolf ecotypes were named West Forest, Boreal Forest, Arctic, High Arctic, Baffin, the studies found that precipitation and mean diurnal temperature range were the most influential variables
4.
American and British English spelling differences
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Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as American today were once used in Britain. But English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and thus modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country, in the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries, todays British English spellings mostly follow Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language, while many American English spellings follow Websters An American Dictionary of the English Language. Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic, in A Companion to the American Revolution, John Algeo notes, it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, rather he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology. William Shakespeares first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre, Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman spellings of words proved to be decisive, later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on todays American spellings and vice versa. For the most part, the systems of most Commonwealth countries. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard, New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord. There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori, most words ending in an unstressed -our in British English end in -or in American English. Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e. g. contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is the same everywhere, most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled -or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, after the Norman conquest of England, the ending became -our to match the Old French spelling. The -our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, however, -or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeares plays used both spellings before they were standardised to -our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original -or ending, Websters 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform and he preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, the French generally supplied us. In Jeffersons original draft it is spelled honour, Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century, honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a persons name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London. In derivatives and inflected forms of the words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used
5.
Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
6.
Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia
7.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
8.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
9.
Chinese whispers
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Although the objective is to pass around the message without it becoming misheard and altered along the way, part of the enjoyment is that, regardless, this usually ends up happening. Errors typically accumulate in the retellings, so the statement announced by the last player differs significantly from that of the first player, the game is often played by children as a party game or on the playground. The game is known as Russian scandal, whisper down the lane, broken telephone, operator, grapevine, gossip, dont drink the milk, secret message, the messenger game. Using the phrase Chinese whispers suggested a belief that the Chinese language itself is not understandable, the game has no winner, the entertainment comes from comparing the original and final messages. Intermediate messages may also be compared, some messages will become unrecognizable after only a few steps, as well as providing amusement, the game can have educational value. It shows how information can become corrupted by indirect communication. The game has used in schools to simulate the spread of gossip. A variant of Chinese whispers is called rumors, in this version of the game, when players transfer the message, they deliberately change one or two words of the phrase. What an individual changes in the message often says something about the player. Epistemology Mondegreen Pavement radio Radio trottoir Rumor Snowball effect Broken Picture Telephone, drawception, another online game which uses the concept. Chinese Whispers, explains the game and offers some examples, Gossip, Rumors, and the Two-Part Telephone Game Global Gossip Game, a game of Gossip that passes from library to library around the world on International Games Day @ your library. The Misemotions Game, a variation of the Chinese Whispers where participants have to convey emotions instead of text messages
10.
Boston Herald
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The Boston Herald is an American daily newspaper whose primary market is Boston, Massachusetts and its surrounding area. It was founded in 1846 and is one of the oldest daily newspapers in the United States and it has been awarded eight Pulitzer Prizes in its history, including four for editorial writing and three for photography before it was converted to tabloid format in 1981. The Herald was named one of the 10 Newspapers That Do It Right in 2012 by Editor & Publisher, the Heralds history can be traced back through two lineages, the Daily Advertiser and the old Boston Herald, and two media moguls, William Randolph Hearst and Rupert Murdoch. The original Boston Herald was founded in 1846 by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French & Company, the paper was published as a single two-sided sheet, selling for one cent. In 1847, the Boston Herald absorbed the Boston American Eagle, the Boston Evening Traveler was founded in 1845. The Boston Evening Traveler was the successor to the weekly American Traveler, in 1912, the Herald acquired the Traveler, continuing to publish both under their own names. For many years, the newspaper was controlled by many of the investors in United Shoe Machinery Co, after a newspaper strike in 1967, Herald-Traveler Corp. suspended the afternoon Traveler and absorbed the evening edition into the Herald to create the Boston Herald Traveler. The Boston Daily Advertiser was established in 1813 in Boston by Nathan Hale, the paper grew to prominence throughout the 19th century, taking over other Boston area papers. In 1832 The Advertiser took over control of The Boston Patriot, the paper was purchased by William Randolph Hearst in 1917. Hearst Corp. continued using the name Advertiser for its Sunday paper until the early 1970s, on September 3,1884, The Boston Evening Record was started by the Boston Advertiser as a campaign newspaper. The Record was so popular that it was made a permanent publication, in 1904, William Randolph Hearst began publishing his own newspaper in Boston called The American. Hearst ultimately ended up purchasing the Daily Advertiser in 1917, by 1938, the Daily Advertiser had changed to the Daily Record, and The American had become the Sunday Advertiser. A third paper owned by Hearst, called the Afternoon Record, the Sunday Advertiser and Record American would ultimately be merged in 1972 into The Boston Herald Traveler a line of newspapers that stretched back to the old Boston Herald. In 1946, Herald-Traveler Corporation acquired Boston radio station WHDH, two years later, WHDH-FM was licensed, and on November 26,1957, WHDH-TV made its début as an ABC affiliate on channel 5. In 1961, WHDH-TVs affiliation switched to CBS, Herald-Traveler Corp. was granted a construction permit to replace WHDH-TV on channel 5. The two papers were merged to become a paper called the Boston Herald Traveler and Record American in the morning and Record-American. The first editions published under the new combined name were those of June 19,1972, the afternoon edition was soon dropped and the unwieldy name shortened to Boston Herald American, with the Sunday edition called the Sunday Herald Advertiser. The Herald American converted to tabloid format in September 1981, but Hearst faced steep declines in circulation, the company announced it would close the Herald American—making Boston a one-newspaper town—on December 3,1982
11.
