1.
Dutch Baroque architecture
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Like contemporary developments in England, Dutch Palladianism is marked by sobriety and restraint. The architecture of the first republic in Northern Europe was meant to reflect democratic values by quoting extensively from classical antiquity, brought together in a coherent combination, these stylistic developments anticipated Wrens Classicism. The most ambitious constructions of the period included the seats of self-government in Amsterdam and Maastricht, designed by Campen and Post, on the other hand, the residences of the House of Orange are closer to a typical burgher mansion than to a royal palace. Two of these, Huis ten Bosch and Mauritshuis, are symmetrical blocks with large windows, the same austerely geometrical effect is achieved without great cost or pretentious effects at the stadholders summer residence of Het Loo. The Dutch Republic was one of the powers of 17th-century Europe. Dutch architects were employed on important projects in Northern Germany, Scandinavia and Russia, jakob Rosenberg, Seymour Slive, and E. H. ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture,1600 to 1800, 3rd ed
2.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
3.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Christian IV of Denmark
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Christian IV, sometimes colloquially referred to as Christian Firtal in Denmark and Christian Kvart or Quart in Norway, was king of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 to 1648. His 59-year reign is the longest of Danish monarchs, and of Scandinavian monarchies, a member of the house of Oldenburg, Christian began his personal rule of Denmark in 1596 at the age of 19. He is frequently remembered as one of the most popular, ambitious, Christian IV obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. He engaged Denmark in numerous wars, most notably the Thirty Years War, which devastated much of Germany, undermined the Danish economy and he renamed the Norwegian capital Oslo as Christiania after himself, a name used until 1925. Christian was born at Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark on 12 April 1577 as the child and eldest son of King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway. He was descended, through his mothers side, from king John of Denmark, at the time, Denmark was still an elective monarchy, so in spite of being the eldest son Christian was not automatically heir to the throne. However, in 1580, at the age of 3, his father had him elected Prince-Elect, at the death of his father on 4 April 1588, Christian was 11 years old. He succeeded to the throne, but as he was still under-age a regency council was set up to serve as the trustees of the power while Christian was still growing up. It was led by chancellor Niels Kaas and consisted of the Rigsraadet council members Peder Munk, Jørgen Ottesen Rosenkrantz and his mother Queen Dowager Sophie,30 years old, had wished to play a role in the government, but was denied by the Council. At the death of Niels Kaas in 1594, Jørgen Rosenkrantz took over leadership of the regency council, Christian continued his studies at Sorø Academy and received a good education with a reputation as a headstrong and talented student. In 1595, the Council of the Realm decided that Christian would soon be old enough to assume control of the reins of government. On 17 August 1596, at the age of 19, Christian signed his haandfæstning, twelve days later, on 29 August 1596, Christian IV was crowned at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand, Peder Jensen Vinstrup. He was crowned with a new Danish Crown Regalia which had made for him by Dirich Fyring. On 30 November 1597, he married Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, Christian took an interest in many and varied matters, including a series of domestic reforms and improving Danish national armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction of Dutch engineers, the Danish navy, which in 1596 had consisted of but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them built after Christians own designs. The formation of a national army proved more difficult, up until the early 1620s, Denmarks economy profited from general boom conditions in Europe. This inspired Christian to initiate a policy of expanding Denmarks overseas trade and he founded a number of merchant cities, and supported the building of factories. He also built a number of buildings in Dutch Renaissance style
6.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
7.
Tower
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A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant margin. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are not built to be habitable but to serve other functions. Towers can be stand alone structures or be supported by adjacent buildings or can be a feature on top of a structure or building. Old English torr is from Latin turris via Old French tor, the Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym Βου-δοργίς. The oldest known may be the stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho. Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC, the most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture. The latter was built in Babylon during the 2nd millennium BC and was considered the tallest tower of the ancient world, some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical towerhouses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification, for example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower. The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletians Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls, the Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles, other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372 and the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century, up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded. This can be avoided if the support structure tapers up the building. A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness. A third limit is dynamic, a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding and these are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the building simultaneously. Although not correctly called towers many modern skyscraper are often called towers, in the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, the tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields
8.
Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories, space based, airborne, ground based, ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes, for optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a percentage of clear nights per year, dry air. At high elevations, the Earths atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence, sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile. Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility, beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the mid-20th century, a number of observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m, was the worlds highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory. As a result, the resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price, Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all, Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earths atmosphere
9.
Equestrian staircase
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An equestrian staircase or riders staircase is a very gently sloping flight of steps that can be negotiated by horses. Its origins may be seen in the staircases in steep terrain in open country. Its design principles found their way from road construction into building architecture and this type of ramp occurs in the towers of churches, castles, fortifications and palaces as well as in the architecture of other buildings within fortifications villas and palaces. From the 15th century, imposing equestrian staircases were built in the homes of the nobility. These staircases enabled riders to reach the floor on horseback. The equestrian staircase leading to Vladislav Hall in Prague Castle, which was built around 1500, is one of the oldest known examples, there are examples in Venice, Geneva and Copenhagen
10.
Helix
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A helix is a type of smooth space curve, i. e. a curve in three-dimensional space. It has the property that the tangent line at any point makes a constant angle with a line called the axis. Examples of helices are coil springs and the handrails of spiral staircases, a filled-in helix – for example, a spiral ramp – is called a helicoid. Helices are important in biology, as the DNA molecule is formed as two intertwined helices, and many proteins have helical substructures, known as alpha helices, the word helix comes from the Greek word ἕλιξ, twisted, curved. Helices can be either right-handed or left-handed, handedness is a property of the helix, not of the perspective, a right-handed helix cannot be turned to look like a left-handed one unless it is viewed in a mirror, and vice versa. Most hardware screw threads are right-handed helices, the alpha helix in biology as well as the A and B forms of DNA are also right-handed helices. The Z form of DNA is left-handed, the pitch of a helix is the height of one complete helix turn, measured parallel to the axis of the helix. A double helix consists of two helices with the axis, differing by a translation along the axis. A conic helix may be defined as a spiral on a conic surface, an example is the Corkscrew roller coaster at Cedar Point amusement park. A circular helix, has constant band curvature and constant torsion, a curve is called a general helix or cylindrical helix if its tangent makes a constant angle with a fixed line in space. A curve is a general helix if and only if the ratio of curvature to torsion is constant, a curve is called a slant helix if its principal normal makes a constant angle with a fixed line in space. It can be constructed by applying a transformation to the frame of a general helix. Some curves found in nature consist of multiple helices of different handedness joined together by transitions known as tendril perversions, in mathematics, a helix is a curve in 3-dimensional space. The following parametrisation in Cartesian coordinates defines a particular helix, Probably the simplest equations for one is x = cos , y = sin , z = t. As the parameter t increases, the point traces a right-handed helix of pitch 2θ and radius 1 about the z-axis, in cylindrical coordinates, the same helix is parametrised by, r =1, θ = t, h = t. A circular helix of radius a and slope b/a is described by the following parametrisation, another way of mathematically constructing a helix is to plot the complex-valued function exi as a function of the real number x. The value of x and the real and imaginary parts of the function value give this plot three real dimensions, except for rotations, translations, and changes of scale, all right-handed helices are equivalent to the helix defined above. The equivalent left-handed helix can be constructed in a number of ways, in music, pitch space is often modeled with helices or double helices, most often extending out of a circle such as the circle of fifths, so as to represent octave equivalency
11.
