1.
Indian rupee
–
The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
Indian rupee
–
Silver punch mark coin of the
Maurya empire, known as Rūpyarūpa, 3rd century BCE.
Indian rupee
–
Indian rupee
Indian rupee
–
Rupiya issued by
Sher Shah Suri, 1540–1545 CE
Indian rupee
–
One-rupee banknote
2.
Indonesian rupiah
–
The rupiah is the official currency of Indonesia. Issued and controlled by the Bank of Indonesia, the ISO4217 currency code for the Indonesian rupiah is IDR, the name rupiah is derived from the Hindustani word rupiya, ultimately from Sanskrit rupya. Informally, Indonesians also use the word perak in referring to rupiah, the rupiah is subdivided into 100 sen, although inflation has rendered all coins and banknotes denominated in sen obsolete. The Riau islands and the Indonesian half of New Guinea had their own variants of the rupiah in the past, the current rupiah consists of coins from 100 rupiah up to 1000 rupiah and banknotes of 1000 rupiah up to 100,000 rupiah. With US$1 worth 13,300 rupiah, the largest Indonesian banknote is therefore worth approximately US$7.52, there are presently two series of coins in circulation, aluminium, bronze and nickel coins dated between 1991 and 2010. These come in denominations of 50,100,200,500, the older series of coins has been gradually disappearing. Currently circulating Indonesian banknotes date from 2000,2001,2004,2005,2009,2010, the 1998–1999 notes have not been legal tender since 31 January 2008. Earlier notes are no longer legal tender, due to the lack of security features and association with the Suharto regime. The government initially announced that this would change, with a 2, 000-rupiah note to replace the 1, 000-rupiah, following the issuance of Presidential Decree No. However, the material is abaca fibre, which is naturally plentiful in Indonesia and is believed to increase the durability of the banknotes. The banknotes are heat-processed to create a type of pulp. The minimum security features visible to the eye are watermarks, electrotypes. Extra features may be included, such as holograms, Irisafe, iridescent stripes, clear windows, metameric windows, watermark and electrotype are made by controlling the gap of density of the fibres which create certain images for the banknotes. This is done to raise the quality of the notes. Security threads are inserted into the note so that horizontal and vertical lines are shown from top to bottom, the threads can be varied in the materials, size, colour and design. Intaglio printing is used for the numbers in the banknote, to help blind people recognise genuine notes. The rupiah has been subject to high inflation for most of its existence, various attempts have been made to maintain the value of the currency, but all were abandoned. In the period from October 1946 to March 1950 Indonesian currency had no international recognition and its value was determined on the black market
Indonesian rupiah
–
Indonesian rupiah banknotes denominations (current circulating banknotes)
Indonesian rupiah
–
Rp 50
3.
Maldivian rufiyaa
–
The Maldivian rufiyaa is the currency of the Maldives. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Maldives Monetary Authority, the most commonly used symbols for the rufiyaa are MRF and Rf. The ISO4217 code for Maldivian rufiyaa is MVR, the rufiyaa is subdivided into 100 laari. The name rufiyaa is derived from the Sanskrit rupya. The midpoint of exchange rate is 12.85 rufiyaa per US dollar, the earliest form of currency used in the Maldives was cowry shells and historical accounts of travellers indicate that they were traded in this manner even during the 13th century. As late as 1344, Ibn Batuta observed that more than 40 ships loaded with cowry shells were exported each year, a single gold dinar was worth 400,000 shells. During the 17th and 18th centuries, lārin were imported and traded as currency and this form of currency was used in the Persian Gulf, India, Ceylon and the Far East during this time. Historians agree that this new form of currency was most probably exchanged for cowry shells, the first Sultan to imprint his own seal onto this currency was Ghaazee Mohamed Thakurufaanu Al Auzam. The seal was much broader than the wires hence it was barely legible, the first known of coins were introduced by Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar. Compared to the forms of money, these coins were much neater. The coins were minted in the city of Malé, a fact which it acknowledged on the reverse. The legend King of Land and Sea, Iskandhar the Great is found on the edge, after this period, gold coins replaced the existing silver ones during the reign of Sultan Hassan Nooruddin in 1787. He used two different qualities of gold in his coins, one was called Mohoree and the other Baimohoree, how this gold was obtained is uncertain. Throughout the nineteenth and early centuries, bronze coins were issued denominated in laari. Sultan Mohamed Imaadhudheen IV introduced what historians believe to be the first machine struck coins and his successor Sultan Mohamed Shamshudeen III made the last of these coins,1 and 4 laari denominations, which were struck in the United Kingdom by Heatons Mint, Birmingham, England in 1913. Following the end of coin production specifically for the Maldives, the Sultanate came to use the Ceylonese rupee and this was supplemented in 1947 by issues of banknotes denominated in rufiyaa, equal in value to the rupee. In 1960, coins denominated in laari, now worth one hundredth of the rufiyaa, were introduced, in 1960, Sultan Mohamed Fareed I ordered coins from the Royal Mint in England. The new issue consisted of denominations of 1,2,5,10,25 and 50 laari
Maldivian rufiyaa
–
100 rufiyaa note
Maldivian rufiyaa
Maldivian rufiyaa
–
Maldivian coins from the 17th and 18th century.
Maldivian rufiyaa
–
Half rufiyaa and two rufiyaa banknotes that were replaced by coins in the late 1900s.
4.
