1.
74th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, DC from January 3,1935 to January 3,1937, during the third and fourth years of Franklin Roosevelts presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifteenth Census of the United States in 1930, both chambers had a Democratic supermajority. April 14,1935, Dust Bowl, The great dust storm hit eastern New Mexico, Colorado, may 27,1935, Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, the U. S. July 1,1935, Charles Watkins was appointed as the first officially recognized Parliamentarian, September 10,1935, Senator Huey Long of Louisiana died, as the result of being shot by an assassin on September 8. March 1,1936, Construction of Hoover Dam was completed, november 3,1936, General elections U. S. presidential election,1936, Franklin D. Roosevelt was reelected with 60. 8% of the vote over Alf Landon. United States House of Representatives elections,1936, Democrats gained twelve more net seats from the Republicans and this was the largest majority since Reconstruction. The last time a party won so decisively was in 1866, november 25,1936, Abraham Lincoln Brigade sailed from New York City on its way to the Spanish Civil War April 27,1935, Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, Sess. 85,49 Stat.163 July 5,1935, National Labor Relations Act,372,49 Stat.449 August 9,1935, Motor Carrier Act, Sess. 498,49 Stat.546 August 14,1935, Social Security Act, including Aid to Dependent Children, Old Age Pension Act, Pub. L. 531,49 Stat.620 August 23,1935, Banking Act of 193549 Stat.694 August 26,1935, Public Utility Act,687,49 Stat.803 August 30,1935, Revenue Act of 1935, Sess. 829,49 Stat.1014 August 31,1935, Neutrality Act of 1935,837,49 Stat.1081 February 29,1936, Neutrality Act of 1936, Sess. 106,49 Stat.1153 May 20,1936, Rural Electrification Act,432,49 Stat.1363 June 15,1936, Commodities Exchange Act, Sess. 545,49 Stat.1491 June 19,1936, Robinson Patman Act,592,49 Stat.1526 June 22,1936, Flood Control Act of 1936, Pub. L. 2, ch.688 June 29,1936, Merchant Marine Act,250,49 Stat.1985 June 30,1936, Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act, Sess. Bankhead, elected June 4,1936 Majority leader, William B, the names of members are preceded by their district numbers. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress, official Congressional Directory for the 74th Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 74th Congress, 1st Session, official Congressional Directory for the 74th Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 74th Congress, 2nd Session
2.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
3.
United States Code
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The Code of Laws of the United States of America is the official compilation and codification of the general and permanent federal statutes of the United States. It contains 52 titles, and a further three titles have been proposed, the main edition is published every six years by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the House of Representatives, and cumulative supplements are published annually. The official version of those laws not codified in the United States Code can be found in United States Statutes at Large, the official text of an Act of Congress is that of the enrolled bill presented to the President for his signature or disapproval. Upon enactment of a law, the bill is delivered to the Office of the Federal Register within the National Archives. After authorization from the OFR, copies are distributed as slip laws by the Government Printing Office, the Archivist assembles annual volumes of the enacted laws and publishes them as the United States Statutes at Large. By law, the text of the Statutes at Large is legal evidence of the laws enacted by Congress, slip laws are also competent evidence. The Statutes at Large, however, is not a convenient tool for legal research and it is arranged strictly in chronological order so that statutes addressing related topics may be scattered across many volumes. Statutes often repeal or amend laws, and extensive cross-referencing is required to determine what laws are in force at any given time. The United States Code is the result of an effort to make finding relevant and effective statutes simpler by reorganizing them by subject matter, the Code is maintained by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the U. S. House of Representatives. The LRC updates the Code accordingly, because of this codification approach, a single named statute may or may not appear in a single place in the Code. Often, complex legislation bundles a series of provisions together as a means of addressing a social or governmental problem, for example, an Act providing relief for family farms might affect items in Title 7, Title 26, and Title 43. When the Act is codified, its various provisions might well be placed in different parts of those various Titles, usually, the individual sections of a statute are incorporated into the Code exactly as enacted, however, sometimes editorial changes are made by the LRC. Though authorized by statute, these changes do not constitute positive law, the authority for the material in the United States Code comes from its enactment through the legislative process and not from its presentation in the Code. For example, the United States Code omitted 12 U. S. C. §92 for decades, apparently because it was thought to have been repealed. In its 1993 ruling in U. S. National Bank of Oregon v. Independent Insurance Agents of America, by law, those titles of the United States Code that have not been enacted into positive law are prima facie evidence of the law in effect. The United States Statutes at Large remains the ultimate authority, if a dispute arises as to the accuracy or completeness of the codification of an unenacted title, the courts will turn to the language in the United States Statutes at Large. This process makes that title of the United States Code legal evidence of the law in force, where a title has been enacted into positive law, a court may neither permit nor require proof of the underlying original Acts of Congress. The distinction between enacted and unenacted titles is largely academic because the Code is nearly always accurate, the United States Code is routinely cited by the Supreme Court and other federal courts without mentioning this theoretical caveat
4.
George W. Norris
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George William Norris was a U. S. politician from the state of Nebraska and a leader of progressive and liberal causes in Congress. Norris was defeated for reelection in 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt called him the very perfect, gentle knight of American progressive ideals, and this has been the theme of all of his biographers. A1957 advisory panel of 160 scholars recommended that Norris was the top choice for the five best Senators in U. S. history. Norris was born in 1861 in York Township, Sandusky County, Ohio and was the child of poor, uneducated, farmers of Scots-Irish. He graduated from Baldwin University and earned his LL. B. degree in 1883 at the law school of Valparaiso University and he moved to Beaver City, Nebraska to practice law. In 1889 he married Pluma Lashley, the couple had three daughters before her 1901 death, Norris then married Ellie Leonard in 1903, they had no children. Norris relocated to the town of McCook in 1900, where he became active in local politics. In 1902, running as a Republican, he was elected to the House of Representatives for Nebraskas 5th congressional district, a prominent insurgent after 1908, he led the revolt against Speaker Joseph G. Cannon in 1910. By a vote of 191 to 156, the House created a new system in which seniority would automatically move members ahead, in January 1911, he helped create the National Progressive Republican League and was its vice president. La Follette, Sr. for the 1912 presidential nomination but then switched to Roosevelt, however, he refused to bolt the convention and join Roosevelts Progressive Party. He instead ran for the Senate as a Republican, as a leading Progressive Republican, Norris supported the direct election of senators. He also promoted the conversion of all state legislatures to the unicameral system and this was implemented in 1934 only in the Nebraska Legislature, all other states have retained a two-house system. Norris supported some of President Woodrow Wilsons domestic programs but became a firm isolationist, in the face of enormous pressure from the media and the administration, Norris was one of only six senators to vote against the declaration of war on Germany in 1917. Looking at the war in Europe he said, Many instances of cruelty and inhumanity can be found on both sides, Norris believed that the government wanted to take part in this war only because the wealthy had already aided the British financially in the war. War brings prosperity to the gambler on Wall Street–to those who are already in possession of more wealth than can be realized or enjoyed. He joined the irreconcilables who vehemently opposed and defeated the Treaty of Versailles, seniority brought him the chairmanship of the Agriculture and Forestry and the Judiciary committees. Norris was a leader of the Farm Bloc, advocated the rights of labor, sponsored the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and proposed to abolish the Electoral College. Norris twice succeeded in getting Congress to pass legislation for an electric power system based at Muscle Shoals
5.
