1.
Ottawa, Illinois
–
Ottawa is a city located at the confluence of the navigable Illinois River and Fox River in LaSalle County, Illinois, United States. The Illinois River is a conduit for river barges and connects Lake Michigan at Chicago, to the Mississippi River, the population estimate was 18,562 as of 2013. It is the county seat of LaSalle County and it is part of the Ottawa-Peru, Ottawa was the site of the first of the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. During the Ottawa debate Stephen A. Douglas, leader of the Democratic Party, the John Hossack House was a station on the Underground Railroad, and Ottawa was a major stop because of its rail, road, and river transportation. Citizens in the city were active within the abolitionist movement, Ottawa was the site of a famous 1859 extrication of a runaway slave named Jim Gray from a courthouse by prominent civic leaders of the time. Three of the leaders, John Hossack, Dr. Joseph Stout and James Stout. Ottawa was also important in the development of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, on February 8,1910, William Dickson Boyce, then a resident of Ottawa, incorporated the Boy Scouts of America. Five years later, also in Ottawa, Boyce incorporated the Lone Scouts of America, Boyce is buried in Ottawa Avenue Cemetery. The Ottawa Scouting Museum, on Canal Street, opened to the public on December 6,1997, the museum features the history of Boy Scouting, Girl Scouting and Camp Fire. In 1922, the Radium Dial Company moved from Peru, Illinois to a high school building in Ottawa. The company employed hundreds of women who painted watch dials using a paint called Luna for watch maker Westclox. RDC went out of business in 1936, two years after the president, Joseph Kelly Sr. left to start a competing company. According to the 2010 census, Ottawa has an area of 12.799 square miles. Because of numerous silica sand deposits Ottawa has been a major sand, transportation of the sand is facilitated by the navigable Illinois river and the Illinois Railway Ottawa Line. One of its largest employers is Pilkington Glass works, a successor to LOF, formerly concentrated in automotive glass, the plant now manufactures specialty glass and underwent a $50 million renovation in 2006. Ottawa sand continues to be extracted from quarries in the area. Sabic recently purchased GE Plastics, a successor to Borg Warner automotive glass manufacture, operates a plastics facility in Ottawa. Ottawa sand is a testing medium in geotechnical engineering
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Austin, Texas
–
Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
4.
Photographer
–
A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Photojournalist
–
Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now understood to refer only to still images. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a format that is not only informative. Timeliness The images have meaning in the context of a published record of events. Objectivity The situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone, narrative The images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or reader on a cultural level. Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but he or she must often make decisions instantly and carry photographic equipment, the practice of illustrating news stories with photographs was made possible by printing and photography innovations that occurred in the mid 19th century. The illustrations were printed with the use of engravings, during the Crimean War, the ILN pioneered the birth of early photojournalism by printing pictures of the war that had been taken by Roger Fenton. Other photographers of the war included William Simpson and Carol Szathmari, similarly, the American Civil War photographs of Mathew Brady were engraved before publication in Harpers Weekly. Disaster, including wrecks and city fires, was also a popular subject for illustrated newspapers in the early days. The printing of images in newspapers remained an isolated occurrence in this period, Photos were used to enhance the text rather than to act as a medium of information in its own right. This began to change with the work of one of the pioneers of photojournalism, John Thomson, in collaboration with the radical journalist Adolphe Smith, he began publishing a monthly magazine, Street Life in London, from 1876 to 1877. The project documented in photographs and text, the lives of the people of London. On March 4,1880, The Daily Graphic published the first halftone reproduction of a news photograph, in March 1886, when General George Crook received word that the Apache leader Geronimo would negotiate surrender terms, photographer C. S. Fly took his equipment and attached himself to the military column, during the three days of negotiations, Fly took about 15 exposures on 8 by 10 inches glass negatives. His photos of Geronimo and the other free Apaches, taken on March 25 and 26, are the known photographs taken of American Indians while still at war with the United States. Fly coolly posed his subjects, asking them to move and turn their heads and faces, the popular publication Harpers Weekly published six of his images in their April 24,1886 issue
6.