Mauritian rupee
–
The Rupee is the currency of Mauritius. Several other currencies are also called rupee, in 1877, coins for 1,2,5,10 and 20 cents were introduced, with the lower three denominations in copper and the higher two in silver. Coin production ceased in 1899 and did not recommence until 1911, with silver coins not produced again until 1934, when ¼, ½ and 1 rupee coins were introduced. In 1947, cupro-nickel 10 cents were introduced, with cupro-nickel replacing silver in 1950.1000 In 1971 a new set of coins and this set has Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and a range of heraldic motives on the reverse. Some of the designs for this set were designed by Christopher Ironside OBE including the 10 rupee,200 gold rupee and 250 gold rupee. In 1987, a new series of coins was introduced which, for the first time, did not feature the portrait of the monarch and this coinage consisted of copper-plated-steel 1 and 5 cents, nickel-plated-steel 20 cents and ½ rupee, and cupro-nickel 1 and 5 rupees. Cupro-nickel 10 rupees were introduced in 1997, coins currently in circulation are the 5 cents,20 cents, ½ rupee,1,5,10 and 20 rupees. Coins below 1 Rupee in value are generally regarded as supermarket small-change, the 1 cent coin has not been seen in circulation for many years, and the last series of 1 cent coins issued in 1987 are only seen as collectors items. In 2007, a bi-metallic 20-rupee coin was issued to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the Bank of Mauritius, the first banknotes were issued by the government dated 1876 in denominations of 5,10 and 50 rupees. 1 rupee notes were added in 1919, in 1940, emergency issues were made of 25 and 50 cents and 1 rupee. In 1954,25 and 1000 rupees were introduced, the Bank of Mauritius was established in September 1967 as the nation’s central bank, and has been responsible for the issue of banknotes and coins since that time. The bank issued its first notes in 1967, comprising four denominations,5,10,25, over the years, some denominations were revised with new signatures of the Governor and Managing Director, but were otherwise unchanged. In 1985, the Bank of Mauritius issued a new set of banknotes of 5,10,20,50,100,200,500 and 1000 rupees. A close study of these banknotes reveals an interesting array of subsets which were printed by two banknote printing companies, the notes were also designed at different time periods as there are very few identical and consistent design features appearing on all the denominations. This issue lasted up to 1998, in 1998, The Bank of Mauritius made a new issue of banknotes consisting of 7 denominations, viz.25,50,100,200,500,1,000 and 2,000 rupees. These banknotes had a format and were all issued simultaneously in November 1998. All the banknotes of this issue were printed in England by Thomas de la Rue Limited and these banknotes were withdrawn from circulation in June 1999 following controversies. The Bank of Mauritius made its latest issue of banknotes, which is still current, each denomination bears a hand engraved portrait of a prominent Mauritian figure, which appears on the left
Mauritian rupee
–
Republic of Mauritius 1 Rupee coin
5.
Nepalese rupee
–
The Nepalese rupee is the official currency of Nepal. The Nepalese rupee was introduced in 1932 and it replaced the Nepalese mohar at 2,1, Nepalese rupee is subdivided into 100 paisa. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Nepal Rastra Bank, the Nepalese rupee is pegged to the Indian rupee at 1.6,1. The rupee was introduced in 1932, replacing the silver mohar at a rate of 2 mohar =1 rupee, at first, the rupee was called the mohru in Nepali. Its value was pegged to the Indian rupee in 1993 at a rate of 1.6 Nepalese rupees =1 Indian rupee. The early banknotes which were issued between 1945 and 1955 during the rule of King Tribhuvan were not put into circulation by a Central Bank which did not exist in Nepal at that time, the issuing authority was the treasury which had the name Sadar Muluki Khana. Therefore, the notes of king Tribhuvan were not signed by a bank governor, nepal’s early paper currency probably includes the only notes of the world which were signed by a high priest. These early notes were printed by the Indian Security Press in Nashik and do not have any security features, except for the water marks and the special paper on which they are printed. Starting with King Mahendra who succeeded to his father Tribhuvan in 1955, the signature of the governors of this institution is found on the banknotes which were issued after this date. Under King Mahendra the Nepalese Government became “His Majesty’s Government” and remained this way during the rule of Birendra and Gyanendra, the second series comprised for the first time notes of the high value of 500 and 1000 rupees. During King Birendra’s rule one can distinguish between two major series of banknotes. The first series features the king wearing military uniform while on the notes of the series the king is wearing the traditional Nepalese crown adorned with feathers of the bird of paradise. During this period regular banknotes of 2 and 20 rupees and special banknotes of 25 and 250 rupees were issued for the first time, the legends found on the last issues of Gyanendra revert to Nepal sarakar, thus omitting the reference to the king. In October 2007, a 500 rupee note was issued on which the portrait was replaced by Mt. Everest. This reflects the change from a kingdom to a republic which took place in May 2008 in Nepal. Further notes of 5,10,20,50,100 and 1000 rupees with Mt. Everest and without reference to the king in their legends followed in 2008. The first issues of the 500 and 1000 rupee notes were printed on paper which still had the kings crowned portrait as watermark in the window on the part of the face of the notes. It was decided to print a red Rhododendron flower on top of the watermark, on 17 September 1945, the government introduced notes for 5,10 and 100 rupees, with the name mohru used in Nepalese
Nepalese rupee
–
Two rupee coin
6.