Nebraska
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Nebraska /nᵻˈbræskə/ is a state that lies in both the Great Plains and the Midwestern United States. Its area is just over 77,220 sq mi with almost 1.9 million people and its largest city is Omaha, which is on the Missouri River. The state is crossed by many trails and was explored by the Lewis. Nebraska was admitted as the 37th state of the United States in 1867 and it is the only state in the United States whose legislature is unicameral and officially nonpartisan. Nebraska is composed of two major regions, the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of rolling hills. The Great Plains occupy most of western Nebraska, characterized by treeless prairie, the state has a large agriculture sector and is a major producer of beef, pork, corn, and soybeans. Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska, the half of the state has a humid continental climate, and the western half. Indigenous peoples lived in the region of present-day Nebraska for thousands of years before European exploration. The historic tribes in the state included the Omaha, Missouria, Ponca, Pawnee, Otoe, when European exploration, trade, and settlement began, both Spain and France sought to control the region. In the 1690s, Spain established trade connections with the Apaches, by 1703, France had developed a regular trade with the native peoples along the Missouri River in Nebraska, and by 1719 had signed treaties with several of these peoples. After war broke out between the two countries, Spain dispatched an expedition to Nebraska under Lieutenant General Pedro de Villasur in 1720. The party was attacked and destroyed near present-day Columbus by a force of Pawnees and Otoes. The massacre of the Villasur expedition effectively put an end to Spanish exploration of Nebraska for the remainder of the 18th century, in 1762, during the Seven Years War, France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain. Frances withdrawal from the area left Britain and Spain competing for dominance along the Mississippi, by 1773, later that year, Mackays party built a trading post, dubbed Fort Carlos IV, near present-day Homer. In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as the first U. S. Army post west of the Missouri River, the army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west. European-American settlement did not begin in any numbers until after 1848, on May 30,1854, the US Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North, under the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Territory included parts of the current states of Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, the territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha
6.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
7.
John E. Rankin
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John Elliott Rankin was a Democratic congressman who served for sixteen terms from the U. S. State of Mississippi, from 1920 to 1952. He was co-author of the bill for the Tennessee Valley Authority and supported the New Deal programs of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and he was described as a racial demagogue, supporting racial segregation and white supremacy. He used his power to support segregation and deny federal benefits of varied programs to African Americans, for instance, in 1944, following the Port Chicago disaster, the U. S. Navy asked Congress to authorize payments of $5,000 to each of the victims families. But when Rankin learned most of the dead were black sailors, he insisted the amount be reduced to $2,000, in the South, black veterans were excluded from loans, training and employment assistance. The historically black colleges were underfunded and could accept only half the men who wanted to enroll. On the floor of the United States House of Representatives, Rankin expressed racist views of African Americans, Japanese Americans, in the late 20th century Congress authorized payment of reparations to survivors and their descendants. Rankin was born near Bolanda in Itawamba County, Mississippi to a family that had planter ancestors with large holdings before the Civil War. His parents were Thomas Braxton Rankin, a schoolteacher and resident of Tupelo and his paternal ancestors had come to Mississippi from South Carolina in 1840. After attending local schools and a school, Rankin went to college. He set up a practice in Clay County near where he grew up and they had a daughter, Annie Laurie Rankin. He became prosecuting attorney of Lee County in 1912, a position he held until 1915, Rankin served in the United States Army during World War I. In 1920, Rankin was elected to the House as a Democrat, since passage of a new constitution in 1890 that effectively disenfranchised African Americans, Mississippi had become a one-party state dominated by Democrats. Rankin served sixteen consecutive terms as Mississippis First District Representative, the powerful Democrats consistently defeated northern representatives effort to reduce southern apportionment. Rankin coauthored the bill to create the Tennessee Valley Authority, bringing major investment into the rural South and he was a supporter of the Rural Electrification Administration under President Franklin D. Roosevelts administration, which also benefited many Southerners. He strongly supported Roosevelts New Deal and advocated economic intervention in poor rural communities and he supported racial segregation and opposed civil rights legislation. He was a sponsor of Edith Nourse Rogers Servicemens Readjustment Act of 1944 and this ensured that southern states could continue to practice discrimination against black veterans. Rankin opposed the creation of the UN, stating, The United Nations is the greatest fraud in all History and its purpose is to destroy the United States. Rankin chaired the Committee on World War Veterans Legislation and the Committee on Veterans Affairs, Rankin helped establish the House Un-American Activities Committee as a standing committee in Congress in February 1945 by leading a coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats
8.
Electric power distribution
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Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power, it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customers premises, Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of household appliances and typically feed several customers through secondary distribution lines at this voltage. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level. Electric power distribution only became necessary in the 1880s when electricity started being generated at power stations, before that electricity was usually generated where it was used. Both were supplanting gas lighting systems, with arc lighting taking over large area/street lighting, the Edison DC system needed thick copper conductor cables, and the generating plants needed to be within about 1.5 miles of the farthest customer to avoid excessively large and expensive conductors. With much cheaper transmission costs and the economies of scale of having large generating plants supply whole cities and regions. Edisons propaganda campaign was short lived with his company switching over to AC in 1892, in the first half of the 20th century, the electric power industry was vertically integrated, meaning that one company did generation, transmission, distribution, metering and billing. Starting in the 1970s and 1980s, nations began the process of deregulation and privatisation, the distribution system would remain regulated, but generation, retail, and sometimes transmission systems were transformed into competitive markets. Electric power begins at a station, where the potential difference can be as high as 13,800 volts. However, High-voltage DC can be advantageous for isolating alternating-current systems or controlling the quantity of electricity transmitted, for example, Hydro-Québec has a direct-current line which goes from the James Bay region to Boston. From the generating station it goes to the generating station’s switchyard where a step-up transformer increases the voltage to a suitable for transmission. Once in the system, electricity from each generating station is combined with electricity produced elsewhere. Electricity is consumed as soon as it is produced and it is transmitted at a very high speed, close to the speed of light. Transformers step down transmission voltages, 35kV or more, down to primary distribution voltages and these are medium voltage circuits, usually 600-35,000 V. From the transformer, power goes to the busbar that can split the power off in multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which fan out to customers, urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts
9.