Trinitatis Church
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Trinitatis Church is located in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It is part of the 17th century Trinitatis Complex, which includes the Rundetårn astronomical observatory tower, built in the time of Christian IV, the church initially served the students of Copenhagen University. It is situated at the corner of Landemærket and Købmagergade, the interior was seriously damaged in the fire of 1728 but was rebuilt in 1731. The humanistically inspired combination was from a commission of Christian IV, there were three builders, namely Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger, Leonhard Blasius, and Albertus Mathiesen. At the time of construction, the church was the second largest in the city, second only to the Church of Our Lady. As the church was intended to be used by university students and professors, it may appear oversized. The foundation stone was laid July 7,1637, and the Round Tower was completed in 1642, the church was consecrated on Trinity Sunday 1656. The Copenhagen University Library was installed in the loft in 1657. After marrying the widow of J. M. Radeck in 1685, during the fire of 1728, Trinitatis Church was not as badly damaged as other churches in the city. The roof structure was ignited, a spire crashed into the library, Church walls and vaults withstood the fire and subsequent repairs did not decisively change the churchs appearance. A new cornice and spire were required, the new roof was covered with black glazed tiles. New dormer windows were inserted but only in one row, the interior bases and capitals of the columns and arches were repaired. All wood furnishings were replaced, and the floor was covered with tiles from Öland, the reconstruction was in Northern Gothic-Baroque style. The church was rededicated October 7,1731 and the remains of the university library were moved again, the furnishings were renewed with an altarpiece and pulpit by Friederich Ehbisch and a large Baroque clock. The church was refurbished in 1763, the Trinitatis Complex was hit during the 1807 British bombardment of Copenhagen, and damaged by major fires. Four bombs struck the library, but did not penetrate through to the church, thanks to the efforts of churchwarden Tvermoes, injuries were minimized. Building repairs amounted to relatively modest 3,000 rigsdaler, alterations were necessary in 1817 to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. The small shops on the corner of Landemærket were closed, as was the remainder of the north of the church
12.
Academic library
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It is unknown how many academic libraries there are internationally. An academic and research portal maintained by UNESCO links to 3,785 libraries, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, there are an estimated 3,700 academic libraries in the United States. The support of teaching and learning material for class readings. In the past, the material for class readings, intended to supplement lectures as prescribed by the instructor, has been called reserves, in the period before electronic resources became available, the reserves were supplied as actual books or as photocopies of appropriate journal articles. Academic libraries must determine a focus for development since comprehensive collections are not feasible. Librarians do this by identifying the needs of the faculty and student body, as well as the mission, when there are particular areas of specialization in academic libraries, these are often referred to as niche collections. These collections are often the basis of a special department and may include original papers, artwork. There is a deal of variation among academic libraries based on their size, resources, collections. The Harvard University Library is considered to be the largest academic library in the world and has the third largest collection in the United States, another notable example is the University of the South Pacific which has academic libraries distributed throughout its twelve member countries. The first colleges in the United States were intended to train members of the clergy, the libraries associated with these institutions largely consisted of donated books on the subjects of theology and the classics. In 1766, Yale had approximately 4,000 volumes, second only to Harvard, access to these libraries was restricted to faculty members and a few students, the only staff was a part-time faculty member or the president of the college. The priority of the library was to protect the books, not to allow patrons to use them, in 1849, Yale was open 30 hours a week, the University of Virginia was open nine hours a week, Columbia University four, and Bowdoin College only three. Students instead created literary societies and assessed entrance fees in order to build a collection of usable volumes often in excess of what the university library held. Around the turn of the century, this began to change. The American Library Association was formed in 1876, with members including Melvil Dewey, Libraries re-prioritized in favor of improving access to materials, and found funding increasing as a result of increased demand for said materials. Academic libraries today vary in regard to the extent to which they accommodate those who are not affiliated with their parent universities, some offer reading and borrowing privileges to members of the public on payment of an annual fee, such fees can vary greatly. The privileges so obtained usually do not extend to such services as computer usage, other than to search the catalog, alumni and students of cooperating local universities may be given discounts or other consideration when arranging for borrowing privileges. On the other hand, access to the libraries of universities is absolutely restricted to students, faculty
13.
Copenhagen University Library
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The Copenhagen University Library in Copenhagen, Denmark, is the main research library of the University of Copenhagen. Founded in 1482, it is the oldest library in Denmark, the old main building of the library is located in Fiolstræde in central Copenhagen. It was designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and completed in 1861, a second library, known as the Copenhagen University Library North, is located in Nørre Allé and is the library for natural sciences and medicine. Since 1989, the Copenhagen University Library has been part of the Royal Library of Denmark, in 1482, the University Library was established at the University of Copenhagen which had been founded three years earlier, when its vice-rector, Peder Albertsen, donated his book collection. One of the first buildings to house the library was the House of the Holy Ghost, in 1553, the first real library building, located at the site where the universitys main building stands today, was inaugurated and it served its purpose for the next hundred years. In the first decades of the 17th century, Copenhagen experienced strong building activity under Christian IV, ultimately the idea emerged to build one grand complex which was to hold both an observatory, a church and new premises for the university library. Construction of the new building, known as the Trinitatis Complex, First to be completed was the observatory at the top of what is today known as the Round Tower. The new university library, located above the church and accessible only by the Round Towers spiral ramp, was taken into use in 1652, in 1656, the Trinitatis Church was completed as the last part of the new trinity of science, knowledge and faith. Up through the 17th century, the University Library grew significantly, after this, the University surpassed the Royal Library in size. In the Copenhagen Fire of 1728, the University Library was devastated and 30,000 volumes were lost to the flames, only some materials which against the rules had been removed from the premises by students and professors were saved. After the fire the library was restored along with the rest of the Trinitatis Complex, in 1730, Árni Magnússon bequeathed his book and manuscript collection to the library. It included, most significantly, a collection of Icelandic. The library introduced loans in 1788, ironically, they landed in the librarys section for morals and politics where they damaged a corner of Marsilius of Paduas Defensor pacis. Fragments of the grenades are now exhibited in the Exhibition Hall on the first floor of the current University Library building in Fiolstræde, up through the 19th century it became clear that the librarys premises in the Trinitatis Complex were outdated. They had become too small and the access along the Round Towers helical corridor was also impractical. In 1856, the university held a competition for the design of a new library on a site in Fiolstræde. The competition was won by Johan Daniel Herholdt, construction started in 1857 and the new building was completed in 1861. The same year the observatory also moved to a specially designed building
14.