Pakistani rupee
–
The Pakistani rupee is the currency of Pakistan. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the State Bank of Pakistan, the most commonly used symbol for the rupee is Rs, used on receipts when purchasing goods and services. In Pakistan, the rupee is also spelled as rupees, rupaya or rupaye, as standard in Pakistani English, large values of rupees are counted in terms of thousands, lakh and crore,1 Arab,1 Kharab. It is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image, rūpaya was used to denote the coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri during his reign from 1540 to 1545 CE. The Pakistani rupee was put into circulation in Pakistan after the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, initially, Pakistan used British Indian coins and notes simply over-stamped with Pakistan. New coins and banknotes were issued in 1948, like the Indian rupee, it was originally divided into 16 annas, each of 4 pice or 12 pie. The currency was decimalised on 1 January 1961, with the rupee subdivided into 100 pice, however, coins denominated in paise have not been issued since 1994. = In 1948, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 pice, 1⁄2,1 and 2 annas, 1⁄4,1 pie coins were added in 1951. In 1961, coins for 1,5 and 10 pice were issued, followed later the year by 1 paisa,5 and 10 paise coins. In 1963,10 and 25 paise coins were introduced, followed by 2 paise the next year,1 rupee coins were reintroduced in 1979, followed by 2 rupees in 1998 and 5 rupees in 2002. 2 paise coins were last minted in 1976, with 1 paisa coins ceasing production in 1979, the 5,10,25 and 50 paise all ceased production in 1996. There are two variations of 2 rupee coins, most have clouds above the Badshahi Masjid but many dont, the one and two rupee coins were changed to aluminium in 2007. Paisa coins ceased to be legal tender in 2013, leaving Rs.1 coin as the legal tender.10 coin was introduced in circulation. Regular government issues commenced in 1948 in denominations of 1,5,10 and 100 rupees. The government continued to issue 1 rupee notes until the 1980s but other note issuing was taken over by the State Bank of Pakistan in 1953, only a few 2 rupees notes were issued. 50 rupees notes were added in 1957, with 2 rupees notes reintroduced in 1985, in 1986,500 rupees notes were introduced, followed by 1000 rupees the next year. 2 and 5 rupees notes were replaced by coins in 1998 and 2002,20 rupee notes were added in 2005, followed by 5000 rupees in 2006. Until 1971, Pakistani banknotes were bilingual, featuring Bengali translation of the Urdu text, all banknotes other than the 1 and 2 rupees feature a portrait of Muhammad Ali Jinnah on the obverse along with writing in Urdu
Pakistani rupee
–
Rupee coin, made of silver, used in the
state of Bahawalpur before 1947.
Pakistani rupee
–
Rupee coin, made of gold, used in the
state of Bahawalpur (Pakistan) before 1947
Pakistani rupee
–
Indian rupees were stamped with Government of Pakistan to be used as legal tenders in the new state of Pakistan in 1947.
Pakistani rupee
–
Pakistani rupees sported both
Urdu and
Bengali until 1971, because Bengali was an official state language at the time. The Bengali text called the currency
taka.
7.
Seychellois rupee
–
The rupee is the currency of the Seychelles. It is subdivided into 100 cents, in the local Seychellois Creole language, it is called the roupi. The international currency code is SCR, the abbreviations SR and SRe are sometimes used. Several other currencies are also called rupee, in 1914, the government produced emergency issues of notes for 50 cents,1,5 and 10 rupees. Standard issue notes began to be issued in 1918, with notes for 50 cents and 1 rupee, the 50 cents and 1 rupee notes were issued until 1951 and phased out in favor of the coins. 20- and 100-rupee notes were first introduced in 1968, whilst the 5-rupee note was replaced by a coin in 1972, in 1976, the Seychelles Monetary Authority took over the issuance of paper money, issuing notes for 10,25,50 and 100 rupees. This series featured the first president of the Seychelles, James Mancham, in 1979, there was a redesign, featuring a more socialist and modernized theme reminiscent of the René regime. This series was issued by the Central Bank of Seychelles when it took over full responsibility in the same year. In 1989, a new series was introduced with better security features, in 1998, another more high-tech series was introduced with a more practical, ergonomic design. This series later saw an additional 500-rupee note first introduced in 2005, on June 7,2011, the Central Bank of Seychelles issued updated 50,100 and 500 rupees notes with improved security features. Each of the three banknotes has a holographic patch instead of a foil sailfish which currently appears on the notes, on the 50-rupee note, the silver holographic sailfish alternates between the number 50 and an image of the Aldabra rail, a flightless bird. On the 100-rupee note, the gold holographic sailfish alternates between the number 100 and an image of the Seychelles giant tortoise, on the 500-rupee note, the gold holographic sailfish alternates between the number 500 and an image of the Seychelles scops owl. The notes are also protected by De La Rue’s unique Gemini technology that fluoresces under ultraviolet light, the color schemes of the notes have been revised, with the notes being more green, red, and orange, respectively, than the notes currently in circulation. The new notes also carry the year of printing, as well as the signature of Pierre Laporte, existing notes remain legal tender and will be removed from circulation as they wear out. In December 2016, the Central Bank of Seychelles is set to issue a new series of banknotes to commemorate 40 years of Seychelles independence, the theme of this series is Seychelles Unique Biodiversity - the backbone of the economy
Seychellois rupee
–
25 cents
Seychellois rupee
–
One rupee banknote of 1943.
8.
Sri Lankan rupee
–
The rupee is the currency of Sri Lanka, divided into 100 cents. It is issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, the abbreviation is generally Rs. but SLRs. is occasionally used to distinguish it from other currencies also called rupee. The British pound became Ceylons official money of account in 1825, replacing the Ceylonese rixdollar at a rate of 1 pound = 13 1⁄3 rixdollars, Treasury notes denominated in pounds were issued in 1827, replacing the earlier rixdollar notes. Rixdollar notes not presented for exchange were demonetized in June 1831, the Indian rupee was made Ceylons standard coin on 26 September 1836, and Ceylon reverted to the Indian currency area. Pound-denominated treasury notes continued to circulate after 1836, along with the rupee, the legal currency remained British silver and accounts were kept in pounds, shillings and pence. However, payments were made in rupees and annas at the par of 2 shillings per rupee. The Bank of Ceylon was the first private bank to issue banknotes on the island, the Indian rupee was formally established as the unlimited legal tender 18 June 1869. The rupee was decimalized 23 August 1871, thus, the rupee of 100 cents became Ceylons money of account and sole legal tender effective 1 January 1872, replacing British currency at a rate of 1 rupee =2 shillings 3 pence. In 1872, copper 1⁄4, 1⁄2,1 and 5 cents coins dated 1870 were introduced, followed in 1892 by silver 10,25 and 50 cents, production of the 1⁄4 cent ceased in 1904. The large, copper 5 cents coin was replaced in 1909 by a much smaller cupro-nickel coin which was square with rounded corners, in 1919, the fineness of silver used was reduced from.800 to.550. Between 1940 and 1944, a change in the coinage was carried out. Production of the 1⁄2 cent ceased in 1940, with bronze 1 cent introduced in 1942 with reduced weight, nickel-brass replaced cupro-nickel in the 5 cents in the same year and replaced silver in the 25 and 50 cents in 1943. In 1944, nickel-brass, scalloped shaped 2 and 10 cents coins were introduced, the scalloped 10 cents coin replaced the silver 10 cents coin. Later 2 cent coins issued in 1957 were the coins from this period to ever depict Queen Elizabeth II. Coins with the portrait of King George VI continued to be issued despite his death, in 1957, cupro-nickel 1 rupee coins and.925 silver 5 rupee coins commemorating 2500 years of Buddhism were issued. In 1963, a new coinage was introduced which omitted the British monarchs portrait, coins issued were aluminium 1 and 2 cents, nickel brass 5 and 10 cents and cupro-nickel 25 and 50 cents and 1 rupee. These coins had the shapes and sizes of the previous series but were composed of different materials. In 1976, commemorative seven-sided 2 rupee and ten-sided 5 rupee coins were introduced in limited numbers, in 1978, devaluation prompted aluminum to be the replacement of nickel-brass in the 5 and 10 cents, while shortly after 1 and 2 cents were discontinued
Sri Lankan rupee
–
25 cents
Sri Lankan rupee
–
Exchange rate to 1 USD since 1973
Sri Lankan rupee
–
One Rupee
9.