Rural areas in the United States
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The United States has many rural areas. Seventy-two percent of United States land area belongs to rural counties, the rural population of America has declined from 2010-2014 by about 30,000 people per year, the first period of overall population decline for rural America. By contrast, the population in the 2010s has grown by more than two million annually. Over the 2010-2014 time period, some 1,300 rural counties losing population, mostly in areas dependent on farming, manufacturing, or resource extraction. Of the 700 rural counties growing in population, most are in areas such as the Rocky Mountains or southern Appalachia. The rural poverty rate for U. S. rural counties as of 2014 is 18. 1%, Rural poverty is highest among racial and ethnic minorities. As of 2016, about 7 percent of people in the United States live in rural areas. Rural America was the center of the Populist movement of the 1890s, there are significant health disparities between urban and rural America. The per capita rate of primary care physicians is lower in areas of the country. Rural Americans are also more likely than other Americans to suffer from health conditions such as diabetes, heart disease. A study published in the journal JAMA Pediatrics in 2015 analyzed data on U. S. youth suicide rates from 1996 to 2010 and it found that the rates of suicides for rural Americans age 10 to 24 was almost double the rate compared to their urban counterparts. This was attributed to social isolation, greater availability of guns, agriculture in the United States List of U. S. states by population density Rural Electrification Act Rural letter carrier Cynthia M. Duncan, Worlds Apart, Poverty and Politics in Rural America. List of Rural Counties and Designated Eligible Census Tracts in Metropolitan Counties from the Office of Rural Health Policy
10.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
11.
Rural Utilities Service
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The United States Rural Utilities Service administers programs that provide infrastructure or infrastructure improvements to rural communities. These include water and waste treatment, electric power, and telecommunications services and it is an operating unit of the USDA Rural Development agency of the United States Department of Agriculture. Approximately 7,200 rural communities are served through financial assistance received from water and waste loans, electric Programs, help maintain, expand, upgrade and modernize the rural electric infrastructure. It also supports demand-side management, energy efficiency and conservation programs, telecommunications, helps deploy the rural telecommunications infrastructure. RUS originated with the Rural Electrification Administration, one of the agencies created under the New Deal in 1935 to promote rural electrification, in the 1930s, the U. S. lagged behind Europe in providing electricity to rural areas. In 1934, less than 11% of US farms had electricity and that same year, in France and Germany, nearly 90% of farms had electricity. Backed by the 1936 Rural Electrification Act the REA gave loans, by 1937, hundreds of new municipal power utilities were created nationwide. In 1939,288,000 households had their electricity provided by electric cooperatives. Most of these electric co-ops had applied for and received loans from REA, by 1942, nearly 50% of US farms had electricity, and by 1952 almost all US farms had electricity. In 1949, the REA became authorized to provide loans to rural telephone cooperatives, under the Department of Agriculture Reorganization Act of 1994 the REA was absorbed by the Rural Utilities Service
12.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
13.
Electrician
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An electrician is a tradesperson specializing in electrical wiring of buildings, stationary machines, and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical components or the maintenance, Electricians may also specialize in wiring ships, airplanes, and other mobile platforms, as well as data and cable. Electricians were originally people who demonstrated or studied the principles of electricity, wiremen are generally trained in one of five primary specialties, commercial, residential, light industrial, industrial, and low-voltage wiring, more commonly known as Voice-Data-Video, or VDV. Other sub-specialties such as wiring and fire-alarm may be performed by specialists trained in the devices being installed. Electricians are trained to one of three levels, Apprentice, Journeyman, and Master Electrician, in the US and Canada, apprentices work and receive a reduced compensation while learning their trade. Journeymen are electricians who have completed their Apprenticeship and who have been found by the local, State, or National licensing body to be competent in the electrical trade. Master Electricians have performed well in the trade for a period of time, often seven to ten years, service electricians are tasked to respond to requests for isolated repairs and upgrades. They have skills troubleshooting wiring problems, installing wiring in existing buildings, other specialty areas are marine electricians, research electricians and hospital electricians. Electrician is also used as the name of a role in stagecraft, where electricians are tasked primarily with hanging, focusing, in this context, the Master Electrician is the shows chief electrician. In the film industry and on a television crew the head electrician is referred to as a Gaffer, Electrical contractors are businesses that employ electricians to design, install, and maintain electrical systems. Many jurisdictions have regulatory restrictions concerning electrical work for safety due to the many hazards of working with electricity. Such requirements may be testing, registration or licensing, an electricians license entitles the holder to carry out all types of electrical installation work in Australia without supervision. However, to contract, or offer to contract, to carry out electrical installation work, under Australian law, electrical work that involves fixed wiring is strictly regulated and must almost always be performed by a licensed electrician or electrical contractor. Electrical licensing in Australia is regulated by the individual states, in Western Australia the Department of Commerce tracks licensees and allows the public to search for individually named/licensed Electricians. Currently in Victoria the apprenticeship last for four years, during three of years the apprentice attends trade school in either a block release of one week each month or one day each week. At the end of the apprenticeship the apprentice is required to pass three examinations, one of which is based with the other two practically based. Upon successful completion of exams, providing all other components of the apprenticeship are satisfactory. In most cases a certificate of electrical safety must be submitted to the relevant body after any electrical works are performed, Safety equipment used and worn by electricians in Australia needs to be tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the worker
14.