Farm Security Administration
–
The FSA is famous for its small but highly influential photography program, 1935–44, that portrayed the challenges of rural poverty. The projects that were combined in 1935 to form the RA started in 1933 as an assortment of programs tried out by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the RA was headed by Rexford Tugwell, an economic advisor to President Roosevelt. However, Tugwells goal moving 650,000 people into 100,000,000 acres of exhausted and this goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce. The main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers and this move was resisted by a large share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, on July 22,1937, Congress passed the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. This law authorized a modest credit program to assist tenant farmers to purchase land, following the passage of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, Congress passed the Farm Security Act into law. The Farm Security Act officially transformed the Resettlement Administration into the Farm Security Administration, the FSA expanded through funds given by the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. They were not allowed to purchase their farms for fear that they would back into inefficient practices not guided by RA. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains displaced thousands of tenant farmers, sharecroppers, the FSA operated camps for them, such as Weedpatch Camp as depicted in The Grapes of Wrath. The RA and the FSA gave educational aid to 455,000 farm families during the period 1936-1943, in June,1936, Roosevelt wrote, You are right about the farmers who suffer through their own fault. I wish you would have a talk with Tugwell about what he is doing to educate this type of farmer to become self-sustaining, during the past year his organization has made 104,000 farm families practically self-sustaining by supervision and education along practical lines. That is a pretty good record, the FSAs primary mission was not to aid farm production or prices. Roosevelts agricultural policy had, in fact, been to try to decrease agricultural production in order to increase prices, however, when production was discouraged, the tenant farmers and small holders suffered most by not being able to ship enough to market to pay rents. Many renters wanted money to buy farms, but the Agriculture Department realized there already were too many farmers, instead they used education to help the poor stretch their money further. Congress however demanded that the FSA help tenant farmers purchase farms, and purchase loans of $191 million were made, a much larger program was $778 million in loans to 950,000 tenant farmers. The goal was to make the more efficient so the loans were used for new machinery, trucks, or animals. At all times the borrower was closely advised by a government agent, family needs were on the agenda, as the FSA set up a health insurance program and taught farm wives how to cook and raise children
7.
Culver Military Academy
–
Henry Harrison Culver founded Culver Military Academy 123 years ago in 1894 for the purpose of thoroughly preparing young men for the best colleges, scientific schools and businesses of America. Coeducational since 1971, Culver Girls Academy was founded in year by Mary Francis England for the purpose of encouraging young women to attain the highest degree of self-development. Culver Summer Schools and Camps consists of the Culver Summer Naval School for boys, Culver Summer School for Girls, the Cavalry Troop program, the Aviation School, and the Woodcraft Camp. The summer schools began operations in 1902 and today bring over 1,300 campers from around the world to Culver to learn skills that improve personal confidence. Culver is one of the largest boarding schools in the United States, with over 800 students, an endowment of over $380 million, Culver Military Academy and Culver Girls Academy have a rich sports tradition and offer a variety of athletic programs and sports teams. The hockey team has a history of success, and the boys. The boys Varsity team won in 1999,2000,2002,2004,2007, &2008 and the team has won four times, in 2002,2003,2004,2007. Culver had state champions in golf, wrestling, cross country, Culver was home to the 2006 Youth National Rowing Champion in the Mens Single Scull. CMAs Black Horse Troop is one of the nations elite horsemanship groups for school students and is usually invited to participate in the Presidential Inauguration Parade. The Black Horse Troop participated in the inaugural of the World Equestrian Games in Kentucky in 2010, recently Culvers sailing team went to several national events. The Culver Academies Girls Soccer team is ranked 5th in the state, Culver is also considered one of the top fencing schools in the nation. In 2009, the basketball team will be competing in the State Farm Holiday Classic basketball tournament in Bloomington-Normal. Eppley Foundation donated the funds for three buildings that comprise the Gignilliat Memorial Quadrangle. Eppley Auditorium, built 58 years ago in 1959, seats 1,492 people, the new Steinbrenner Performing Arts Center consists of a scene shop, dance studio, and private dance studio. The ethos of the Culver Academies was augmented with the dedication of the 47,000 sq. ft. Huffington Library on October 1,1993, physically, the building provides a southern terminus to the academic quadrangle while affording library patrons a view of Lake Maxinkuckee. It houses a collection of approximately 55,000 volumes and, with it, henderson Arena is home to Culver Military Academy and Culver Girls Academy hockey teams. Elwood Hillis, US House of Representatives, grandson of Elwood Haynes, hal Holbrook, actor Tim Holt, actor Robert J. Huber, Michigan politician and businessman Michael Huffington, former U
8.