Bhutan
–
Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in Asia and the smallest state located entirely within the Himalaya mountain range. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bordered by China in the north, Bhutan lacks a border with nearby Nepal due to the Indian state of Sikkim and with Bangladesh due to the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. Bhutan is geopolitically in South Asia and is the second least populous nation after the Maldives. Thimphu is its capital and largest city, while Phuntsholing is its financial center, the independence of Bhutan has endured for centuries and the territory was never colonized in its history. Situated on the ancient Silk Road between Tibet, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the Bhutanese state developed a national identity based on Buddhism. Headed by a leader known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, the territory was composed of many fiefdoms. Following a civil war in the 19th century, the House of Wangchuck reunited the country, Bhutan fostered a strategic partnership with India during the rise of Chinese communism and has a disputed border with the Peoples Republic of China. The King of Bhutan is known as the Dragon King, Bhutan is also notable for pioneering the concept of gross national happiness. The countrys landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the sub-alpine Himalayan mountains in the north. The highest mountain in Bhutan is the Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. There is also diverse wildlife in Bhutan, in South Asia, Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom, ease of doing business and peace, second in per capita income and is the least corrupt country, as of 2016. However, Bhutan continues to be a least developed country, hydroelectricity accounts for the major share of its exports. The government is a parliamentary democracy, Bhutan maintains diplomatic relations with 52 countries and the European Union, but does not have formal ties with the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Royal Bhutan Army maintains extensive military relations with the Indian Armed Forces. The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym Bod used for Tibet. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta end of Tibet, since the 17th century the official name of Bhutan has been Druk yul and Bhutan only appears in English-language official correspondence. Names similar to Bhutan — including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan, jean-Baptiste Taverniers 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan. However, in case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan
–
The
Dzong in the
Paro valley, built in 1646.
10.
Nepal
–
Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
Nepal
–
Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of
Gautama Buddha by the
UNESCO World Heritage Convention
Nepal
–
Flag
Nepal
–
Former royal palace at
Basantapur, Kathmandu
Nepal
–
Hindu temples in
Patan, capital of one of the three medieval
Newar kingdoms
11.
Zimbabwe
–
Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, although it does not border Namibia, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates it from that country. The capital and largest city is Harare, a country of roughly 13 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a route for migration. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s, in 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations—which it withdrew from in 2003 and it is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the following the end of white minority rule. Under Mugabes authoritarian regime, the security apparatus has dominated the country. Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era, the name Zimbabwe stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the countrys south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word, many sources hold that Zimbabwe derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the province of Masvingo. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been Matopos, referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo. In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a rally, and it caught hold. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name the during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964-1979, major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands, the Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, the main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal and they traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe and this Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdoms capital of Great Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
–
Towers of
Great Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
–
Flag
Zimbabwe
–
Opening of the railway to Umtali in 1899
Zimbabwe
–
Ian Smith signing the
Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience.
12.
East Timor
–
East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
East Timor
–
"Timor of the rising sun" Sunrise on Mount
Tatamailau
East Timor
–
Flag
East Timor
–
A demonstration for
independence from Indonesia held in Australia during September 1999
East Timor
–
José Ramos-Horta, 1996 Nobel Peace Prize winner, second President of East Timor
13.
Currency
–
A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
Currency
–
Cowry shells being used as money by an Arab trader.
Currency
–
Song dynasty Jiaozi, the world's earliest paper money.
14.
Burmese rupee
–
The rupee was the currency of Burma between 1852 and 1952, except for the years 1943-1945. When Burma was conquered by the British, the Indian rupee replaced the kyat at par, from 1897, the government of India issued notes in Rangoon of the same general type as were issued in India but featuring languages used in Burma rather than those of India. In 1917 and again from 1927, Indian notes were overprinted for use in Burma, when Burma became a separate colony in 1937, a separate issue of paper money was made for use only in Burma but no separate coinage was issued. When the Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, they introduced a new currency and this currency was only issued in paper form. The rupee was replaced by the kyat in 1943, in 1945, the Japanese occupation currency was declared worthless and Burma reverted to using Indian coinage and its own rupee paper money. Following independence in 1948, Burma introduced its own currency, consisting of coins. One rupee was divided into 16 pe, each of 4 pyas, the rupee was replaced by the kyat in 1952 at par. In 1949, coins were introduced in denominations of 2 pya,1,2,4 and 8 pe and they matched the size, shapes, and cupro-nickel composition of the Indian ½,1 and 2 annas and ¼ and ½ rupee. The reverse on all of these featured the chinthe, which is a mythical lion-dragon beast. Between 1897 and 1922, notes for 5,10 and 100 rupees were issued which differed from the Indian notes only in the languages used. In 1917, Indian 2½ rupees notes were overprinted for use in Burma, in 1937,5,10 and 100 rupees notes of the Reserve Bank of India were overprinted with the text Legal Tender in Burma Only. In 1938, the first regular issue of Burmese notes was made by the Reserve Bank of India, in 1942, the Japanese issued notes for 1,5 and 10 cents, ¼, ½,1,5,10 and 100 rupees. These were replaced in 1944 by notes issued in 1,5,10, in 1945, the Military Administration issued overprinted Indian notes for 1,5,10 and 100 rupees to replace the Japanese issued kyat notes. In 1947, the Burma Currency Board took over the issuance of paper money, following independence in 1948, the government issued notes for the same denominations. In 1953, the Union Bank of Burma issued a series of notes denominated in rupees
Burmese rupee
–
1 Rupee featuring the
green peacock (1948)
15.