Barn
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A barn is an agricultural building usually located on farms and used for various purposes. In the North American area, a barn refers to structures that house livestock, including cattle and horses, as well as equipment and fodder, and often grain. As a result, the barn is often qualified e. g. tobacco barn, dairy barn, sheep barn. On the Continent, however, barns were often part of integrated structures known as byre-dwellings, in addition, barns may be used for equipment storage, as a covered workplace, and for activities such as threshing. The word barn comes from the Old English bere, for barley, and aern, for a storage place—thus, “Another word for barn in Old English was beretun, barley enclosure (from tun, enclosure, house, or beretun, also meaning a threshing floor. In historical times, the barn was to be distinguished from the granary, now, however, the common English name for a grain storage building is granary. The modern barn largely developed from the three aisled barn, commonly known as tithe barn or monastic barn. This, in turn, originated in a 12th-century building tradition, also applied in halls, in the 15th century several thousands of these huge barns were to be found in Western-Europe. In the course of time, its method was adopted by normal farms and it gradually spread to simpler buildings. As a rule, the barn had large entrance doors. The storage floors between the posts or in the aisles were known as bays or mows. The main types were large barns with sideway passages, compact barns with a central entrance, the latter also spread to Eastern Europe. Whenever stone walls were applied, the timber frame often gave way to single-naved buildings. A special type were byre-dwellings, which included living quarters, byres and stables, such as the Frisian farmhouse or Gulf house, not all, however, evolved from the medieval barn. Other types descended from the prehistoric longhouse or other building traditions, one of the latter was the Low German house, in which the harvest was stored in the attic. In many cases, the New World colonial barn evolved from the Low German house, in the mid to late 19th century in the U. S. barn framing methods began to shift away from traditional timber framing to truss framed or plank framed buildings. Truss or plank framed barns reduced the number of timbers instead using dimensional lumber for the rafters, joists, the joints began to become bolted or nailed instead of being mortised and tenoned. The inventor and patentee of the Jennings Barn claimed his design used less lumber, less work, less time, concrete block began to be used for barns in the early 20th century in the U. S
15.
Ampere
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The ampere, often shortened to amp, is a unit of electric current. In the International System of Units the ampere is one of the seven SI base units and it is named after André-Marie Ampère, French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics. SI defines the ampere in terms of base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second, in SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second. In the future, the SI definition may shift back to charge as the base unit, ampères force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere, conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second,1 A =1 C s. In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It, constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs. The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt to the joule, the ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The international ampere was a realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit 0.001118 grams of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 0.99985 A, at present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt. Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges. Since a coulomb is equal to 6. 2415093×1018 elementary charges. The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures agreed to study the proposed change, the new definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted. The current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power consumed by the system, for this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level
16.
Distribution board
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Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual-current devices or residual current breakers with overcurrent protection, are also incorporated. In the United Kingdom, a distribution designed for domestic installations is known as a consumer unit. In a North American distribution board, the breakers are generally positioned in two columns. Circuit breaker panelboards are always dead front, that is, the operator of the breakers is unable to contact live electrical parts. During servicing of the board itself, though, when the cover has been removed. Breakers are usually arranged in two columns, in a U. S. -style board, breaker positions are numbered left-to-right, along each row from top to bottom. This numbering system is universal with numerous competitive manufacturers of breaker panels, each row is fed from a different phase, to allow 2- or 3-pole common-trip breakers to have one pole on each phase. In North America, it is common to wire large permanently installed equipment line-to-line and this takes two slots in the panel and gives a voltage of 240 V for split-phase electric power, or 208 V for three-phase power. The picture to the shows the interior of a standard residential service. The three power wires - two hot and one neutral - can be seen coming in at the top, the neutral wire is connected to the neutral busbar to the left with all the white wires, and the other two are the hot wires attached to the main breaker. Below it are the two rows of circuit breakers with the red and black hot wires leading off. Three wires can be seen exiting the box and running to a NEMA 5-15 electrical receptacle with a power cord plugged into it. The incoming bare stranded ground wire can be seen near the bottom of the bus bar. The picture on the shows a North American dual panel configuration. The main panel and a subpanel, notice that the subpanel is fed by two large hot wires and a neutral wire running through a small angled conduit. This configuration appears to display three violations of the current U. S and this picture shows the interior of a typical distribution panel in the United Kingdom. The three incoming phase wires connect to the busbars via a switch in the centre of the panel. On each side of the panel are two busbars, for neutral and earth, the incoming neutral connects to the lower busbar on the right side of the panel, which is in turn connected to the neutral busbar at the top left
17.
Light fixture
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A light fixture, light fitting, or luminaire is an electrical device used to create artificial light by use of an electric lamp. All light fixtures have a body and a light socket to hold the lamp. Fixtures may also have a switch to control the light, either attached to the body or attached to the power cable. Permanent light fixtures, such as dining room chandeliers, may use a switch to turn them on and off, as such. Fixtures require a connection to a power source, typically AC mains power. Permanent lighting fixtures may be directly wired, moveable lamps have a plug and cord so that they can be plugged into a wall socket. A wide variety of light fixtures are created for use in the automotive lighting industry, aerospace. Portable light fixtures are often called lamps, as in table lamp or desk lamp, in technical terminology, the lamp is the light source, which is typically called the light bulb. The term luminaire is recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission for technical use, fixture manufacturing began soon after production of the incandescent light bulb. Light fixtures are classified by how the fixture is installed, the function or lamp type. Table lamp fixtures, standard lamp fixtures, and office task light luminaires, balanced-arm lamp is a spot light with an adjustable arm such as anglepoise or Luxo L1. Gooseneck lamp Nightlight Floor Lamp Torch lamp or torchières are floor lamps with an upward facing shade and they provide general lighting to the rest of the room. These can be flush mount fixtures which are mounted right up against the ceiling, the ceiling-mounted version is often called a downlight. Cans with a variety of lamps — this term is jargon for inexpensive downlighting products that are recessed into the ceiling, the name comes from the shape of the housing. The term pot lights is often used in Canada and parts of the US, cove light — recessed into the ceiling in a long box against a wall. Troffer — recessed fluorescent light fixtures, usually rectangular in shape to fit into a drop ceiling grid, track lighting fixture — individual fixtures can be positioned anywhere along the track, which provides electric power. Under-cabinet light — mounted below kitchen wall cabinets Display Case or Showcase light — shows merchandise on display within a case such as jewelry, grocery stores. Ceiling fan - May sometimes have a light, often referred to as a light kit mounted to it
18.
Switch
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In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can make or break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a circuit when it is operated, the most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. The mechanism actuating the transition between two states can be either a toggle or momentary type. A switch may be manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, for example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be operated by a motor drive mechanism. An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and it would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state without bouncing between on and off positions. Practical switches fall short of ideal, they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time. The ideal switch is used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of networks of switches. In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces, often metal, called contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from working, contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity. Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals and they may be designed to wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent the formation of insulating oxides, a minimum wetting current may be specified for a given switch design, in electronics, switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts. A pair of contacts is said to be closed when current can flow from one to the other, when the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, they are said to be open, and no current can flow between them at normal voltages. The terms make for closure of contacts and break for opening of contacts are also widely used, the terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations
19.