Rundetaarn
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The Rundetaarn, or Rundetårn, is a 17th-century tower located in central Copenhagen, Denmark. One of the architectural projects of Christian IV, it was built as an astronomical observatory. It is most noted for its equestrian staircase, a 7. 5-turn helical corridor leading to the top, today the Round Tower serves as an observation tower for expansive views of Copenhagen, a public astronomical observatory and a historical monument. In the same time the Library Hall, located above the church, astronomy had grown in importance in 17th-century Europe. Countries had begun competing with other in establishing colonies, creating a need for accurate navigation across the oceans. Many national observatories were established, the first in 1632 at Leiden in the Dutch Republic. Only five years later the Round Tower Observatory, first referred to as STELLÆBURGI REGII HAUNIENSIS, after Tycho Brahe had fallen out of favour and left Denmark, Christian Longomontanus had become Christian IVs new astronomer and the first professor of astronomy at the University of Copenhagen. In 1625 he suggested the king build a tower as a replacement for Brahes Stjerneborg which had been demolished after his death in 1601. Longomontanus initial proposal was to erect the new observatory on the top of the hill Solbjerget, but since there were also plans for the construction of a new students church and a library for the university, the idea of merging the three buildings into one grand complex emerged. Already in 1622, Christian IV had bought the land where it was decided to build the Trinitatis Complex. His original plans for the site are not known but as it was located next to the Regensen dormitories. From 24 November 1636, stones were brought to the site for the foundation, first from the citys ramparts, bricks were ordered from the Netherlands since local manufacturers could not meet the high quality standards requested. In February 1637, a contract was signed with a Henrik van Dingklage in Emden for the supply of bricks for the construction, the first three ship loads were to be delivered in May, the next three loads the following month and the remainder on demand. The Trinitatis Complex was set for construction in a neighbourhood of narrow streets. The area first had to be cleared, on 18 April 1637,200 men, soldiers and personnel from Bremerholm began to demolish the half-timbered houses occupying the site. The foundation stone was laid on 7 July 1637, when Hans van Steenwinckel died on 6 August 1639, Leonhard Blasius was brought to Denmark from the Netherlands as new Royal Building Master. On several occasions construction work came to a due to shortage of funds. Churches in Denmark and Norway were therefore ordered to contribute a share of their earnings during the construction years, in 1642, the tower was finally completed, though the church was completed only in 1657 and the library in 1657
15.
Leiden
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Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
16.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
17.
Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr
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Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr was a German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer. He was born in Nuremberg, the son of the merchant Johann Siegmund Doppelmayr and he entered the Aegidien-Gymnasium in Nuremberg in 1689, then the University of Altdorf in 1696. His studies included mathematics, physics, and jurisprudence, later he continued his studies in Halle and graduated in 1698 with a dissertion on the Sun. During studying at the University of Halle, he also learned French and he continued to study astronomy and learned to grind and figure his own telescope lenses. His career was academic, and he became professor of mathematics at the Aegidien-Gymnasium from 1704 until his death and he is not noted for any discoveries, but he did publish several works of a scientific nature. His publications covered topics on mathematics and astronomy, including sundials, spherical trigonometry, one of his works also included useful biographical information on several hundred mathematicians and instrument makers of Nuremberg. Doppelmayr developed a relationship with the Dominican monk and cartographer Johann Batist Homann. In the early 1700s, Doppelmayr prepared a number of plates that had appeared in Homanns atlases. The remaining ten plates were actual star charts, including hemispheres centered on the equatorial poles, Doppelmayr married Susanna Maria Kellner in 1716, and the couple had four children of which one survived. Doppelmayr became a member of scientific societies, most notably the Berlin Academy, the Royal Society in 1733. The crater Doppelmayer on the Moon was named after him by Johann Hieronymus Schröter in 1791, the minor planet 12622 Doppelmayr is also named in his honour. The Atlas Coelestis of Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, Atlas Coelestis, Norimbergae, Heredi Homannianorum,1742. Full digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library, Atlas novus coelestis, Norimberga 1742 da www. atlascoelestis. com
18.
Tycho Brahe
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Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe, was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He was born in the then Danish peninsula of Scania, well known in his lifetime as an astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, he has been described as the first competent mind in modern astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical facts. His observations were some five times more accurate than the best available observations at the time, an heir to several of Denmarks principal noble families, he received a comprehensive education. He took an interest in astronomy and in the creation of more instruments of measurement. His system correctly saw the Moon as orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, furthermore, he was the last of the major naked eye astronomers, working without telescopes for his observations. In his De nova stella of 1573, he refuted the Aristotelian belief in a celestial realm. Using similar measurements he showed that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as previously thought, on the island he founded manufactories, such as a paper mill, to provide material for printing his results. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou, there, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tychos astronomical data to develop his three laws of planetary motion. Tychos body has been exhumed twice, in 1901 and 2010, to examine the circumstances of his death, both of his grandfathers and all of his great grandfathers had served as members of the Danish kings Privy Council. His paternal grandfather and namesake Thyge Brahe was the lord of Tosterup Castle in Scania, Tychos father Otte Brahe, like his father a royal Privy Councilor, married Beate Bille, who was herself a powerful figure at the Danish court holding several royal land titles. Both parents are buried under the floor of Kågeröd Church, four kilometres east of Knutstorp, Tycho was born at his familys ancestral seat of Knutstorp Castle, about eight kilometres north of Svalöv in then Danish Scania. He was the oldest of 12 siblngs,8 of whom lived to adulthood and his twin brother died before being baptized. Tycho later wrote an ode in Latin to his dead twin, an epitaph, originally from Knutstorp, but now on a plaque near the church door, shows the whole family, including Tycho as a boy. When he was two years old Tycho was taken away to be raised by his uncle Jørgen Thygesen Brahe. It is unclear why the Otte Brahe reached this arrangement with his brother, Tycho later wrote that Jørgen Brahe raised me and generously provided for me during his life until my eighteenth year, he always treated me as his own son and made me his heir. From ages 6 to 12, Tycho attended Latin school, probably in Nykøbing, at age 12, on 19 April 1559, Tycho began studies at the University of Copenhagen. There, following his uncles wishes, he studied law, but also studied a variety of other subjects, at the University, Aristotle was a staple of scientific theory, and Tycho likely received a thorough training in Aristotelian physics and cosmology. He experienced the solar eclipse of 21 August 1560, and was impressed by the fact that it had been predicted
19.
University of Copenhagen
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The University of Copenhagen is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark. Founded in 1479 as a studium generale, it is the second oldest institution for education in Scandinavia after Uppsala University. The university has 23,473 undergraduate students,17,398 postgraduate students,2,968 doctoral students, the university has four campuses located in and around Copenhagen, with the headquarters located in central Copenhagen. Most courses are taught in Danish, however, many courses are offered in English. The university has several thousands of students, about half of whom come from Nordic countries. The university has had 8 alumni become Nobel laureates and has produced one Turing Award recipient, the rector, the prorector and the director of the university is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration, the deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. The governing body manages a budget of about BDKK8.3. The University is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments, the University employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000 annually, UCPH has established an international graduate talent program which provides grants for international Ph. D, students and a tenure track carrier system. UCPH operates about fifty master’s programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students,2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students, about 3,000 Ph. D. students study there each year. South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities and a proportion of the Faculty of Science. In the winter of 2016–2017, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Theology will also move to South Campus, frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, the Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark, between the closing of the Studium Generale in Lund in 1536 and the establishment of the University of Aarhus in the late 1920s, it was the only university in Denmark. The university became a centre of Roman Catholic theological learning, but also had faculties for the study of law, medicine, between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations
20.