East African rupee
–
The rupee was the currency of Britains East African colonies and protectorates between 1906 and 1920. It was divided into 100 cents, the rupee replaced the Indian rupee, which had previously circulated. In 1920, the rupee was revalued against sterling to a peg of 1 rupee =2 shillings, in East Africa, this was followed in the same year by the replacement of the rupee with the East African florin at par. The currency is noteworthy for including the worlds first aluminium coin, silver coins were introduced for 25 and 50 cents in 1906, followed by aluminium 1 cent and cupro-nickel 10 cents in 1907, aluminium ½ cent in 1908 and cupro-nickel 5 cents in 1913. In 1906, notes were introduced by the government of the East Africa Protectorate in denominations of 5,10,20,40,100 and 500 rupees, in 1920, the East African currency Board issued 1 rupee notes shortly before the rupee was replaced. Global Financial Data currency histories table Tables of modern history, Kenya Tables of modern monetary history, Tanzania Tables of modern monetary history
East African rupee
–
1 cent coin from 1913, cupro-nickel alloy
16.
German East African rupie
–
The Rupie was the currency of German East Africa between 1890 and 1916, continuing to circulate in the Tanganyika Territory until 1920. The German East Africa Company acquired rights to mint coinage in 1890 and issued rupies which were equivalent to the Indian, the Company retained its coinage rights even after the takeover of German East Africa by the government later in 1890. In 1904 the German government took over currency matters and established the Ostafrikanische Bank, the Rupie was initially equivalent to the Indian rupee. Until 1904, it was subdivided into 64 Pesa, the currency was decimalized on 28 February 1904, with 1 Rupie =100 Heller. At the same time, an exchange rate of 15 Rupien =20 German Mark was established. In 1915 and 1916 in the period of fighting in East Africa during World War I a large series of issues of paper money were issued. 1916 also saw an issue of coins to pay German led troops. Later in 1916 German East Africa was occupied by British and Belgian forces, in Tanganyika, the Rupie circulated alongside the East African rupee until 1920, when both were replaced by the East African florin at par. In Burundi and Rwanda, the Belgian Congolese franc replaced the Rupie in 1916, in 1890, copper 1 Pesa and silver 1 and 2 Rupie coins were introduced, followed the next year by silver ¼ and ½ Rupie and in 1893 by silver 2 Rupien coins. The silver coins were minted to the standard as the Indian rupee. As a consequence of decimalization, bronze ½ and 1 Heller were introduced in 1904, followed by bronze 5 Heller and holed, in 1913, holed, cupro-nickel 5 Heller were introduced. The 1916 issues were minted at Tabora as an emergency coinage. A total of 302,940 brass 5 Heller were issued, in addition, both copper and brass 20 Heller coins were produced, a quantity that allows them to remain readily available for collectors. In addition 16,198 of the gold 15 Rupien mentioned above were produced, while the smaller valued coins were crudely struck, the gold pieces received fine detail. In 1905, the Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Bank introduced notes for 5,10,50, and 100 Rupien, between 1915 and 1917, World War I emergency issue notes were produced in denominations of 1,5,10,20,50 and 200 Rupien. Colonial German East Africa was cut off from Germany resulting from a wartime blockade, silver coinage was hoarded for its intrinsic value in commercial transactions, and the colonial government was pressured into creating interim banknotes. Previous issues of banknotes were produced by the German printing company Giesecke & Devrient, given the wartime supply shortages, the provisional notes were also printed on commercial paper, wrapping paper, and in one very rare instance, wall paper. The translated text of the states, Provisional Banknote
German East African rupie
–
1 Rupie coin
German East African rupie
German East African rupie
German East African rupie
17.
Trucial States
–
The Trucial States were a group of sheikhdoms in the south-eastern Persian Gulf, previously known to the British as the Pirate Coast, which were signatories to treaties with the British government. Six were to form the United Arab Emirates on that day and this was an unclear status which fell short of a formal protectorate, but required Britain to defend them from external aggression in exchange for exclusive British rights in the states. In 1952, the Trucial States Council was established to encourage co-operation between the seven Rulers, the first in a long series of maritime skirmishes between the Al Qasimi and British vessels took place in 1797, when the British-flagged Bassein Snow was seized and released two days later. The cruiser Viper was subsequently attacked off Bushire and this version has been particularly well articulated by Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, the current Ruler of Sharjah, in his 1986 book The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf. The next year,1820, a treaty was signed to which all the sheikhs of the coast adhered. On 11 January 1820, again at Ras Al Khaimah, Shakhbut bin Diyab Al Nahyan signed on behalf of his son, Tahnoon, husain bin Ali of Rams signed on the 15th. The uncle of Muhammad bin Hazza of Dubai signed on the 28th in Sharjah, the Rulers of Ajman and Umm Al Qawain acceded to the full treaty on 15 March, signing on board the ship of the commander of the British expeditionary force, Sir William Grant-Keir. The treaty was signed, at Sharjah, by the emir of Bahrain. The Sheikh of Rams lost the support of his soon after. Separate treaties in 1847 and 1856 saw treaties undertaking the abolition of slave trading and, in 1873, the sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the United Kingdom and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. This treaty, the Exclusive Agreement, was signed by the Rulers of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah and it was subsequently ratified by the Viceroy of India and the British Government in London. In 1968 the United Kingdom announced its intention to end its protectorate over the Trucial Coast, the other Trucial States had long been a British protectorate with the British taking care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf. This changed with Harold Wilsons announcement, on 16 January 1968, the decision pitched the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind. The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union, over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed - often stormy - as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where heavy-handed British intervention resulted in a walk-out by Qatar, Bahrain and Qatar were to drop out of talks, leaving only six emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971. On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Qawain, the seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972 following Irans seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs from Ras Al Khaimah. Trucial Oman Scouts Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
Trucial States
–
Flag of the Trucial States Council
18.