AC power plugs and sockets
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AC power plugs and sockets are devices that allow electrically operated equipment to be connected to the primary alternating current power supply in a building. Electrical plugs and sockets differ in voltage and current rating, shape, size, Plugs and sockets for portable appliances started becoming available in the 1880s, to replace connections to light sockets with easier to use wall-mounted outlets. A proliferation of types developed to address the issues of convenience, today there are approximately 20 types in common use around the world, and many obsolete socket types are still found in older buildings. The International Electrotechnical Commission publishes IEC60050, the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, the plug has protruding pins or, in US terminology, blades that fit into matching slots or holes in the sockets. In this article, the plug is used in the sense defined by IEC60050. Sockets are designed to prevent exposure of bare energised contacts, sockets may also have protruding exposed contacts, but these are used exclusively for grounding. These may include plugs with insulated sleeves, recessed sockets, sockets with blocking shutters, the term plug is in general and technical use in all forms of English, common alternatives being power plug, electric plug, and plug top. The normal technical term for an AC power socket is socket-outlet, in British English the general term is socket, but there are numerous common alternatives, including power point, plug socket, wall socket, and wall plug. In American English receptacle is used in official standards and codes such as the NEMA connector standard, there is also colloquial use of socket in American English. A socket may be surrounded by a decorative or protective cover called a plate, face plate, outlet cover, socket cover. In some designs this is a piece with the socket itself, bought. Electrical sockets for single phase domestic, commercial and light industrial purposes generally provide two or three electrical connections to the supply conductors. Two-pin sockets normally provide neutral and line connections, both of which carry current and are defined as live parts, Neutral is usually very near to earth potential, usually being earthed either at the distribution board or at the substation. Line carries the full supply voltage relative to the neutral, three-pin sockets provide, in addition, a protective earth connection for exposed metal parts of an appliance. An adaptor is defined in IEC60050 as a portable accessory constructed as an integral unit incorporating both a plug portion and one or more socket-outlet portions, when electricity was first introduced into houses, it was primarily used for lighting. At that time, many electricity companies operated a system where the cost of electricity for lighting was lower than that for other purposes. This led to portable appliances being connected to light bulb sockets using lampholder plugs, as electricity became a common method of operating labour-saving appliances, a safe means of connection to the electric system other than using a light socket was needed. Smith subsequently received US patent 311,616 for the device in 1885
20.
Electrical wiring in North America
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Electrical wiring in North America follows regulations and standards for installation of building wiring. North American standards state that the neutral is neither switched nor fused except in narrowly defined circumstances. The neutral is connected to the tap of the power company transformer of a split-phase system. The United States electrical codes require that the neutral be connected to earth at the “service panel” only, hot is any conductor connected with an electrical system that has electric potential relative to electrical ground or neutral. Electrical codes use the term ungrounded. Grounding is a normally non-current carrying conductor with a low impedance path to earth. It is often called the ground wire and it is either bare or has green insulation. Leg as in “hot leg” refers to one of multiple hot conductors in an electrical system. The most common residential and small service in Canada and the U. S. single split-phase,240 V, features a neutral. The most common three-phase system will have three legs,208 V to each other and 120 V each to the neutral. The third phase, the “high leg” of the system, has 208 V to neutral and is not usually used for single-phase connections, for larger commercial installations, 277/480 V or 347/600 V three phase is common. An outlet is defined by the NEC as “a point in the system at which current is taken to utilization equipment”. This definition includes receptacles, lighting, motors, etc, ordinary switches control but do not consume electricity, and therefore are not defined as outlets in this sense. The National Electrical Code specifies acceptable wiring methods and materials for many states and municipalities in the U. S and it is sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association and has been periodically revised since 1897. Local jurisdictions usually adopt the NEC or another published code and then distribute documents describing how local codes vary from the published codes, governments cannot distribute the NEC itself for copyright reasons, though parts that have been adopted into law are not subject to copyright. The purpose of the NEC is to protect persons and property from hazards arising from the use of electricity. The NEC is not any jurisdictions electrical code per se, rather, new construction, additions or major modifications must follow the relevant code for that jurisdiction, which is not necessarily the latest version of the NEC. Regulations in each jurisdiction will indicate when a change to an installation is so great that it must then be rebuilt to comply with the current electrical code. Generally existing installations are not required to be changed to meet new codes, other code requirements vary by jurisdiction in the United States. In many areas, a homeowner, for example, can perform household wiring for a building which the owner occupies, a few cities have more restrictive rules and require electrical installations to be done by licensed electricians
21.
Asbestos
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They are commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos. It was used in applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat and these desirable properties made asbestos very widely used. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious and fatal illnesses including cancer, mesothelioma. Concern of asbestos-related illness in modern times began in the 20th century, by the 1980s and 1990s, asbestos trade and use were heavily restricted, phased out, or banned outright in an increasing number of countries. S. History and a much lesser legal issue in most other countries involved, asbestos-related liability also remains an ongoing concern for many manufacturers, insurers and reinsurers. Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable, the word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/. Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as asbestos including those belonging to the serpentine class, all six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens. The visible fibers are themselves composed of millions of microscopic fibrils that can be released by abrasion. Chrysotile is the member of the serpentine class. 12001-29-5, is obtained from rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg34, chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber. Chrysotile has been used more than any type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun, the most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls, chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class, one formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O222. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber and it is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles. 12001-28-4, is the form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa
22.
Rubber
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Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers, forms of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the tree or others. The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark, the latex then is refined into rubber ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup, the coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for marketing. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials, in most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely waterproof. The major commercial source of rubber latex is the Pará rubber tree. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation, a properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber, formerly a source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia. These cannot be cultivated, and the drive to collect latex from wild plants was responsible for many of the atrocities committed under the Congo Free State. The latex exhibits the quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low, in Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility, many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more processing to produce anything like usable rubber. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha and chicle from Manilkara species, the term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of latex from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture. The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South America, charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736
23.