Stjerneborg
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Stjerneborg was Tycho Brahes underground observatory next to his palace-observatory Uraniborg, located on the island of Hven in Øresund. Tycho Brahe built it circa 1581 and he named it Stiernburg in vernacular or Stellæburgus in Latin. Both the Danish and Latin names mean castle of the stars, the underground portions of the observatory were excavated in the 1950s and are today fitted with a roof approximating the original one. The chambers now house a multimedia show open to the public, click on the schematic for more details on the function of the various chambers. Media related to Stjärneborg at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Regensen
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Regensen is a residential college for students at the University of Copenhagen and Technical University of Denmark. It is situated in the heart of the old city, right next to the Rundetårn, commissioned by King Christian IV and inaugurated by Royal Charter by on 1 July 1623, Regensen has for centuries provided a unique living and working environment for 100 students. Some of the burned down along with the rest city in the Great Fire of Copenhagen in 1728. Regensens mission is to provide housing to talented yet non-privileged students at the University of Copenhagen, until the 1980s, the foundation behind Regensen, Kommunitetet, provided free housing and a scholarship for students chosen for admission. Because of financial difficulties, a fee was introduced, which today comprises of DKK1,600 per month. This is still well under housing price levels in Copenhagen and Regensen thus continues to provide stability for its students. It is the second oldest of the old dormitories of the University of Copenhagen, applications are open twice a year, corresponding with the start of the Spring and Autumn semesters. Applications are typically quite competitive, with 120-150 applications for around 10 spots, since 2013 there are two scholarships a year for foreign students, in honour of Jonas Thomsen Sekyere. The residents of Regensen organize themselves in small clubs in which they gather to eat, drink, the current clubs are Gamle, Konvencio, PIP, Ping, Skrap, HOF, Tilia, and Uglen. Regensen is also characterised by a calendar of special feast days that are observed in the Great Hall with a complex array of festive traditions. Thomas Kingo, bishop and poet Rasmus Rask, linguist and philologist Christian Winther, poet D
22.
Roskilde
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Roskilde, located 30 km west of Copenhagen on the Danish island of Zealand, is the main city in Roskilde Municipality. With a population of 50,046, the city is a business and educational centre for the region, Roskilde is governed by the administrative council of Roskilde Municipality. Roskilde has a history, dating from the pre-Christian Viking Age. Its UNESCO-listed Gothic cathedral, now housing 39 tombs of the Danish monarchs, was completed in 1275, among the largest private sector employers today are the IT firm BEC and GPI, specializing in plastics. The Risø research facility is becoming a major employer, extending interest in sustainable energy to the clean technology sphere. The local university, founded in 1972, the historic Cathedral School, Roskilde has a large local hospital which has been expanded and modernized since it was opened in 1855. It is now active in the research sphere. The Sankt Hans psychiatric hospital serves the Capital Region with specialized facilities for forensic psychiatry, the cathedral and the Viking Ship Museum, which contains the well-preserved remains of five 11th-century ships, attract more than 100,000 visitors annually. The city is home to the FC Roskilde football club play in the Danish 1st Division, the Roskilde Vikings RK rugby club. In the 1970s, the city benefited from the opening of the university, Roskilde has the oldest operational railway station in Denmark, with connections across Zealand as well as with Falster, Lolland, and Jutland. The local airport opened in 1973, mainly serving light aircraft for business use, from the 11th century until 1443, it was the capital of Denmark. By the Middle Ages, with the support of kings and bishops, the Saxo Grammaticus and other early sources associate the name Roskilde with the legendary King Roar who possibly lived there in the 6th century. According to Adam of Bremen and the Saxo Grammaticus, Roskilde was founded in the 980s by Harald Bluetooth, on high ground above the harbour, he built a wooden church consecrated to the Holy Trinity as well as a royal residence nearby. Although no traces of buildings have been discovered, in 1997 archaeologists found the remains of Viking ships in the Isefjord. At the time, there were two churches in the area, St Jørgensbjerg, an early stone church, and a wooden church discovered under todays St Ibs Church. Harald was buried in the church he had built on the site of todays Roskilde Cathedral. In 1020, King Canute elevated Roskilde to a bishopric, giving it high national status, absalon, the Danish bishop, had a brick church built on the site of Haralds church in 1170. Todays cathedral was completed in 1275 after five of Absalons successors had contributed to its construction, as a result of Absalons influence, many other churches were built in the vicinity, making Roskilde the most important town in Zealand
23.
Emden
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Emden is a town and seaport in Lower Saxony in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the town of the region of East Frisia and. The exact founding date of Emden is unknown, but it has existed at least since the 8th century, older names for Emden are Amuthon, Embda, Emda, and Embden. Town privilege and the coat of arms, the Engelke up de Muer was granted by Emperor Maximilian I in 1495. In 1542 she invited the Polish noble John Laski to become pastor of a Protestant church at Emden, however, in 1549 following pressure from the Emperor Charles V, the Countess was forced to ask Laski to leave for England and the experiment came to an end. Nevertheless, the legacy was important for the reformation in the Netherlands, Emden was a very rich town during the 17th century, due to large numbers of Dutch immigrants such as Diederik Jansz. It was a centre of reformed Protestantism at that time, producing the first Bible translation in Dutch, the Emden Revolution in 1595 resulted in Emden becoming a distinct city-state. The political theorist Johannes Althusius served as Syndic from 1604 to 1638, in 1744 Emden was annexed by Prussia. In 1752 Frederick the Great chartered the Emden Company to trade with Canton, the town was recaptured by Anglo-German forces in 1758 and for the rest of the conflict was used as a major supply base by the British to support the ongoing war in Westphalia. During the Napoleonic French era, Emden and the lands of East Frisia were part of the short-lived Kingdom of Holland. Industrialization started at around 1870, with a mill and a somewhat bigger shipyard. At the end of the 19th century, a big canal, the Dortmund-Ems Canal was constructed and this made Emden the seaport of the Ruhr area, which lasted until the 1970s. Coal from the south was transported to the North Sea port, and imported iron ore was shipped via the canal towards Rhine, the last iron ore freighter was moored in the port of Emden in 1986. In 1903, a shipyard was founded which still exists today. The town centre was almost completely wiped out as a result of Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, the RAF first bombed Emden on 31 March 1940. The most severe bombing took place on 6 September 1944, when roughly 80 percent of all houses in the centre were destroyed. In the collective memory of the town, this date still plays an important role, the shipyard area was largely untouched – the British targeted the civilian areas, apparently in revenge for the bombing of Coventry by the Luftwaffe. The reconstructed town was opened on 6 September 1962, exactly 18 years after the bombing, the main industries in Emden are automobile production and shipbuilding
24.