Maldives
–
The Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives, is a South Asian island country, located in the Indian Ocean, situated in the Arabian Sea. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka, the chain of twenty-six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south. Malé is the capital and most populated city, traditionally called the Kings Island for its central location. With an average elevation of 1.5 metres above sea level, it is the worlds lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world. Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019, the Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing commercial and cultural ties with Asia. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the influence of European colonial powers. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a republic was established in 1968 with an elected Peoples Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability, efforts at democratic reform, the Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated high on the Human Development Index, with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations. The name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words maala and dweepu or the Tamil maalai and theevu, the Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word theevu means island, and Dhives means islanders, the ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning garland. Jan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa, in Tamil, Garland of Islands can be translated as Malai Theevu. In Malayalam, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maladweepu, in Kannada, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maaledweepa. This is the name inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat, the Dutch referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden, while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the Maldive Islands and later to Maldives. One such community are the Giraavaru people and they are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé
Maldives
–
The Buddhist Stupa (the best preserved, the largest and the last of the Buddhist temples that were destroyed) at Kuruhinna in
Gan Island (Haddhunmathi Atoll).
Maldives
–
Flag
Maldives
–
Isdhoo Lōmāfānu is the oldest
copper-plate book to have been discovered in the Maldives to date. The book was written in AD 1194 (590 AH) in the Evēla form of the
Divehi akuru, during the reign of
Siri Fennaadheettha Mahaa Radun (Dhinei Kalaminja).
Maldives
–
A Plaque in Juma Mosque, Malé, Maldives, on which
Yusuf Tabrizi 's name is written. Yusuf Tabrizi was an Iranian who is said to have converted Maldives in 12th century AD to
Islam.
19.
Rufiyah
–
The Maldivian rufiyaa is the currency of the Maldives. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Maldives Monetary Authority, the most commonly used symbols for the rufiyaa are MRF and Rf. The ISO4217 code for Maldivian rufiyaa is MVR, the rufiyaa is subdivided into 100 laari. The name rufiyaa is derived from the Sanskrit rupya. The midpoint of exchange rate is 12.85 rufiyaa per US dollar, the earliest form of currency used in the Maldives was cowry shells and historical accounts of travellers indicate that they were traded in this manner even during the 13th century. As late as 1344, Ibn Batuta observed that more than 40 ships loaded with cowry shells were exported each year, a single gold dinar was worth 400,000 shells. During the 17th and 18th centuries, lārin were imported and traded as currency and this form of currency was used in the Persian Gulf, India, Ceylon and the Far East during this time. Historians agree that this new form of currency was most probably exchanged for cowry shells, the first Sultan to imprint his own seal onto this currency was Ghaazee Mohamed Thakurufaanu Al Auzam. The seal was much broader than the wires hence it was barely legible, the first known of coins were introduced by Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar. Compared to the forms of money, these coins were much neater. The coins were minted in the city of Malé, a fact which it acknowledged on the reverse. The legend King of Land and Sea, Iskandhar the Great is found on the edge, after this period, gold coins replaced the existing silver ones during the reign of Sultan Hassan Nooruddin in 1787. He used two different qualities of gold in his coins, one was called Mohoree and the other Baimohoree, how this gold was obtained is uncertain. Throughout the nineteenth and early centuries, bronze coins were issued denominated in laari. Sultan Mohamed Imaadhudheen IV introduced what historians believe to be the first machine struck coins and his successor Sultan Mohamed Shamshudeen III made the last of these coins,1 and 4 laari denominations, which were struck in the United Kingdom by Heatons Mint, Birmingham, England in 1913. Following the end of coin production specifically for the Maldives, the Sultanate came to use the Ceylonese rupee and this was supplemented in 1947 by issues of banknotes denominated in rufiyaa, equal in value to the rupee. In 1960, coins denominated in laari, now worth one hundredth of the rufiyaa, were introduced, in 1960, Sultan Mohamed Fareed I ordered coins from the Royal Mint in England. The new issue consisted of denominations of 1,2,5,10,25 and 50 laari
Rufiyah
–
100 rufiyaa note
Rufiyah
Rufiyah
–
Maldivian coins from the 17th and 18th century.
Rufiyah
–
Half rufiyaa and two rufiyaa banknotes that were replaced by coins in the late 1900s.
20.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
Sanskrit
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari, early 19th century
Sanskrit
–
Devi Mahatmya palm-leaf manuscript in an early
Bhujimol script,
Bihar or
Nepal, 11th century
Sanskrit
–
A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden, Netherlands
Sanskrit
–
Kashmir Shaiva manuscript in the
Śāradā script (c. 17th century)
21.