Culver, Indiana
–
Culver is a town in Marshall County, Indiana, United States. Culver is part of Union Township that also includes the communities of Burr Oak, Hibbard, Maxinkuckee, the population was 1,353 at the 2010 census. Culver was originally called Union Town, and under the name was laid out in 1844. It was later renamed for the Henry Harrison Culver, head of the Culver Academies, the Culver Commercial Historic District and Forest Place Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Arrival of the Mail in Culver was completed in 1938 and featured students from the military academy, Culver is located at 41°13′2″N 86°25′18″W. According to the 2010 census, Culver has an area of 0.9 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,353 people,598 households, the population density was 1,503.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 897 housing units at a density of 996.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 95. 8% White,1. 2% African American,0. 4% Asian,0. 9% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 4% of the population. 37. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.77. The median age in the town was 47.7 years. 19. 2% of residents were under the age of 18, 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,18. 6% were from 25 to 44,29. 6% were from 45 to 64, and 25. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 45. 4% male and 54. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,539 people,655 households, and 410 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,961.7 people per square mile, there were 932 housing units at an average density of 1,188.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 04% White,0. 91% African American,0. 65% Native American,0. 58% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,0. 71% from other races, and 1. 04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 21% of the population,35. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the family size was 2.88. In the town, the population was out with 22. 5% under the age of 18,5. 8% from 18 to 24,23. 9% from 25 to 44,24. 6% from 45 to 64
9.
Chemical engineering
–
A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
10.
Lehigh University
–
Lehigh University is an American private research university located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. It was established in 1865 by businessman Asa Packer and has grown to include studies in a variety of disciplines. Its undergraduate programs have been coeducational since the 1971–72 academic year, as of 2014, the university had 4,904 undergraduate students and 2,165 graduate students. Lehigh is considered one of the twenty-four Hidden Ivies in the Northeastern United States, Lehigh has four colleges, the P. C. Rossin College of Engineering and Applied Science, the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Business and Economics, the College of Arts and Sciences is the largest college today, home to roughly 40% of the universitys students. Asa Packer named his university Lehigh after his passion, the railroad. It was founded to provide an education for young men, combining a liberal. Mr. Packer also provided for the first structure ever to be built by the young University on campus, Packer Hall, now known also as the University Center. An unusual Mansard Gothic edifice featuring a prominent bell tower, at which, upon a suggestion that it be composed of the less expensive brick, in the construction, a branch of the railroad was diverted to bring stone to the site. From 1871 to 1891, Packers endowment allowed the institution to offer its education free of charge by competitive exam, in 1879, Lehigh became the wealthiest institution of higher learning in the country, surpassing Harvard and Yale. This, plus its blend of engineering and liberal arts, attracted some of the nations brightest students, many of whom went on to distinguished careers in industry and engineering. The formation of a College for engineering, or technical university, was quite a difficult project, as the entire subject of engineering education was obscure. A small number of colleges had commenced this, such as Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey and Harvard, Yale, the University of Pennsylvania opened a small school in 1852, for mining and materials, but which had closed at the onset of the Civil War. As W. Ross Yates notes, No one knew with certainty how many years a course in engineering should take, the relationship between theory and practice was hazy. A statement made later by industrialist and Lehigh Trustee Eckley B. Coxe summarizes the problem succinctly, Not knowing exactly what you want to do or the material you have to do it with, initially there were five schools, four scientific and one of general literature. The latter would shortly evolve into Courses in Arts and Science, as it was known then, Engineering curricula were both merged and expanded. During this period of time, the first Latino student organization at a college or university in the United States, was founded at Lehigh, the Club Hispano Americano was established by international Latin American students that attended the university in 1887
11.