Gammelholm
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Gammelholm is a predominantly residential neighbourhood in the city centre of Copenhagen, Denmark. It is bounded by the Nyhavn canal, Kongens Nytorv, Holmens Kanal, Niels Juels Gade, the new neighbourhood was planned by Ferdinand Meldahl and has also been referred to as Meldahls Nine Streets. In the beginning of the 16th century land reclamations annexed the island to Zealand and in 1510, under the reign of Hans of Denmark, a ropewalk at the site is first mentioned in 1555 and an anchor forge was built in 1563. When King Christian IV commenced his modernization of the fortifications of Copenhagen, he extended the citys East Rampart, taking it straight through Bremerholm to the beach. The moat in front of the rampart was later expanded to form the Holmen Canal, in the first decades of the 17th century, Christian IV also built a considerable amount of housing for higher-ranked naval personnel at Bremerholm. This prompted a demand for a church, leading to the conversion of the anchor forge, now located on the far side of the Holmen Canal. In 1631 the barracks at Bremerholm were supplemented by Nyboder in the far north of Copenhagen which was built to satisfy the demand for housing for lower-ranked crew members of the nacys vessels, around the same time, a large prison was inaugurated at Bremerholm. Much of the work in the shipyards was based on forced labour carried out by convicts from the facility. The rope walk came to mark the boundary between the square and rest of Bremerholm, together, Gammelholm and Nyholm remained for a long time the largest employer in Denmark. In 1778 the University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden relocated from Amaliegade to the garden behind Charlottenborg Palace and it was at Gammelholm that the Copenhagen Fire of 1795 broke out. In 1859 the Navy decommissioned their last operations at Gammelholm, at the same time the Canal of Holmen was filled and converted into a prominent new street. Construction in the began in 1861 and was completed in 1876. Apart from the buildings, a number of new institutions. A new building for the Royal Danish Theatre, which had been located nearby since 1754, was built on the corner of Kongens Nytorv and the filled Holmens Kanal. A new building designed by Meldahl and Ludvig Fenger for the Royal Mint was completed in 1873 on land which was previously part Botanical Garden which had left the area in 1879. Gammelholm was planned with broad streets inspired by Paris, an inspiration Meldahl also relied on elsewhere, typically of the time, the residential buildings were not designed by architects but the master builders who constructed them. The area was built up with blocks with elegant, richly decorated Historicist fronts facing the street but drab. Lots were sold at high prices and developers therefore utilized space to the utmost
25.
Timber framing
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
26.
Copenhagen Fire of 1728
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The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest fire in the history of Copenhagen, Denmark. It began on the evening of 20 October 1728 and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October and it destroyed approximately 28% of the city, left 20% of the population homeless, and the reconstruction lasted until 1737. Although the number of dead and wounded was relatively low compared to the extent of the fire, the exact time that the fire started is unknown. Various sources mention times between 6,00 and 8,00 p. m. and 7,30 p. m. is the best estimate, however, the exact location of the origin of the fire is known. Almost directly across the street from Vesterport was Lille Sankt Clemens Stræde, on the corner facing Vestervold, there was a small house on lot Vester Kvarter 146 owned by Signe, widow of Boye Hansen. The lot is almost identical to the one on the corner of present-day Frederiksberggade, among the widows tenants were restaurant manager Peder Rasmussen and his wife, Anne Iversdatter. It was on the floor of the restaurateurs apartment that the fire started. The wind blew from the southwest that evening, carrying the fire along Lille Sankt Clemens Stræde, Store Sankt Clemens Stræde, Vombadstuestræde, Antiquitetsstræde, by 9,00 p. m the main street of Vestergade was burning on both sides. From here the fire spread along Store Lars Bjørns Stræde, Lille Lars Bjørns Stræde and Studiestræde, later that evening, the fire reached Sankt Peders Stræde, where the Valkendorfs Kollegium dormitory was engulfed in flames. Professor Peder Horrebow, who lived at the dormitory, lost most of his possessions, presumably simultaneously, the fire also reached Professor Hans Steenbuchs room on Studiestræde. Around midnight, the reached the priests residence by the church Sankt Petri Kirke. On Nørregade, another fire started at a brewery Wednesday evening – possibly between 10 p. m. and 11 p. m, just prior to that the original fire had reached Gammeltorv, where people fought to keep the fire back. For that reason, help was sent late to deal with the new fire, around midnight the wind shifted to the west, and the situation on Nørregade turned critical as the fire was driven towards the street along a wide front. At first people sought to keep the fire on the side of Nørregade. Simultaneously, the fire moved from present day Nørre Voldgade towards Nørreport, early Thursday morning, a final desperate attempt to keep the flames from spreading was made at Gammeltorv. Already-burning houses were fired upon with cannons to make them collapse, when that did not work, an order was given to blow up the houses with black powder charges. While the building did go down, people were killed and injured, at Nørregade, the fire reached Sankt Petri Kirke around 8 a. m. By 9 a. m. the flames reached bishop Christen Worms residence, the bishop who was travelling, was left with the clothes on his back and three prayer books
27.
Anton Rosen
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Anton Rosen was a Danish architect, furniture designer, decorative artist and professor at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. In his architecture, he combined a free Historicist style with inspiration from contemporary English architecture, anton Rosen was born on 9 September 1859 in Horsens, the son of an apprentice mason. The family moved to Copenhagen and young Rosen was accepted into the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1877, after graduating in 1882 he was employed with Vilhelm Dahlerup and in 1883 moved to Silkeborg to oversee the construction of Silkeborg Bath. The time with Vilhelm Dahlerup, until 1884 and again from 1890 to 1896, had influence on his later works. Rosen participated in many of the exhibitions which were popular around the turn of the century. The success with the latter made him a professor at the Academy and won him its gold medal as well as the Eckersberg Medal, with support from Hack Kampmann
28.
Light pollution
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Light pollution, also known as photopollution, is excessive, misdirected or obtrusive artificial light. As a major side-effect of urbanization, it is blamed for compromising health, disrupting ecosystems, Light pollution is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to added sound, carbon dioxide, etc. Adverse consequences are multiple, some of them may not be known yet, scientific definitions thus include the following, The degradation of photic habitat by artificial light. The alteration of light levels in the outdoor environment owing to artificial light sources. The alteration of light levels in the environment due to man-made sources of light. Indoor light pollution is such alteration of light levels in the environment due to sources of light. The introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of light into the environment. The first three of the four scientific definitions describe the state of the environment. The fourth one describes the process of polluting by light, Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, since the early 1980s, a global dark-sky movement has emerged, with concerned people campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution. The International Dark-Sky Association is one non-profit advocacy group involved in this movement, several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of Lighting Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members with information about light pollution, the problems it causes, and how to reduce its impact. Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one persons light pollution to be light that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for particular lights to be bright and visible, other types of light pollution are more certain. For instance, light that crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generally wasted. Where objective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, authorities have also taken a variety of measures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the society involved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws, Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, a single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories
29.
Fortifications of Copenhagen (17th century)
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The fortifications of Copenhagen underwent a comprehensive modernization and expansion in the 17th century. The project was commenced and was largely the masterplan of Christian IV in the early 17th century but was continued and completed by his successors, the ring fortification consisted of four bastioned ramparts and an annexed citadel as well as various outworks. Today only the Christianshavn Rampart and the citadel Kastellet remain intact, Christian IVs modernization of the fortifications of Copenhagen commenced in 1606 and would take 20 years to complete. The course of the fortifications was kept but Slotsholmen was now incorporated into the complex. A large bastion in masonry was constructed on its southwestern tip, in the same time, Østervold was taken around parts of Bremerholm to meet the sea. A total of 12 bastions were constructed and just outside the entire fortification a moat was dug, due to topographical variations in the terrain, it was constructed as a series of basins, separated by dams, to solve the problem of variations in the terrain. The uppermost basin was fed by water from Peblingesøen, the Western and Northern City Gates were also renovated and given tall spires and a new Eastern City Gate was built. From 1618-23 Christianshavn was laid out and incorporated as a market town. Strategically situated in the middle of a shallow-watered, marshy area north of Amager, the rampart was constructed with four and a half bastions and a gate, known as Amager Gate. To guard the entrance to the port, a blockhouse was constructed on the shallow-watered Refshaleø in 1624. On the Zealand side of the harbour, north of the city and this work was begun in 1627. As part of his aspirations to strengthen Copenhagen as a regional centre, as early as 1606, when his modernization of the fortifications began, he had purchased 200 hectares of land outside the Eastern City Gate. His intention was to redevelop this area into a new district referred to as Ny København or Sankt Annæ By, the plan was to change the course of Østervold, which at that time made a bend and ran along what is today Gothersgade and Kongens Nytorv. The new Østervold would be an extension of Nørrevold, connecting it to Sankt Annæ Skanse. However, the 1630s was a time of crisis and both Sankt Annæ Skanse and the new course of Østervold was delayed with no major work going on during that decade. After both Jutland and Scania had been occupied by forces in the first half of the 1640s. The new Østervold was constructed and a new project for the fortress at Sankt Annæ Skanse, in 1840 Christian VIII appointed a national defense commission which two years later recommended that the existing fortifications be decommissioned. At the outbreak of the First Schleswig War in 1848, nothing had happened, in 1852, the Line of Demarcation was partially disabandoned but work to maintain and improve the ramparts were carried out as late as 1856-57
30.