Jute
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Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced primarily from plants in the genus Corchorus, which was classified with the family Tiliaceae. The primary source of the fiber is Corchorus olitorius, but it is considered inferior to Corchorus capsularis, Jute is the name of the plant or fiber that is used to make burlap, hessian or gunny cloth. The word jute is probably coined from the word jhuta or jota, Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibers and it is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses of vegetable fibers. Jute fibers are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin and it falls into the bast fiber category along with kenaf, industrial hemp, flax, ramie, etc. The industrial term for jute fiber is raw jute, the fibers are off-white to brown, and 1–4 metres long. Jute is also called the fiber for its color and high cash value. Jute needs a plain alluvial soil and standing water, the suitable climate for growing jute is offered by the monsoon climate, during the monsoon season. Temperatures from 20˚C to 40˚C and relative humidity of 70%–80% are favourable for successful cultivation, Jute requires 5–8 cm of rainfall weekly, and more during the sowing time. Soft water is necessary for the jute production, historical documents state that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, history also suggests that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses. It is highly functional in carrying grains or other agricultural products, tossa jute is a variety thought to be native to India, and is also the worlds top producer. It is grown for fiber and culinary purposes. The leaves are used as an ingredient in a mucilaginous potherb called molokhiya and it is very popular in some Arabian countries such as Egypt, Jordan, and Syria as a soup-based dish, sometimes with meat over rice or lentils. The Book of Job, in the King James translation of the Hebrew Bible מלוח MaLOo-aĤ salty, giving rise to the term Jews Mallow It is high in protein, vitamin C, beta-carotene, calcium, and iron. On the other hand, it is used mainly for its fiber in Bangladesh, in countries in Southeast Asia. Tossa jute fiber is softer, silkier, and stronger than white jute and this variety astonishingly shows good sustainability in the climate of the Ganges Delta. Along with white jute, tossa jute has also cultivated in the soil of Bengal where it is known as paat from the start of the 19th century
24.
Tar
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Tar is a black mixture of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat, production and trade in pine-derived tar was a major contributor in the economies of Northern Europe and Colonial America. Its main use was in preserving wooden vessels against rot, the largest user was the Royal Navy. Demand for tar declined with the advent of iron and steel ships, tar-like products can also be produced from other forms of organic matter, such as peat. Mineral products resembling tar can be produced from hydrocarbons, such as petroleum. Coal tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, Bitumen is a term used for natural deposits of oil tar, such as at the La Brea Tar Pits. In Northern Europe, the word tar refers primarily to a substance that is derived from the wood, in earlier times it was often used as a water repellent coating for boats, ships, and roofs. It is still used as an additive in the flavoring of candy, alcohol, producing tar from wood was known in ancient Greece and has probably been used in Scandinavia since the Iron Age. For centuries, dating back at least to the 14th century, sweden exported 13,000 barrels of tar in 1615 and 227,000 barrels in the peak year of 1863. Production nearly stopped in the early 20th century, when other chemicals replaced tar, traditional wooden boats are still sometimes tarred. The heating of wood causes tar and pitch to drip away from the wood. Birch bark is used to make particularly fine tar, known as Russian oil, the by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation, the products are methanol. Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood and they were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into a hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, if oxygen can enter, the wood might catch fire, and the production would be ruined. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit, after a few hours, the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days. Tar was used as seal for roofing shingles and tar paper and to seal the hulls of ships, for millennia, wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today, sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have reduced the demand for tar
25.
Energy conservation in the United States
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The United States is the second-largest single consumer of energy in the world. The U. S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four sectors, transportation, residential, commercial. Energy usage in transportation and residential sectors is controlled by individual domestic consumers. Commercial and industrial energy expenditures are determined by businesses entities and other facility managers, national energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors. The transportation sector includes all vehicles used for personal or freight transportation, of the energy used in this sector, approximately 65% is consumed by gasoline-powered vehicles, primarily personally owned. Diesel-powered transport consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15% and these gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans, which fall under the more lenient light truck CAFE standard. In addition to the CAFE program, the U. S. government has tried to encourage better vehicle efficiency through tax policy, since 2002, taxpayers have been eligible for income tax credits for gas/electric hybrid vehicles. A gas-guzzler tax has been assessed on manufacturers since 1978 for cars with exceptionally poor fuel economy, while this tax remains in effect, it generates very little revenue as overall fuel economy has improved. Another focus in gasoline conservation is reducing the number of miles driven, an estimated 40% of American automobile use is associated with daily commuting. In recent years telecommuting has also become an alternative to commuting for some jobs. Ironically, hundreds of thousands of American and European workers have been replaced by workers in Asia who telecommute from thousands of miles away, fuel economy-maximizing behaviors also help reduce fuel consumption. Among the most effective are moderate driving, driving at speeds, using cruise control. A vehicles gas mileage decreases rapidly with increasing speeds, normally above 55 miles per hour. According to the U. S. Department of Energy, as a rule of thumb, the residential sector is all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories. Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences, on average, about half of the energy used in U. S. homes is expended on space conditioning. The efficiency of furnaces and air conditioners has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s, beyond these minimum standards, the Environmental Protection Agency awards the Energy Star designation to appliances that exceed industry efficiency averages by an EPA-specified percentage. Despite technological improvements, many American lifestyle changes have put higher demands on heating and cooling resources, the average size of homes built in the United States has increased from 1,500 sq ft in 1970 to 2,300 sq ft in 2005. The single-person household has become common, as has central air conditioning, 23% of households had central air conditioning in 1978
26.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
27.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
28.