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
–
Bethlehem is a city in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the Lehigh Valley region of the eastern portion of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 74,982, making it the seventh largest city in Pennsylvania, after Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading. Of this,55,639 were in Northampton County, and 19,343 were in Lehigh County, Bethlehem lies in the center of the Lehigh Valley, a region of 731 square miles that is home to more than 800,000 people. Smaller than Allentown but larger than Easton, Bethlehem is the Lehigh Valleys second most populous city, in turn, this metropolitan area comprises Pennsylvanias third-largest metropolitan area and the states largest and most populous contribution to the greater New York City metropolitan area. There are four sections of the city, central Bethlehem, the south side, the east side. Each of these sections blossomed at different times in the citys development, ZIP codes that use the address Bethlehem totaled 116,000 in population in the year 2000. These ZIP codes include Bethlehem Township and Hanover Township, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Bethlehem heading east to Easton, Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg, New Jersey across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Bethlehem heading west to Allentown, in July 2006, Money magazine placed Bethlehem as number 88 on its Top 100 Best Places to Live. The areas along the Delaware River and its tributaries in eastern Pennsylvania were long inhabited by peoples of various cultures. By the time of European contact, these areas were the historic territory of the Algonquian-speaking Lenape Nation and they traded with the Dutch and then English colonists in the mid-Atlantic area. They came to set up missionary communities among the Native Americans and they named the settlement after the Biblical town Bethlehem of Judea, the birthplace of Jesus. Count Zinzendorf said, Brothers, how more fittingly could we call our new home than to name it in honor of the spot where the event we now commemorate took place and we will call this place Bethlehem. And so was Bethlehem named after the birthplace of the Man of Peace, originally it was a typical Moravian Settlement Congregation, where the Church owned all the property. Until the 1850s, only members of the Moravian Church were permitted to land plots in Bethlehem. The historic Brethrens House, Sisters House, Widows House and Gemeinhaus with the Old Chapel are remnants of this period of communal living, the Moravians ministered to regional Lenape Native Americans through their mission in the area, as well as further east in the New York colony. In the historic Bethlehem Gods Acre cemetery, converted Lenape lie buried alongside the Moravians, in 1762, Bethlehem built the first water-works in America to pump water for public use. While George Washington and his troops stayed in Valley Forge, Washington stored his personal effects at the farm of James Burnside in Bethlehem – as of 1998 a historical museum, the prosperous village was incorporated into a free borough in the County of Northampton in 1845. After the Unity Synod of 1848, Bethlehem became the headquarters of the Northern Province of the Moravian Church in North America
12.
Bootleg mining
–
Bootleg mining shoemaker mining is illegal coal mining. The term originated around the 1920s, though the practice probably predates that, generally, a bootleg mine is a small mine dug by a handful of men. Often this took place surreptitiously on land owned by somebody else and they were frequently dug by coal miners off official tunnels in order to procure additional, free coal for themselves, a practice that causes additional ramifications when fighting mine fires. Sometimes small pits are hidden under houses or outbuildings, usually, the mine is not large enough to turn around in. The pits are known for being unsafe, and often causing collapse, the practice has died away in the United States, an American with simple equipment cannot dig enough coal in a day to reach a living wage. Bootleg mines in China are very common, as are the fatalities resulting from unregulated mining, artisanal mining Freeminer The Great Bootleg Coal Industry in Shamokin, Pennsylvania
13.