Dravidian languages
–
The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. There are also groups of Dravidian-speaking scheduled tribes, who live beyond the mainstream communities, such as the Kurukh. Epigraphically the Dravidian languages have been attested since the 2nd century BCE, only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal. Caldwell coined the term Dravidian for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa. In his own words, Caldwell says, The word I have chosen is Dravidian, from Drāviḍa, I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it. The 1961 publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T, emeneau proved a notable event in the study of Dravidian linguistics. As for the origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa itself, researchers have proposed various theories, basically the theories deal with the direction of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa. There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil, Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila damiḷa and then goes on to say, The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of drviḍa and. Tamiḷ < tamiẓ. whereby the further development might have been *tamiẓ > *damiḷ > damiḷa- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, hypercorrect -r-, an analogical case of DED1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu. kangu areca nut, Skt. kramu. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite dameḍa-, damela- denoting Tamil merchants and it appears that damiḷa- was older than draviḍa- which could be its Sanskritization. Based on what Krishnamurti states, the Sanskrit word draviḍa itself is later than damiḷa since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r-. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karṇāṭakas, Gurjaras, Tailaṅgas, the Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. They are descended from the Proto-Dravidian language, there is reasonable agreement on how they are related to each other. Most scholars agree on four groups, North, Central, South-Central, earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. The classification below follows Krishnamurti in grouping South-Central and South Dravidian, languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface. Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a subgroup, splitting it into Northeast and Northwest. In some words, *c is retracted to /k/ and this development is however also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analyzable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations, approximately 29% of Indias population spoke Dravidian languages in 1981
Dravidian languages
–
Language families in South Asia
Dravidian languages
–
North
Dravidian languages
–
Jambai Tamil Brahmi inscription dated to the early Sangam age
22.
Grain (mass)
–
A grain is a unit of measurement of mass, and, for the troy grain, equal to exactly 7001647989100000000♠64.79891 milligrams. It is nominally based upon the mass of a seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat, rather, expressions such as thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear appear to have been ritualistic formulas, essentially the premodern equivalent of legal boilerplate. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater, of the British Standards Commission, the grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems, and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a grain of barley. The fundamental unit of the pre-1527 English weight system known as Tower weights, was a different sort of known as the wheat grain. The Tower wheat grain was defined as exactly 45⁄64 of a troy grain.79891 milligrams, 7000100000000000000♠1 gram is approximately 7001154323600000000♠15.43236 grains. The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, or other stones, called the jewellers grain or pearl grain, is equal to 1⁄4 of a carat. The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 6995531150000000000♠53.115 mg. In both British Imperial and U. S. customary units, there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound, the grain is commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants. The term also refers to a particle of gunpowder, the size of which varies according to requirements. In archery, the grain is the unit used to weigh arrows. In dentistry, gold foil, used as a material to restore teeth, is measured in grains, in North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per US gallon of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness is measured in the metric unit parts per million, one grain per US gallon is approximately 6995171000000000000♠17.1 ppm. Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–20 gpg, though no longer recommended, grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of the apothecaries system, especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital. For example, the dosage of a standard 6996325000000000000♠325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 7000500000000000000♠5 grains, in that example the grain is approximated to 6995650000000000000♠65 mg, though the grain can also be approximated to 6995600000000000000♠60 mg, depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries system has its own system of notation, in which the symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals. For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written ASA gr
Grain (mass)
–
The small golden disk close to the 5 cm marker is a piece of pure
gold weighing one troy grain. Shown for comparison are a tape measure and coins of major world currencies.
Grain (mass)
–
A box of
.38 Special cartridges that have 148-grain bullets
Grain (mass)
–
The 5-grain aspirin. The usage guidance label on a bottle of aspirin indicates that the dosage is "325 mg (5 gr)".
Grain (mass)
–
Bottle of 1 / 4 grain
phenobarbital tablets
23.
Sher Shah Suri
–
Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in North India, with its capital at Delhi. An ethnic Pashtun, Sher Shah took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540, after his accidental death in 1545, his son Islam Shah became his successor. He first served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under Babur, in 1537, when Baburs son Humayun was elsewhere on an expedition, Sher Shah overran the state of Bengal and established the Sur dynasty. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself as an administrator as well as a capable general. His reorganization of the laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably Akbar. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, he set up a new civic and military administration, issued the first Rupiya and re-organised the postal system of India. He further developed Humayuns Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the city of Pataliputra. He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in the frontiers of the province of Bengal in northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far northwest of the country. Sher Shah Suri was born as Farid Khan in the present day place Sasaram in the state of Bihar in India and his surname Suri was taken from his Sur tribe. The name Sher was conferred upon him when, as a young man and his grand father Ibrahim Khan Suri was a land lord in Narnaul area and represented Delhi rulers of that period. Mazar of Ibrahim Khan Suri still stands as a monument in Narnaul, tarikh-i Khan Jahan Lodi. also confirm this fact. However, the online Encyclopædia Britannica states that he was born in Sasaram and he was one of about eight sons of Mian Hassan Khan Suri, a prominent figure in the government of Bahlul Khan Lodi in Narnaul Pargana. Sher Khan belonged to the Pashtun Sur tribe and his grandfather, Ibrahim Khan Suri, was a noble adventurer from Roh who was recruited much earlier by Sultan Bahlul Lodi of Delhi during his long contest with the Jaunpur Sultanate. It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, during his early age, Farid was given a village in Fargana, Delhi by Omar Khan Sarwani, the counselor and courtier of Bahlul Khan Lodi. Farid Khan and his father, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar, jamal Khan had advised Farid to return home but he refused. Farid replied in a letter, If my father wants me back to me in learning, there are in this city many learned men. Farid Khan started his service under Bahar Khan Lohani, the Mughal Governor of Bihar, because of his valour, Bahar Khan rewarded him the title Sher Khan. After the death of Bahar Khan, Sher Khan became the regent ruler of the minor Sultan, later sensing the growth of Sher Shahs power in Bihar, Jalal sought the assistance of Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, the independent Sultan of Bengal
Sher Shah Suri
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Sketch work of Sher Shah Suri by Afghan artist
Abdul Ghafoor Breshna
Sher Shah Suri
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Rupiya released by Sher Shah Suri, 1540–1545 CE, was the first
Rupee
Sher Shah Suri
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Sher Shah Suri Tomb at
Sasaram
Sher Shah Suri
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An inspection of Sher Shah Suri's Great North Road
24.