Christian Hansen (architect)
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He was the brother of Theophilus Hansen who was also an internationally successful architect, active in Athens and Vienna. He is considered to be a pioneer in the study and application of polychrome architecture, Christian Hansen was born in Copenhagen. Christian Frederik Hansen taught him an approach to architecture and Hetsch introduced him to Schinkel whose influence he had brought to Denmark. In 1831 Christian Hansen won the Academys large gold medal and a travel scholarship and he then set out on a journey to Italy and Greece, first spending two years in Italy, mainly in Rome and Sicily. In 1833, Hansen travelled to Athens, recently chosen as the new capital of the nascent Greece which had recently gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire. At the time, Athens was just a village with a few thousand inhabitants, chosen as capital for historic. It was therefore set for redevelopment to become a modern metropolis. Hansen won the favour of King Otto and was appointed Court Architect in 1834, in 1838, he was joined by his brother Theophilus who had also studied architecture at the Academy in Copenhagen but had been unsuccessful in getting commissions. Christian Hansens most famous work in Athens is the main building for the National. Construction started in 1839 using the proceeds of a campaign from Greeks at home. It was inaugurated in 1841, though not entirely completed until 1864 due to lack of funds and it is part of the so-called Neoclassical, or Athenian, Trilogy which was completed by his brother with the Academy of Athens and the National Library of Greece. Hansen also designed houses and churches. The latter include the Anglican St. Pauls Church and it is designed in a mixed Victorian and Gothic Revival style. Hansens work in Athens also involved archeological excavations and investigations, Hansens reputation reached outside Greece and in 1850 Österreichischer Lloyd commissioned him to build a marine arsenal and dockyards at Trieste. The extensive building complex designed in the Rundbogenstil with details inspired by Byzantine architecture was constructed from 1852 to 1856, after the revolt in September 1843 in Athens, a nationalist wave made it hard for foreigners to work in Greece. In 1851, Hansen returned to Denmark after almost 20 years abroad, in 1867, he became a member of the Academy in Copenhagen and Royal Building Inspector for Zealand, Lolland and Falster. That same year he took over the professorial chair in architecture at the Academy which had become vacant with Michael Gottlieb Bindesbølls death the year before. As a practicing architect, Hansen never got the prominent role in Denmark upon his return which could have expected after his achievements abroad
31.
Peter the Great
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Peter the Great, Peter I or Peter Alexeyevich ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from 7 May 1682 until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his elder half-brother, Ivan V. Through a number of successful wars he expanded the Tsardom into a larger empire that became a major European power. He led a revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, westernized. Peters reforms made an impact on Russia and many institutions of Russian government trace their origins to his reign. From an early age, Peters education was put in the hands of tutors, most notably Nikita Zotov, Patrick Gordon. On 29 January 1676, Tsar Alexis died, leaving the sovereignty to Peters elder half-brother and this position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family and Naryshkin family over who should inherit the throne, Peters other half-brother, Ivan V, was next in line for the throne, but he was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma chose the 10-year-old Peter to become Tsar with his mother as regent and this arrangement was brought before the people of Moscow, as ancient tradition demanded, and was ratified. Sophia Alekseyevna, one of Alexis daughters from his first marriage, in the subsequent conflict some of Peters relatives and friends were murdered, including Matveev, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence. The Streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys and their allies, to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, Sophia acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat, a large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and this throne can be seen in the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow. Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name and he engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his toy army. Peters mother sought to force him to adopt a conventional approach. The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced his wife to become a nun, by the summer of 1689, Peter planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful Crimean campaigns. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with the leaders of the Streltsy, Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name, still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Natalya Naryshkina and it was only when Nataliya died in 1694 that Peter became an independent sovereign
32.
Catherine I of Russia
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Catherine I was the second wife of Peter the Great and Empress of Russia from 1725 until her death. The life of Catherine I was said by Voltaire to be nearly as extraordinary as that of Peter the Great himself, there are no documents that confirm her origins. Said to have born on 15 April 1684, she was originally named Marta Helena Skowrońska. Marta was the daughter of Samuel Skowroński, later spelt Samuil Skavronsky, a Roman Catholic peasant from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and her mother is named in at least one source as Elisabeth Moritz, and there is debate as to whether her father was a Swedish officer. It is likely that two stories were conflated, and Swedish sources suggest that the Elizabeth Moritz story is probably incorrect, some biographies state that Martas father was a gravedigger and handyman, while others speculate that he was a runaway landless serf. Martas parents died of the plague around 1689, leaving five children, in his household she served as a lowly servant, likely either a scullery maid or washerwoman. No effort was made to teach her to read and write, Marta was considered a very beautiful young girl, and there are accounts that Frau Glück became fearful that she would become involved with her son. When Russian forces captured the town, Pastor Glück offered to work as a translator and she may have worked in the household of his superior, Sheremetev. It is not known whether she was his mistress, or household maid and she travelled back to the Russian court with Sheremetevs army. Afterwards she became part of the household of Prince Alexander Menshikov, anecdotal sources suggest that she was purchased by him. Whether the two of them were lovers is disputed, as Menshikov was already engaged to Darya Arsenyeva and it is clear that Menshikov and Marta formed a lifetime alliance. It is possible that Menshikov, who was jealous of Peters attentions and knew his tastes. In any case, in 1703, while visiting Menshikov at his home, in 1704, she was well established in the Tsars household as his mistress, and gave birth to a son, Peter. In 1705, she converted to Orthodoxy and took the new name of Catherine Alexeyevna and she and Darya Menshikova accompanied Peter and Menshikov on their military excursions. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter are described as having married secretly between 23 Oct and 1 Dec 1707 in St. Petersburg and they had twelve children, two of whom survived into adulthood, Anna and Yelizaveta. Peter had moved the capital to St Petersburg in 1703, while the city was being built he lived in a three-room log cabin with Catherine, where she did the cooking and caring for the children, and he tended a garden as though they were an ordinary couple. The relationship was the most successful of Peters life and a number of letters exist demonstrating the strong affection between Catherine and Peter. As a person she was energetic, compassionate, charming
33.