Father Divine
–
Father Divine, also known as Reverend M. J. Divine, was an African American spiritual leader from about 1907 until his death. His full self-given name was Reverend Major Jealous Divine, and he was known as the Messenger early in his life. He founded the International Peace Mission movement, formulated its doctrine, Father Divine claimed to be God. He made numerous contributions toward his followers economic independence and racial equality and he was a contemporary of other religious leaders such as Daddy Grace, Charles Harrison Mason, Noble Drew Ali and James F. Jones. Little is known about Father Divines early life, or even his given name. Father Divine and the Peace Movement he started did not keep many records, Father Divine himself declined several offers to write his biography, saying that the history of God would not be useful in mortal terms. He also refused to acknowledge relationship to any family, newspapers in the 1930s had to dig up his probable given name, George Baker. Federal Bureau of Investigation files record his name as George Baker alias God, in 1936 Eliza Mayfield claimed to be Father Divines mother. Father Divines childhood remains a contentious point, some, especially earlier researchers, suppose that he was born in the Deep South, most likely in Georgia, as the son of sharecroppers. Newer research by Jill Watts, based on data, finds evidence for a George Baker, Jr. of appropriate age born in an African American enclave of Rockville, Maryland. If this theory is correct, his mother was a slave named Nancy Baker. Most researchers agree that Father Divines parents were freed African American slaves, notoriously poor records were kept about this generation of African Americans, so controversy about his upbringing is not likely to be resolved. On the other hand, he and his first wife, Peninnah and he worked as a gardener in Baltimore, Maryland. Among other things, this belief system asserted that negative thoughts led to poverty, songwriter Johnny Mercer credited a Father Divine sermon for inspiring the title of his song Accentuate the Positive. Father Divine attended a local Baptist Church, often preaching, until 1907, Morris, originally from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a soft-spoken and uncontroversial sermon until the end, when he raised his arms and shouted, I am the Eternal Father. This routine had him out of many churches in Baltimore. In his late 20s, Father Divine became Morriss first follower and adopted a pseudonym, the Messenger was a Christ figure to Morriss God the Father. Father Divine preached with Morris in Baltimore out of the home of former evangelist Harriette Snowden, Morris began calling himself Father Jehovia
14.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
15.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
16.
Roy Stryker
–
Roy Emerson Stryker was an American economist, government official, and photographer. He is most famous for heading the Information Division of the Farm Security Administration during the Great Depression, after serving in the infantry in World War I, Stryker went to Columbia University where he studied economics. He used his photography to illustrate his economics texts and lectures, at Columbia, he worked with Rexford Tugwell, and when Tugwell became part of the Resettlement Administration, Stryker followed him. Tugwell and Stryker refocused the attention of the Resettlement Administration to document the problems of the heartland, the RA was renominated the Farm Security Administration, and Stryker set up the photodocumentary project. Strykers greatest contribution to the FSAs photographic project was as a manager, the photographers involved attested to the fact that Stryker was expert at getting good work out of them. He made sure that the photographers were well briefed on their assigned areas before being sent out, however, Stryker has been criticized for his heavy-handed editing methodology, which involved physically defacing negatives by punching holes in them. Stryker also made sure that mainstream publications had access to FSA photographs and this both helped focus public attention on the plight of the rural poor and set up the commercial careers of his photographers. Overall, from 164,000 developed negatives some 77,000 different finished photographic prints were made for the press, plus 644 color images. During World War II, the unit of the FSA was reassigned to the Office of War Information and put to more propagandistic uses for one year. At the same time, the US Congress disbanded the FSA, Stryker resigned and went to work for Standard Oil in its public relations documentary project from 1943 to 1950. After suggesting topics he wanted documented, Stryker gave his photographers the freedom to pursue their individual approaches to their subjects, as with all his projects, Stryker was adamant that his staff understand their subjects and their context before going out on an assignment. From 1950 to 1952, Stryker worked to establish the Pittsburgh Photographic Library, in 1960, the collection was transferred to the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. After leaving the PPL, Stryker directed a project at Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation. Thereafter, he accepted consulting jobs on occasion and conducted seminars on photo-journalism at the University of Missouri, Stryker eventually returned to the west in the 1960s. He died in Grand Junction, Colorado, the Standard Oil Collection – A digital collection of photographs from the documentary project directed by Roy E. Stryker
17.