Gold coin
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A gold coin is a coin that is made mostly or entirely of gold. Traditionally, gold coins have been circulation coins, including coin-like bracteates, since recent decades, however, gold coins are mainly produced as bullion coins to investors and as commemorative coins to collectors. While also modern gold coins are legal tender, they are not observed in financial transactions. For example, the American Gold Eagle, given a denomination of 50 USD, has a value of more than 1,000 USD. The gold reserves of banks are dominated by gold bars. Gold has been used as money for many reasons and it is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a value to weight ratio, compared to other commodities. Gold can be re-coined, divided into units, or re-melted into larger units such as gold bars. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits, additionally, gold is extremely unreactive, hence it does not tarnish or corrode over time. Gold was used in commerce in the Ancient Near East since the Bronze Age, the name of king Croesus of Lydia remains associated with the invention. In 546 BC, Croesus was captured by the Persians, who adopted gold as the metal for their coins. Ancient Greek coinage contained a number of coins issued by the various city states. The Ying yuan is a gold coin minted in ancient China. Larger units such as the various talent measures were used for high value exchanges, the German gold mark was introduced in 1873 in the German Empire, replacing the various local Gulden coins of the Holy Roman Empire. Gold coins then had a long period as a primary form of money. Most of the world stopped making gold coins as currency by 1933, gold-colored coins have made a comeback in many currencies. However, gold coin always refers to a coin that is made of gold, furthermore, many countries continue to make legal tender gold coins, but these are primarily meant for collectors and investment purposes and are not meant for circulation. Many factors determine the value of a coin, such as its rarity, age, condition
Gold coin
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A
20-crown gold coin from
Norway. Introduced in 1874, it became part of the
Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was based on a
gold standard.
Norwegian gold reserves included 3.50 tonnes of this and other coins.
Gold coin
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Persian
Achaemenid Daric, circa 490 BC
Gold coin
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Gold
Solidus of Roman Emperor
Valentinian II
Gold coin
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Gold Guilder
25.
Mohur
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It was usually equivalent in value to fifteen silver rupees. It was last minted in British India in 1918, but some states continued to issue the coins until their accession to India after 1947. Similar coins were issued by the British authorities in denominations of 2/3 mohur, 1/3 mohur and the double mohur. The mohur coin was first introduced by Sher Shah Suri during his rule in India between 1540 and 1545 and was then a coin weighing 169 grains. He also introduced copper coins called dam and silver coins called rupiya that weighed 178 grains, later on, the Mughal emperors standardized this coinage of tri-metallism across the sub-continent in order to consolidate the monetary system. The word mohur or mohor is from the Persian word muhr, gold mohurs issued by the Moghul Empire, the British East India Company or the British Crown are valuable collector items and sell in auctions for lakhs of rupees. The double mohur with a value of 30 rupees is the highest denomination circulating coin issued till date, an 1835 double mohur was sold at a Bangalore auction for Rs.11.5 lakhs making it the highest ever coin bid in India. Double eagle History of the rupee Dam Dam Nepalese mohar
Mohur
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1862 One Mohur
Mohur
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1835 Two Mohur
26.
History of the rupee
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The history of the Rupee traces back to the Ancient India in circa 6th century BC. Ancient India was the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and it is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image. The word rūpa is being identified as having sprung from the Dravidian. Vedic origin is more likely compare Sanskrit rūpá, n. m, a form, beauty, rūpaka adjective and n. m. A particular coin Pañcatantra, rūpya, *rūpiya-, adj. beautiful, there is no evidence of transmission to Indo-Aryan from Dravidian and textual evidence dates to well before any references in the later Dravidian. Rupa means form or shape, example, Rupyarupa, Rupya – wrought silver, rupa – form. Sher Shah Suri, during his rule from 1540 to 1545, set up a new civic and military administration and issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains. The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India, among the earliest issues of paper rupees include the Bank of Hindostan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, and the Bengal Bank. The Indian rupee was a currency during much of the 19th century. During British rule, and the first decade of independence, the rupee was subdivided into 16 annas, each anna was subdivided into either 4 paisas or 12 pies. So one rupee was equal to 16 annas,64 paises of 192 pies, in 1957, decimalisation occurred and the rupee was divided into 100 naye paise. After a few years, the initial naye was dropped, Ancient India in circa 6th century BC, was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters. The first rupee is believed to have introduced by Sher Shah Suri. The word rūpiya is derived from word rūpa, which means wrought silver and it is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image. Rupa means form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, Rūpya – wrought silver, in the intermediate times there is no fixed monetary system as reported by the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1546, Sher Shah Suri set up a new civic and military administration and issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, which was termed the Rupiya. The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, the Maratha era and in British India, there are many fake coins of East India Company, with Indian gods depicted on the obverse side as shown in side-bar. Original East India Company coins show only the coat of arms of the East India Company, the coins of Bengal were developed in the Mughal style and those of Madras mostly in a South Indian style
History of the rupee
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Silver coin of the
Maurya Empire, known as Rupyarupa, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.
History of the rupee
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Rupiya issued by
Sher Shah Suri, 1540–1545 CE
History of the rupee
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1 Paisa coupon issued by Sayla state
History of the rupee
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One rupee, Queen Victoria series, 1862
27.
Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
Maurya Empire
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Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.
Maurya Empire
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Maurya Empire at its maximum extent
Maurya Empire
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Ashoka pillar at
Vaishali
Maurya Empire
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Bas relief at
Sanchi Stupa, 3rd century BCE.
India
Indonesia
Maldives
Mauritius
Nepal
Pakistan
Seychelles
Sri Lanka
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "rupee". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