Politico-media complex
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The term PMC is often used to name, derogatively, the collusion between governments or individual politicians and the media industry in an attempt to manipulate rather than inform the people. There is recent evidence to suggest that newer media portals are turning, more readily, to using the PMC framework in critical analysis, one notable example of this is with regards to the Leveson Inquiry. Before Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in 1450, most information was delivered by town criers, ministers from the pulpit, Town criers spread information and news including royal edicts, police regulations, important community events and war news. These early methods of communication were often delivered by messengers on foot, with the invention of the printing press news began to be spread in writing. Corantos, which were semi-regular pamphlets that reported news, are an example of the early politico-media complex, popular in England, corantos reported mostly foreign news, as the royal government attempted to control what domestic news reached the masses. Corantos eventually would become regular periodicals that were subject to political control. Most of the international papers present in the world today are national papers re-edited for a wider audience, because of this, there can be biases based on nationality. In any publication there is sort of bias just from what news is covered. Although print media in the West has suffered from declining advertising trends, many newspapers, for countries in which the majority of the population does not have ready access to the Internet or television, newspapers and magazines are one of the few ways to get the news. However, the independence from influence, and dependability of newsprint is questionable in many countries. Newspapers and magazines do have a back and forth between readers and journalists, some studies have shown that the print media are more likely to reinforce existing political attitudes of the masses than change them. Reporters Without Borders, an international non-governmental organization that promotes freedom of the press, how can you condemn human rights violations abroad if you do not behave irreproachably at home. The Obama effect, which has enabled the United States to recover 16 places in the index, is not enough to reassure us, the press is censored in the Peoples Republic of China by the Golden Shield Project, known colloquially as the Great Firewall of China. Reporters Without Borders ranks Chinas press situation as serious, the worst possible ranking on their five-point scale. Chinas press was ranked 173rd out of 179 countries in the 2013 World Press Freedom Index, Middle Eastern print media is mainly paid for by private funders, either a specific family or specific government party. Some Middle Eastern newspapers and magazines have been accused of having obvious political ties, many countries in the Middle East and Africa have harsh government restrictions as to what can be published when, for various reasons depending on political and economic circumstances. Iran, ranked 174 out of 179 in 2013, is described as highly censored, as the Iranian government maintains control over much of the print and broadcast media. Reporters Without Borders has said that journalists in Israel enjoy real freedom of expression despite the existence of military censorship, according to Reporters Without Borders in 2009, Eritrea in Northern Africa is the worst ranked country for journalistic freedom
12.
Smear campaign
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A smear campaign, smear tactic or simply smear is an effort to damage or call into question someones reputation, by propounding negative propaganda. It can be applied to individuals or groups, common targets are public officials, politicians, political candidates, activists and ex-spouses. The term also applies in other such as the workplace. The phrase smear campaign became popular from around 1936, a smear campaign is an intentional, premeditated effort to undermine an individuals or groups reputation, credibility, and character. Like negative campaigning, most often smear campaigns target government officials, politicians, political candidates, however, private persons or groups may also become targets of smear campaigns perpetrated in companies, institutions, the legal system, and other formal groups. Smear tactics differ from normal discourse or debate in that they do not bear upon the issues or arguments in question, a smear is a simple attempt to malign a group or an individual with the aim of undermining their credibility. Smears often consist of ad hominem attacks in the form of unverifiable rumors and distortions, half-truths, or even outright lies, smear campaigns are often propagated by gossip magazines. Even when the facts behind a campaign are demonstrated to lack proper foundation. Smears are also effective in diverting attention away from the matter in question, the target of the smear typically must focus on correcting the false information rather than on the original issue. Deflection has been described as a smear, You make up something. Then you have the press write about it, and then you say, everybody is writing about this charge. Smear tactics are considered by many to be a low, disingenuous form of discourse, smear campaigns have been identified as a common weapon of psychopaths and narcissists. In many countries, the law recognizes the value of reputation, both libel and slander are often punishable by law and may result in imprisonment or compensation or fees for damages done. Smear tactics are used to undermine effective arguments or critiques. During the 1856 presidential election, John C, frémont was the target of a smear campaign alleging that he was a Catholic. The campaign was designed to support for Fremont from those who were suspicious of Catholics. Ralph Nader was the victim of a campaign during the 1960s. In order to smear Nader and deflect attention from his campaign
13.
Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
14.
Apple community
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The Apple community are people interested in Apple Inc. and its products, who report information in various media. The Apple community is made up of several websites which exclusively, or almost exclusively, some have ceased operation, but a great many continue to run successfully. 9to5Mac was founded in 2007 by Seth Weintraub as an Apple news website focused on Macs in the enterprise. Since then, the website has expanded to covering all things Apple, 9to5Mac is known as the leading website within the Apple News Community in terms of breaking impactful news. The site also published the first photos of the white iPad 2, iPhone 5, the creation of 9to5Mac as well as its top authors were profiled in 2014 by Business Insider. Accelerate Your Mac was started in 1997 at the web address of www. xlr8yourmac. com as an Apple-centric overclocking and hardware modification website. Launched in 1998 as a news and rumor website for Apple products and services, appleinsider. com includes a forum for discussion of news stories and other community news. In the late 1990s Apple successfully sued John Doe from AppleInsiders boards with the username Worker Bee for revealing information on what would become the Apple Pro Mouse. It was a case of Apple following through on threats of a suit. The case was settled out of court, iMore is a Canadian website founded in 2008, previously as Phonedifferent, with its main focus on all aspects of Apple devices. It is run by editor-in-chief Rene Richie with a small editing staff, the French site MacBidouille used to report rumors, although they stopped for multiple reasons. However, they report from time to time, such as for the release of the G5. Most of its articles give technical or commercial information, and sometimes harsh criticisms against Apples policy, there is an English version of the site called HardMac, which carries the actual same news and articles, translated in English by a team of volunteers. MacIssues is the renewal of what began in March 1996 as MacFixIt, the site was originally called The Sad Macs Update Site but was renamed to MacFixIt after hosting problems. The site has changed hands, being sold to TechTracker in July 2000, with CBS Interactives acquisition of CNET in 2008, MacFixIt was integrated into the main CNET blog structure. MacOS Rumors was founded by Ethan C. Allen in 1995 and it was obtained by Ryan Meader after a domain expiration within two years of its creation. Originally with Ethan, the site posted most of its rumors based on screenshots, with Ryan at the helm, MacOS Rumors collected content from message boards and usenet posts but later claimed to have developed contacts inside Apple. In the past few years MacOS Rumors has gained a reputation for being inaccurate, Meader had allowed the MacOS Rumors domain name to expire around July 16,2007, but then renewed the domain for another nine years and announced the addition of a new staff writer
15.
Snopes.com
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Snopes. com /ˈsnoʊps/, also known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a website covering urban legends, Internet rumors, e-mail forwards, and other stories of unknown or questionable origin. It is a resource for validating and debunking such stories in American popular culture. Snopes. com was created by Barbara and David Mikkelson, a California couple who met in the alt. folklore. urban newsgroup, the site is organized by topic and includes a message board where stories and pictures of questionable veracity may be posted. David Mikkelson used the username snopes in the Usenet newsgroup alt. folklore. urban, the Mikkelsons created the Snopes site in 1995 and later worked on it full-time. By mid-2014, Barbara Mikkelson had not written for the site in several years, the Mikkelsons divorced around the same time, and Barbara no longer has an ownership stake in Snopes. com. A television pilot based on the site, called Snopes, Urban Legends, was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host, Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by media and other sites, including CNN, Fox News Channel, MSNBC. Snopes popular standing is such that some chain e-mail hoaxes claim to have checked out on Snopes. com in an attempt to discourage readers from seeking verification. As of March 2009, the site had approximately 6.2 million visitors per month, where appropriate, pages are generally marked undetermined or unverifiable if the Mikkelsons feel there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim. The name was chosen for its acronym, T. R. O. L. L, a reference to the early 1990s definition of the word troll, meaning an Internet prank, of which David Mikkelson was a prominent practitioner. One fictional legend alleged that the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence was really a coded reference used by pirates to recruit members. This parodied a real false legend surrounding the supposed connection of Ring a Ring o Roses to the bubonic plague. Jan Harold Brunvand, a folklorist who has written a number of books on urban legends and modern folklore, considered the site so comprehensive in 2004 that he decided to not launch one of his own. In 2012, FactCheck. org reviewed a sample of Snopes responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, FactCheck noted that Barbara Mikkelson was a Canadian citizen and David Mikkelson was an independent who was once registered as a Republican. Youd be hard-pressed to find two more people, David Mikkelson told them. Critics of the site have falsely asserted that it is funded by George Soros, or linked sites, the New York Times has stated, All of Snopes’s revenue — Mr. Mikkelson says he doesn’t know what it is — come from ads. Facebook is not paying for its services, nor is the billionaire George Soros funding the site, although that is sometimes asserted in anti-Snopes stories. As of April 2017, Snopes. coms Alexa rating was 1,794, approximately 80% of its visitors originate from within the United States
16.