Dorothea Lange
–
Dorothea Lange was an American documentary photographer and photojournalist, best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration. Langes photographs humanized the consequences of the Great Depression and influenced the development of documentary photography, born of second generation German immigrants on May 26,1895, at 1041 Bloomfield Street, Hoboken, New Jersey, Dorothea Lange was named Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn at birth. She dropped her name and assumed her mothers maiden name after her father abandoned the family when she was 12 years old. The other was her contraction of polio at age seven which left her with a right leg. It formed me, guided me, instructed me, helped me and humiliated me, ive never gotten over it, and I am aware of the force and power of it. Lange graduated from the Wadleigh High School for Girls and was educated in photography at Columbia University in New York City and she was informally apprenticed to several New York photography studios, including that of the famed Arnold Genthe. In 1918, she left New York with a friend to travel the world. By the following year she had opened a portrait studio. She lived across the bay in Berkeley for the rest of her life, in 1920, she married the noted western painter Maynard Dixon, with whom she had two sons, Daniel, born in 1925, and John, born in 1930. With the onset of the Great Depression, Lange turned her camera lens from the studio to the street, in December 1935, she and Dixon divorced and she married economist Paul Schuster Taylor, Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. For the next five years they documented rural poverty and the exploitation of sharecroppers and migrant laborers – Taylor interviewing and gathering economic data, distributed free to newspapers across the country, her poignant images became icons of the era. One of Langes most recognized works is titled Migrant Mother, the woman in the photo is Florence Owens Thompson. In 1960, Lange spoke about her taking the photograph, I saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother. I do not remember how I explained my presence or my camera to her, I made five exposures, working closer and closer from the same direction. I did not ask her name or her history and she told me her age, that she was thirty-two. She said that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields and she had just sold the tires from her car to buy food. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her, there was a sort of equality about it. After Lange returned home, she told the editor of a San Francisco newspaper about conditions at the camp, the editor informed federal authorities and published an article that included the photos
18.
Arthur Rothstein
–
Arthur Rothstein was an American photographer. Rothstein is recognized as one of America’s premier photojournalists, during a career that spanned five decades, he provoked, entertained and informed the American people. His photographs ranged from a baseball game to the drama of war. Rothstein was born in Manhattan, New York City, and he grew up in the Bronx and he was a graduate of Columbia University, where he was a founder of the University Camera Club and photography editor of the Columbian. Following his graduation from Columbia during the Great Depression, Rothstein was invited to Washington DC by one of his professors at Columbia, Rothstein had been Strykers student at Columbia University in the early 1930s. In 1935, as a senior, Rothstein prepared a set of copy photographs for a picture source book on American agriculture that Stryker and another professor. The book was never published, but before the year was out, Tugwell, Stryker hired Rothstein to set up the darkroom for Strykers Photo Unit of the Historical Section of the Resettlement Administration. Arthur Rothstein became the first photographer sent out by Roy Stryker, during the next five years he shot some of the most significant photographs ever taken of rural and small-town America. The Resettlement Administration became the Farm Security Administration in 1937, later, when the country geared up for World War II, the FSA became part of the Office of War Information. The photographs made during Rothsteins five-year stint with the Photo Unit form a catalog of the agencys initiatives, enacted in July, the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act gave the agency its new lease on life as the Farm Security Administration. Stryker planned to visit Alabama and asked Rothstein to wait for him, the residents of Gees Bend symbolized two different things to the Resettlement Administration. On the other hand, the agenda for