Nordic Exhibition of 1888
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The Nordic exhibition of Industry, Agriculture, and Art of 1888 was an exhibition that aimed to feature the best of art, industry, and agriculture from the five Nordic countries. It was a joint-venture between 29 organisations and institutions, with the weight on the side, represented foremost by the Association of Copenhagen Industrialists. The exhibition was located in Copenhagen, Denmark and was visited by 1.3 million people, organizers contributed with his or her picture of what the fuss was all about. Pictures which were added to the event as a whole, in the spring of 1883, however, all these views on the exhibition were part of the future. At that point the completeness of the exhibition was narrowed down to be an idea fostered by Mr. Philip Schou, the latter was a successful shareholder and daily manager of the ceramic factory Royal Copenhagen. In short, the idea to the exhibition was fostered in a period when the nation was being built, built by men who recognized they were in that process, even though they surely could only guess on the collective outcome of their actions. The emphasis of this specific cultural thread was, of cause, and as such, fertilized both the forthcoming of the exhibition concept. Thus it was pointed out time and again by Philip Schou, so they would recognize the completeness of the national splendours, the products, lifestyles, and arts from all of Denmark. Likewise it was exactly the national aspects that knitted the different interests together in the assembly of the exhibition. Surely conflicts could not be avoided, nevertheless, the corporation was fueled with the knowledge that the buzzing combatants in the end belonged to the same hive. An everlasting cause to conflicts in the committee was the question of how industrial art should be part of the scenario. To Philip Schou and those who had supported his idea from the beginning it was exactly the innermost mission of the exhibition to advocate that concept, simply put industrial art consisted of reminiscences of romantic thoughts, combined with a critic attitude towards the modern times. The concept included a belief in a certain ‘spirit’ of the ethnic, and that these characteristic was somehow manifest in the products created by the people. It is no wonder that followers of this idea comprehended the introduction of machinery in the half of 1800 highly negatively. The machineries tended to exclude the human touch to the products, defined as middle sized factories that kept on using manpower in as many areas as possible, only reserving the hardest work to the machine. Surely this line of reasoning was not attractive to all branches, needless to mention, almost all the eight originators belonged to such branches. The concept of art had ability to reach further, than to those already in the branch. This was due to developments in economic thinking, from that direction it was stated that to be successful in the world marked that emerged in the second half of the 1800, every country would have to specialise in a range of products
34.
Ole Ritter
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Ole Ritter is a former Danish racing cyclist, mainly known for breaking the hour record in 1968. As an amateur he rode for ABC Denmark and his breakthrough came in 1962 where he won 2 silver medals at the world championship in Italy, Individual &100 km team time trial. Ritter took part in the 1964 Summer Olympics and he rode the individual road race and finished in 74th place, and was part of the Danish team in the team time trial that finished seventh. He became Danish champion twice, and Scandinavian champion once and in 1965 went to Italy to break the record on the 100 km. In 1967 he became professional in Italy with the Germanvox-Wega team and he won the individual time trial in the Giro dItalia in front of Rudi Altig, Eddy Merckx and Jacques Anquetil. This time trial was just short of one hour, and Anquetil remarked that Ritter would have broken the hour record, in 1968 he went to Mexico City before the Olympic Games, to accompany the Italian amateur cyclists and help them get used to the altitude. Since time on the track was scarce, the Italian team did not want to give Ritter much track time, on the day before the Olympics started, Ritter was allowed to ride in the morning, and he beat the hour record. He was the first rider to take the record at altitude since Willie Hamilton in 1898 and he covered 48.653 km and it took four years and Eddy Merckx to beat it. In 1974 at the age of 33 he went to Mexico again and beat his personal record twice in a week, Ritter finished 47th in the 1975 Tour de France. He rode the Giro dItalia nine times, and is the Danish rider with the best GC finish, near the end of his career, Ritter again became a Danish cycling hero when six-day racing returned to the country. He won three races, in 1974 and 1975 in Herning with Dutchman Leo Duyndam and in 1977 in Forum with Belgian six-day star Patrick Sercu, Ritters last sixth-day race was in Copenhagen in 1978. Stars and Watercarriers, a 1974 film by Danish director Jørgen Leth, the film provides insight into a three-week stage race, dramatizing the roles and aims of different riders in the race. The heartbreak of the stages, the intensity of the time trial, quiet moments on the road. Ritter is featured in the segment, with his technical, physical and psychological preparations and later performance detailed to the accompaniment of a single. A1974 Danish documentary, The Impossible Hour, explores Ritters attempt to regain the one-hour distance record in Mexico City
35.
Unicycle
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A unicycle is a vehicle that touches the ground with only one wheel. The most common variation has a frame with a saddle, and has a direct drive. Unicycling is practiced professionally in circuses, by performers, and in festivals. Unicycles have also used to create new sports such as unicycle hockey. In recent years unicycles have also used in activities similar to mountain biking or trials. US patents for single-wheeled velocipedes were published in 1869 by Frederick Myers, unicycle design has developed since the advent of the first unicycle into many variations including, the seatless unicycle and the tall unicycle. Bicycles, tricycles and quadracycles share several basic parts including wheels, pedals, cranks, forks, Unicycles usually lack brakes, gears, and the ability to freewheel. This means the rotation of the cranks directly controls the rotation of the wheel, the frame sits on top of the axle bearings, while the cranks attach to the ends of the axle, and the seatpost slides into the frame to allow the saddle to be height adjusted. Types of unicycle include, Freestyle unicycles Trials unicycles Mountain unicycles Giraffe unicycles Long distance unicycles Each type has special components unique to that type of unicycle. Generally used for flatland skills and freestyle routines, freestyle unicycles typically have a relatively high seatpost, a saddle. These unicycles are used similarly to flatland bicycles, wheel size is usually 20 inches, but smaller riders may use 16-or-12-inch unicycles. Many trials unicycles also have wide, 19- or 20-inch knobby tires to absorb some of the impact on drops, Mountain unicycling consists of riding specialized unicycles on mountain bike trails. Mountain unicycles have thicker, wider tires for shock absorption, many riders choose to use long cranks to increase power when riding up hills and over rough terrain. A disk brake is used for descents. Used for long distances, these unicycles are specially made to cover distances and they have a large wheel diameter, between 26 and 36 in. So more distance is covered in less pedal rotation, a 36 unicycle made by the Coker Tire company started the big wheel trend. Some variations on the traditional touring unicycle include the Schlumpf GUni, larger direct-drive wheels tend to have shorter cranks to allow for easier cadence and more speed. Use of a chain can make the much taller than standard unicycles
36.
Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
37.
House of Oldenburg
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The House of Oldenburg is a European royal house of North German origin. It is one of Europes most influential royal houses with branches that rule or have ruled in Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Norway, Russia, Sweden, Schleswig, Holstein, and Oldenburg. It rose to prominence when Count Christian I of Oldenburg was elected King of Denmark in 1448, of Norway in 1450, the house has occupied the Danish throne ever since. Marriages of medieval counts of Oldenburg had paved the way for their heirs to become kings of various Scandinavian kingdoms, through marriage with a descendant of King Valdemar I of Sweden and of King Eric IV of Denmark, a claim to Sweden and Denmark was staked, since 1350. At that time, its competitors were the successors of Margaret I of Denmark. In the 15th century, the Oldenburg heir of that claim married Hedwig of Schauenburg, since descendants better situated in genealogical charts died out, their son Christian became the king of all three kingdoms of the whole Kalmar Union. The House of Mecklenburg was its chief competitor regarding the Northern thrones, different Oldenburgine branches have reigned in several countries. EU, retrieved August 2012
38.