Telecommunications network
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A telecommunications network is a collection of terminal nodes, links are connected so as to enable telecommunication between the terminals. The transmission links connect the nodes together, the nodes use circuit switching, message switching or packet switching to pass the signal through the correct links and nodes to reach the correct destination terminal. Each terminal in the network usually has an address so messages or connections can be routed to the correct recipients. The collection of addresses in the network is called the address space, for example, businesses need a greater telecommunications network if they plan to expand their company. With Internet, computer, and telephone networks, businesses can allocate their resources efficiently and these core types of networks will be discussed below, Computer network, a computer network consists of computers and devices connected to one another. Information can be transferred from one device to the next, for example, an office filled with computers can share files together on each separate device. Computer networks can range from a local area to a wide area network. The difference between the types of networks is the size and these types of computer networks work at certain speeds, also known as broadband. The Internet network connects computers worldwide, Internet network, access to the network allows users to use many resources. Over time the Internet network will replace books and this will enable users to discover information almost instantly and apply concepts to different situations. The Internet can be used for recreational, governmental, educational, businesses in particular use the Internet network for research or to service customers and clients. Telephone network, the network connects people to one another. This network can be used in a variety of ways, many businesses use the telephone network to route calls and/or service their customers. Some businesses use a network on a greater scale through a private branch exchange. It is a system where a specific business focuses on routing and servicing calls for another business, majority of the time, the telephone network is used around the world for recreational purposes. In general, every telecommunications network conceptually consists of three parts, or planes, The data plane carries the networks users traffic, the actual payload, the control plane carries control information. The management plane carries the operations and administration traffic required for network management, the management plane is sometimes considered a part of the control plane. The data network is used throughout the world to connect individuals
29.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
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New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
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Emergency Banking Act
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The Emergency Banking Act, Public Law 1,48 Stat. 1, was an act passed by the United States Congress in March 1933 in an attempt to stabilize the banking system. Beginning on February 14,1933, Michigan, a state which had been hit particularly hard by the Great Depression in the United States. Fears of other bank closures spread from state to state as people rushed to withdraw their deposits while they still could do so, within weeks, thirty-six other states held their own bank holidays in an attempt to stem the bank runs. The banking system was on the verge of collapse, on March 4, Delaware became the 48th and last state to close its banks. Following his inauguration on March 4,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt set out to rebuild confidence in the banking system. On March 6 he declared a four-day banking holiday that kept all banks shut until Congress could act, a draft law prepared by the Treasury staff during Herbert Hoovers administration, was passed on March 9,1933. The new law allowed the twelve Federal Reserve Banks to issue additional currency on good assets so that banks that reopened would be able to meet every legitimate call, the EBA was one of President Roosevelts first projects in the first 100 days of his presidency. Copies were made available to senators as the bill was being proposed in the Senate, much to everyones relief, when the institutions reopened for business on March 13,1933, depositors stood in line to return their stashed cash to neighborhood banks. Within two weeks, Americans had redeposited more than half of the currency that they had squirreled away before the bank suspension, the stock market registered its approval as well.26 points to close at 62.10, a gain of 15.34 percent. With the benefit of hindsight, the nationwide Bank Holiday and the Emergency Banking Act of March,1933 and this act was a temporary response to a major problem. The 1933 Banking Act passed later that year presented elements of longer-term response, executive Order 6102 Gold Clause Cases Full Text of the Emergency Banking Act Documents on the Banking Emergency of 1933 available on FRASER
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Agricultural Adjustment Act
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Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops. The money for these subsidies was generated through a tax on companies which processed farm products. The Act created a new agency, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the Agriculture Marketing Act, which established the Federal Farm Board in 1929, was seen as a strong precursor to this act. The law, in its entirety, can be read here, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in March 1933, the United States was in the midst of the Great Depression. Farmers faced the most severe economic situation and lowest agricultural prices since the 1890s, overproduction and a shrinking international market had driven down agricultural prices. Soon after his inauguration, Roosevelt called the Hundred Days Congress into session to address the crumbling economy, from this Congress came the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to replace the Federal Farm Board. The Roosevelt Administration was tasked with decreasing agricultural surpluses, wheat, cotton, field corn, hogs, rice, tobacco, and milk and its products were designated as basic commodities in the original legislation. Subsequent amendments in 1934 and 1935 expanded the list of commodities to include rye, flax, barley, grain sorghum, cattle, peanuts, sugar beets, sugar cane. The Administration targeted these commodities for the reasons, Changes in the prices of these commodities had a strong effect on the prices of other important commodities. These commodities were running a surplus at the time. These items each required some amount of processing before they could be consumed by humans, Congress declared its intent, at the same time, to protect the consumers interest. For example, in an effort to reduce agricultural surpluses, the government paid farmers to reduce crop production, oranges were being soaked with kerosene to prevent their consumption and corn was being burned as fuel because it was so cheap. There were many people, however, as well as livestock in different places starving to death, farmers slaughtered livestock because feed prices were rising, and they could not afford to feed their own animals. Under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, plowing under of pigs was also common to prevent them reaching a reproductive age, in 1935, the income generated by farms was 50 percent higher than it was in 1932, which was partly due to farm programs such as the AAA. Tenant farming characterized the cotton and tobacco production in the post-Civil War South, as the agricultural economy plummeted in the early 1930s, all farmers were badly hurt but the tenant farmers and sharecroppers experienced the worst of it. To accomplish its goal of parity, the Act reduced crop production, the Act accomplished this by offering landowners acreage reduction contracts, by which they agreed not to grow cotton on a portion of their land. The farm wage workers who worked directly for the landowner suffered the greatest unemployment as a result of the Act, there are few people gullible enough to believe that the acreage devoted to cotton can be reduced one-third without an accompanying decrease in the laborers engaged in its production. Researchers concluded that the statistics after the Act took effect, indicate a consistent and widespread tendency for cotton croppers and, to a considerable extent, tenants to decrease in numbers between 1930 and 1935
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Civilian Conservation Corps
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The Civilian Conservation Corps was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families as part of the New Deal. Originally for young men ages 18–25, it was expanded to young men ages 17–28. Robert Fechner was the head of the agency, the CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men, and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. At the same time, it implemented a general natural resource conservation program in every state, maximum enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Over the course of its nine years in operation,3 million young men participated in the CCC, which provided them shelter, clothing. The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs, principal benefits of an individuals enrollment in the CCC included improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans, approximately 15,000 Native Americans participated in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression. Despite its popular support, the CCC was never a permanent agency and it depended on emergency and temporary Congressional legislation and funding to operate. By 1942, with World War II and the draft in operation, the need for work relief declined, as governor of New York, Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale. He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, uniforms, the Emergency Conservation Work Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5,1933 which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, the organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative each of the supervising departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program, to end the opposition from labor unions Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the American Machinists Union, as director of the corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to demonstrate that there would be no job training involved beyond simple manual labor. Reserve officers from the U. S. Army were in charge of the camps, General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program but said that the number of Army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the Regular Army. But the Army also found benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals, CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the performance of both Regular and Reserve Officers