rehabilitation implied a view of the residents as the victims of slavery. Unlike the subjects of many Resettlement Administration and Farm Security Administration photographs, the photographs do not show the back-breaking work of cultivation and harvest, but only offer a glimpse of spring plowing. At home, the residents do not merely inhabit substandard housing but are engaged in a variety of domestic activities, the dwellings at Gees Bend must have been as uncomfortable as the frame shacks thrown up for farm workers everywhere, but Rothsteins photographs emphasize the log cabins picturesque qualities. This affirming image of life in Gees Bend is reinforced by Rothsteins deliberate, there does not seem to have been a Life magazine story about Gees Bend, but a long article ran in the New York Times Magazine of August 22,1937. It is illustrated by eleven of Rothsteins pictures, with a text that draws heavily upon a Resettlement Administration report dated in May, the story extols the agencys regional director as intelligent and sympathetic and describes the Gees Bend project in glowing terms. Reporter John Temple Graves II perceived the project as retaining agrarian —, in 1940 Mr. Rothstein became a staff photographer for Look magazine but left shortly thereafter to join the OWI and then the US Army as a photographer in the Signal Corps. In 1947 Mr. Rothstein rejoined Look as Director of Photography and he remained at Look until 1971 when the magazine ceased publication
19.
Walker Evans
–
Walker Evans was an American photographer and photojournalist best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration documenting the effects of the Great Depression. Much of Evanss work from the FSA period uses the large-format and he said that his goal as a photographer was to make pictures that are literate, authoritative, transcendent. Many of his works are in the permanent collections of museums and have been the subject of retrospectives at such institutions as The Metropolitan Museum of Art or George Eastman House. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, to Jessie and Walker, Walker Evans came from an affluent family and his father was an advertising director. He spent his youth in Toledo, Chicago, and New York City and he attended The Loomis Institute and Mercersburg Academy before graduating from Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1922. He studied French literature for a year at Williams College, spending much of his time in the schools library, after spending a year in Paris in 1926, he returned to the United States to join the edgy literary and art crowd in New York City. John Cheever, Hart Crane, and Lincoln Kirstein were among his friends and he was a clerk for a stockbroker firm in Wall street from 1927 to 1929. Evans took up photography in 1928 around the time he was living in Ossining and his influences included Eugène Atget and August Sander. In 1930, he published three photographs in the poetry book The Bridge by Hart Crane, in 1931, he made a photo series of Victorian houses in the Boston vicinity sponsored by Lincoln Kirstein. In May and June 1933, Evans took photographs in Cuba on assignment for Lippincott, the publisher of Carleton Beals The Crime of Cuba, there Evans drank nightly with Ernest Hemingway, who loaned him money to extend his two-week stay an additional week. His photographs documented street life, the presence of police, beggars and dockworkers in rags and he also helped Hemingway acquire photos from newspaper archives that documented some of the political violence Hemingway described in To Have and Have Not. Fearing that his photographs might be deemed critical of the government and confiscated by Cuban authorities and he had no difficulties when returning to the United States, and 31 of his photos appeared in Beals book. The cache of prints left with Hemingway was discovered in Havana in 2002, in 1935, Evans spent two months at first on a fixed-term photographic campaign for the Resettlement Administration in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. From October on, he continued to do work for the RA and later the Farm Security Administration. Its detailed account of three farming families paints a moving portrait of rural poverty. Evanss photographs of the families made them icons of Depression-Era misery, in September 2005, Fortune revisited Hale County and the descendants of the three families for its 75th anniversary issue. Evans continued to work for the FSA until 1938 and that year, an exhibition, Walker Evans, American Photographs, was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York. This was the first exhibition in the devoted to the work of a single photographer
20.