Steeple
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A steeple, in architecture, is a tall tower on a building, topped by a spire and often incorporating a belfry and other components. Steeples are very common on Christian churches and cathedrals and the use of the term generally connotes a religious structure and they may be stand-alone structures, or incorporated into the entrance or center of the building. Clock towers were not a part of Christian churches until about AD600, at first they were fairly modest and entirely separate structures from churches. Over time, they were incorporated into the building and capped with ever-more-elaborate roofs until the steeple resulted. St. Martins church steeple, in Arbon, Switzerland, is an example of such an early church tower. Towers are an element of religious architecture worldwide and are generally viewed as attempts to reach skyward toward heavens. Some wooden steeples like the one in Kingston, New York pictured below are built with large wooden structural members arranged like tent poles and braced diagonally inside both with wood and steel. The steeple is clad with wooden boards and finished with slate tiles nailed to the boards using copper over gaps on corners where the slate would not cover. Steeples can be vulnerable to earthquakes, a number of Romanian churches feature unusually slender steeples and over half of these have been lost to earthquakes. Because of their height, steeples can also be vulnerable to lightning, an example of this is Holy Trinity Church in Luxemburg, Iowa, which lost its steeple in a fire which was believed to be started by a lightning strike. Bell-gable Media related to Church towers at Wikimedia Commons
39.
Hendrick de Keyser
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Hendrick de Keyser was a Dutch sculptor and architect born in Utrecht, Netherlands, who was instrumental in establishing a late Renaissance form of Mannerism in Amsterdam. He was the father of Thomas de Keyser who was an architect, as a young man the Utrecht-born artist Hendrick de Keyser was apprenticed to master Cornelis Bloemaert the elder. At the age of 26 he followed Bloemaert to Amsterdam, soon he set to work as an independent artist. When his talent became generally appreciated he was appointed city stonemason, in fact his duties included all of the tasks now associated with the job of city architect. De Keyser is famous for a number of important buildings which belong to the core of Dutch historic sites, today the Zuiderkerk and accompanying tower, the Delft Town Hall, the Westerkerk and Westertoren are among the historic buildings which provide important insights into De Keyser’s work. His Commodity Exchange of 1608-1613 was pulled down in the 19th century, Hendrick de Keysers projects in Amsterdam during the early decades of the 17th century helped establish a late Mannerist style referred to as Amsterdam Renaissance. The Amsterdam Renaissance style deviates in many respects from sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance architecture, classical elements such as pilasters, cornices and frontons were used on a large scale, but mainly as decorative elements. De Keyser never slavishly followed the tenets of classical architecture as laid down in the Italian treatises. His version came to bloom at the end of the second decade of the 17th century. The East India House in Amsterdam was most likely designed by him. Apart from pursuing a career as an architect, De Keyser remained active as a sculptor and he designed the tomb of William the Silent for the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft. However, De Keyser did not live to see the finished product and he died in Amsterdam, and his son Pieter completed the project. In 1631, ten years after De Keyser’s death, Cornelis Danckertsz included the architect’s most important sketches in his book ’Architectura Moderna’, De Keysers career was not limited to Amsterdam, and his international contacts helped him to keep in touch with the mainstream of European architecture. The Amsterdam city administrators sent him to England where he worked with Inigo Jones, Jones was the first English architect who went to Italy to learn all he could about classical architecture. He studied the famous treatises written by the Roman architect Vitruvius, the Banqueting House in London, designed for the Stuart monarchs, became the prototype of classical architecture in England. When De Keyser returned to Amsterdam one of Jones’ assistants, Nicholas Stone, Stone worked with De Keyser in Amsterdam from 1607 to 1613 and even became his son-in-law. De Keyser attention to England and English architecture reflect Amsterdams position as a centre in Europe. 1611, Beurs van Hendrick de Keyser, Rokin, Amsterdam, 1614-1623, Praalgraf Willem van Oranje, Delft
40.
Jacob van Campen
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Jacob van Campen, was a Dutch artist and architect of the Golden Age. He was born into a family at Haarlem, and spent his youth in his home town. Being of noble birth and with time on his hands, he took up painting mainly as a pastime, in 1614, he became a member of the Guild of Saint Luke, and studied painting under Frans de Grebber - a number of Van Campens oils survive. About 1616 to 1624 he is thought to have lived in Italy, on his return to the Netherlands, Van Campen turned to architecture, applying ideas borrowed from Andrea Palladio, Vincenzo Scamozzi and classical influences from Vitruvius. Van Campen was friendly with Constantijn Huygens, and together designed a new house for Huygens. Even after Van Campens death, his work greatly influenced Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, the designer of the Kleefse gardens, the latter to own a book by Van Campen regardless of the expense. The city hall and the city palace of Potsdam owe a debt to ideas by Van Campen, Van Campens first known building was the Coymans house built in 1625 in Amsterdam. About 1645 Van Campen designed the Nieuwe Kerk in Haarlem, a church that influenced Christopher Wren and his best-known work is probably the large Town Hall of Amsterdam, now the Royal Palace in Dam Square. Van Campen worked as an architect, a painter and a designer of decorative schemes and he was assisted in his work by Pieter Post, Daniël Stalpaert, Matthias Withoos, Philips Vingboons, Artus Quellinus, Tielman van Gameren and Rombout Verhulst. During the building of the city hall, Van Campen lived in very expensive lodgings in the nearby Kalverstraat, in 1654 Van Campen left after an argument, probably in connection with the design of the barrel vaults. Stalpaert won, but his completion of the project was reported to be less fine than Van Campens designs, after a long career, Van Campen died in 1657 in his buitenplaats Randenbroek near Amersfoort, which he had inherited from his mother, and was buried there. He had expanded it himself and had it decorated by Caesar van Everdingen, Van Campen never married, but had one son, Alexander Van Campen. Van Campen was selective in what projects he took on and his best known works are, The Royal Palace, Amsterdam, former city hall. In 1647, his name is mentioned for the first time in connection with the design of the new city hall and it was to be a perfect building, perfect in its proportions and in the message it conveyed to the spectator. Its power lies in its strict and perfect proportions and extremely moderate decoration, critics loathed the simple entrance - without stairs - on the ground floor. He is suspected to have had a hand in the alteration of the Rembrandthuis at the Jodenbreestraat in Amsterdam, the Theatre of Van Campen, based on the example of Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, in Amsterdam. The Paleis Noordeinde, a palace in The Hague. As well as houses and palaces, he designed a number of churches, such as those at Renswoude and at Hooge Zwaluwe
41.
Pieter Post
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Pieter Jansz Post was a Dutch Golden Age architect, painter and printmaker. Post was baptised in Haarlem, the son of a stained-glass painter and he is credited with the creation of the Dutch baroque style of architecture, along with his longtime collaborator Jacob van Campen. Together they designed the Mauritshuis in the Hague, according to Houbraken he was a famous architect who introduced his brother Frans to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange while he was working on plans for the Mauritshuis. According to the RKD he became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke in 1623 and he was the overseer from 1640 for the new additions to Paleis Noordeinde in The Hague. From 1645 he was the architect for Frederik Hendrik for Huis ten Bosch and he died in The Hague, aged 61. His son Maurits became an architect, and his son Johan Post became a painter and his granddaughter Rachel Ruysch became a famous flower painter