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Civil Works Administration
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The jobs were merely temporary, for the duration of the hard winter of 1933–34. President Franklin D. Roosevelt unveiled the CWA on November 8,1933, the CWA was a project created under the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. The CWA created construction jobs, mainly improving or constructing buildings and it ended on March 31,1934, after spending $200 million a month and giving jobs to four million people. The CWAs workers laid 12 million feet of pipe and built or improved 255,000 miles of roads,40,000 schools,3,700 playgrounds. The program was praised by Alf Landon, who ran against Roosevelt in the 1936 election. Representative of the work are one countys accomplishments in less than five months, grand Forks County, North Dakota put 2,392 unemployed workers on its payroll at a cost of about $250,000. When the CWA began in eastern Connecticut, it could hire only 480 workers out of 1,500 who registered for jobs, projects undertaken included work on city utility systems, public buildings, parks, and roads. Rural areas profited, with most labor being directed to roads, CWA officials gave preference to veterans with dependents, but considerable political favoritism determined which North Dakotans got jobs. Although the CWA provided much employment, there were critics who said there was nothing of permanent value, Works Progress Administration Civilian Conservation Corps Public Works Administration Bremer, William W. Along the American Way, The New Deals Work Relief Programs for the Unemployed, Journal of American History Vol.62,3, pp. 636-652 in JSTOR Peters, Charles and Timothy Noah. Wrong Harry -- Four million jobs in two years, FDR did it in two months Slate Jan. 26,2009 online Schwartz, Bonnie Fox, the Civil Works Administration, 1933-1934, The Business of Emergency Employment in the New Deal, a standard scholarly history Walker, Forrest A. FDR did it in two months
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Communications Act of 1934
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The Act replaced the Federal Radio Commission with the Federal Communications Commission. It also transferred regulation of telephone services from the Interstate Commerce Commission to the FCC. On January 3,1996, the 104th Congress of the United States amended or repealed sections of the Communications Act of 1934 with the new Telecommunications Act of 1996 and it was the first major overhaul of American telecommunications policy in nearly 62 years. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Daniel C, roper, Secretary of Commerce, to appoint an interdepartmental committee for studying electronic communications. The Committee reported that the service, as far as congressional action is involved. A recommendation was made for the establishment of a new agency that would regulate all interstate and foreign communication by wire and radio, telegraphy, telephone, on February 26,1934, the President sent a special message to Congress urging the creation of the Federal Communications Commission. The following day Senator Clarence Dill and Representative Sam Rayburn introduced bills to carry out this recommendation, the Senate Bill passed the House on June 1,1934, and the conference report was adopted by both houses eight days later. The Communications Act was signed by President Roosevelt on June 1934, particular parts of it became effective July 1,1934, other parts on July 11,1934. And thus the FCC was born, the Communications Act of 1934 followed the precedents of trial cases set under the Commerce Clause of the U. S. Constitution, regulating commerce among the several states. In 1914 the U. S. Supreme Court set limits on price discrimination that were effectively interstate commerce in Houston, the railway was setting lower prices for intrastate carriers within Texas while charging more for carriers that were going through or out of the state. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the ICC, and maximum prices were set to limit the damage that other states could face due to price discrimination, Communications technology was determined to be an interstate good. The goal was to have telephone and broadcasting regulated with the jurisdiction in a way similar to that in which the ICC regulates the railways. The act did not, however, allow for price regulation through the FCC due to lobbying efforts from the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. Currently there are some challenges and proposed changes to the Act, the company CellAntenna has sued the FCC claiming that the Homeland Security Act of 2002 did override the Communications Act of 1934. As the law today, the 1934 Communications Act prohibits local and state law enforcement from using jamming devices to thwart criminal. In addition, there is talk about the need for an Internet kill switch and this act removes the powers established in the 1934 Act and gives the President the authority to stop the Internet in case of a cyber attack. S. Educators wanted more of radio to be given to them, they had termed a special interest by the Federal Radio Commission. The Wagner-Hatfield amendment would have given 25% of all radio broadcasting facilities to non-profit institutions and organizations and it would also have allowed these educational stations to sell advertising in order to become self-sufficient
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Executive Order 6102
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The effect of the order, in conjunction with the statute under which it was issued, was to criminalize the possession of monetary gold by any individual, partnership, association or corporation. The stated reason for the order was that hard times had caused hoarding of gold, stalling economic growth, by the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost hit the limit of allowable credit that could be backed by the gold in its possession. If gold could not be owned, then it could not be legally redeemed. If it could not be redeemed, then it could not constrain the central bank.67 per troy ounce. Order 6102 specifically exempted customary use in industry, profession or art—a provision that covered artists, jewelers, dentists, the order further permitted any person to own up to $100 in gold coins. The same paragraph also exempted gold coins having recognized special value to collectors of rare and this protected recognized gold coin collections from legal seizure and likely melting. The price of gold from the Treasury for international transactions was thereafter raised to $35 an ounce, the resulting profit that the government realized funded the Exchange Stabilization Fund established by the Gold Reserve Act in 1934. Executive Order 6102 also led to the ultra-rarity of the 1933 Double Eagle gold coin, the order caused all gold coin production to cease and all 1933 minted coins to be destroyed. About 20 illegal coins were stolen, leading to a standing United States Secret Service warrant for arrest, a legalized surviving coin sold for over $7.5 million in 2002, making it one of the most valuable coins in the world. Numerous individuals and companies were prosecuted related to President Roosevelts Executive Order 6102, the prosecutions took place under subsequent Executive Orders 6111,6260,6261 and the Gold Reserve Act of 1934. The circumstances of the case were that a New York attorney named Frederick Barber Campbell had one deposit at Chase National Bank of over 5,000 troy ounces of gold, when Campbell attempted to withdraw the gold, Chase refused, and Campbell sued Chase. A federal prosecutor then indicted Campbell on the day for failing to surrender his gold. Ultimately, the prosecution of Campbell failed, but the authority of the government to seize gold was upheld. The case was cause for the Roosevelt administration to issue a new order under the signature of the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Executive Orders 6260,6261, related to the seizure of gold and the prosecution of gold hoarders. A few months later, Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act of 1934 which ratified President Roosevelts orders, a new set of Treasury regulations was issued providing civil penalties of confiscation of all gold and imposition of fines equal to double the value of the gold seized. Secret Service agents discovered the sale with the help of the buyer, farber, his father, and 12 others were arrested in four American cities after a sting operation conducted by the United States Secret Service. The arrests took place simultaneously in New York and three California cities, San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland, morris Anolik was arrested in New York with $5,000 in U. S. In all, $24,000 in gold was seized by Secret Service Agents during the operation, david Baraban and his son Jacob Baraban owned a refining company
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Homeowners Refinancing Act
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The act, which went into effect on June 13,1933, provided mortgage assistance to homeowners or would-be homeowners by providing them money or refinancing mortgages. Sponsored by Senate Majority leader Joe Robinson of Arkansas, it created the Home Owners Loan Corporation. The Corporation lent low-interest money to families in danger of losing their homes to foreclosure, by the mid-1930s, the HOLC had refinanced nearly 20% of urban homes in the country. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted Roosevelts every request, the original Home Owners Loan Act of 1933, Pub. L. 128, was enacted June 13,1933, the 1st Annual Report of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board refers to this act as the Home Owners Loan Corporation Act. 643, enacted April 27,1934, further amended this act to guarantee the bonds of the Home Owners Loan Corporation, Home Owners Loan Act 1933 Home Owners Loan Act of 1933 Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008
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