Pheme (project)
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Pheme is a 36-month research project into establishing the veracity of claims made on the internet. Unverified content is dominant and prolific in social media messages, while big data typically presents challenges in its information volume, variety and velocity, social media presents a fourth, establishing veracity. The Pheme project aims to analyse content in real time and determine how accurate the claims made in it are, as claims propagate through a social network, each individual chooses whether or not to pass on information, based on how accurate they think it is. This will help, for example, emergency services to flag potential hoax emergencies, evaluating the authority of sources automatically is also a project goal, based on the treatment of the news and information that comes from them. For example, a tweet of a BBC news article would hold more weight than one from an unknown source, the project is named after the Greek goddess Pheme. Pheme addresses social media lies in two scenarios, information about healthcare, which can be damaging if wrong, and information used by journalists. Pheme addresses speculation, controversy, misinformation and disinformation, the project is a partnership between the University of Sheffield as part of GATE, the University of Warwick, Kings College London, Saarland University in Germany and MODUL University Vienna. Four companies are taking part - Atos, iHub Nairobi, Ontotext. Pheme is funded by the EU. L. Derczynski, K. Bontcheva, passive-Aggressive Sequence Labeling with Discriminative Post-Editing for Recognising Person Entities in Tweets. Proceedings of the European Association for Computation Linguistics,2014, Pheme page on the GATE website Interview on Canberra radio Checking whether rumours on social media are true, video
17.
Hoax
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A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as the truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences, although practical jokes have likely existed for thousands of years, one of the earliest recorded hoaxes in history was the drummer of Tedworth in 1661. The communication of hoaxes can be accomplished in almost any manner that a story can be communicated, in person, via word of mouth, via words printed on paper. However, hoaxes could also be spread via chain letters, which became easier as the cost of mailing a letter dropped. The invention of the press in the 15th century brought down the cost of a mass-produced books and pamphlets. During the 20th century, the hoax found a market in the form of supermarket tabloids. Hocus is a shortening of the magic incantation hocus pocus, whose origin is disputed, robert Nares defined the word hoax as meaning to cheat, dating from Thomas Adys 1656 book A candle in the dark, or a treatise on the nature of witches and witchcraft. T. Barnum, whose Fiji mermaid contributed to his wealth—often acquire monetary gain or fame through their fabrications, one of the earliest recorded media hoaxes is a fake almanac published by Jonathan Swift under the pseudonym of Isaac Bickerstaff in 1708. Swift predicted the death of John Partridge, one of the astrologers in England at that time, in the almanac. Partridges reputation was damaged as a result and his astrological almanac was not published for the six years. It is possible to perpetrate a hoax by making only true statements using unfamiliar wording or context, political hoaxes are sometimes motivated by the desire to ridicule or besmirch opposing politicians or political institutions, often before elections. A hoax differs from a trick or from fiction in that the audience is unaware of being deceived. A hoax is often intended as a joke or to cause embarrassment. It can also emerge from a marketing or advertising purpose, a resulting video clip of Chloe and Keiths Wedding was uploaded to YouTube and was viewed by over 30 million people and the couple was interviewed by numerous talk shows. Viewers were deluded into thinking that it was a clip of a real accident at a real wedding. A borderline case between fiction and hoax is a 1938 radio broadcast by Orson Welles describing a Martian invasion of Earth, many people who tuned in without hearing the introduction of the program as fiction were concerned that the invasion was real. Governments sometimes spread false information to facilitate their objectives, such as going to war, the Iraq dossier is an example of this, there is often a mixture of outright hoax and suppression and management of information to give the desired impression. In wartime and times of international tension rumors abound, some of which may be deliberate hoaxes, examples of politics-related hoaxes, Belgium is a country with a Flemish-speaking region and a French-speaking region
18.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
20.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
21.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