San Augustine, Texas
–
San Augustine is the county seat city of San Augustine County, Texas, in East Texas, United States. The population was 2,108 at the 2010 census, the first European settlement in the area began in 1717 with the establishment of Mission Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de los Ais by Spanish Missionaries. The mission was abandoned and reestablished in 1721 and it lasted until 1773 and is now preserved as Mission Dolores State Historic Site The town began in 1832 with land owned by Thomas S. McFarland. The town was named after the Presidio de San Agustín de Ahumada, San Augustine is located at 31°31′52″N 94°06′39″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.8 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, San Augustine has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,475 people,859 households, the population density was 525.2 people per square mile. There were 1,076 housing units at a density of 228. 3/sq mi. The racial makeup of the city was 37. 82% White,57. 94% African American,0. 08% Native American,0. 69% Asian,3. 07% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 13% of the population. 30. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.23. In the city, the population was out with 26. 9% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,22. 6% from 25 to 44,19. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 80.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 67.6 males, the median income for a household in the city was $25,489, and the median income for a family was $33,203. Males had an income of $23,750 versus $17,628 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,918, about 19. 1% of families and 24. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35. 0% of those under age 18 and 30. 7% of those age 65 or over. The city of San Augustine is served by the San Augustine Independent School District, kenneth Lewis Anderson – The last Vice President of the Republic of Texas Joseph Barton Elam – U. S. Greer Texas Lieutenant Governor Ben Ramsey John A Ramsey – prominent libertarian entrepreneur and philanthropist
21.
Pie Town, New Mexico
–
Pie Town is an unincorporated community and census-designated place located along U. S. Highway 60 in Catron County, New Mexico, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 186 and its name comes from an early bakery that specialized in dried-apple pies, it was established by Clyde Norman in the early 1920s. Pie Town has been noted for its place name. Pie Town is the location of a Pie Festival on the second Saturday of each September. S. In addition, one of the ten radio antennas that form the Very Long Baseline Array of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory can be seen from U. S.60 just east of Pie Town. Pie Town and its people were photographed in 1940 by Russell Lee, Pie Town, Lees photos, and the local restaurant the Daily Pie Cafe were the subject of an article in Smithsonian magazine in February 2005. In 2014, a feature documentary, Pie Lady of Pie Town, was produced. CBS News Sunday Morning aired a story about the town in 2015, Pie Town is located along U. S.60,83 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico, and about 290 miles east of Phoenix, Arizona. Albuquerque is 136 miles to the northeast by other highways, for cyclists, equestrians, motorcyclists, and hikers, Pie Town provides a number of services, including lodging, supplies, and unique flavors of pie on request. The area of Pie Town is rich in relics of the Native Americans, many Anasazi and Acoma pottery shards have been found in the area, along with grinding slicks, an ancient axe head, and petrified wood. Some fossilized bones have been found on the ground, the ruins of Native American communities, which consist of one to a few dozen structures are found here. The Pie Town Annual Pie Festival includes a pie-baking contest, games and races, music, food, dust Bowl Pie Town Community Council Pie Town Annual Pie Festival Pie Town website Smithsonian Magazine, Savoring Pie Town
22.
Internment of Japanese Americans
–
62 percent of the internees were United States citizens. These actions were ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after Imperial Japans attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U. S. who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150, 000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, the internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with one drop of Japanese blood were placed in internment camps. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U. S. mainland were relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans, the Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsus appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders and he appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate the camps. The Commissions report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors, the legislation admitted that government actions were based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The U. S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs. Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,112,000 resided on the West Coast, about 80,000 were nisei and sansei. The rest were issei immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U. S. citizenship under U. S. law, from 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U. S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast, most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the US to join their husbands, the practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U. S. resulted in a large increase in the number of picture brides. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and they lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century, the Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other undesirable Asian countries
23.
Air Transport Command (United States Air Force)
–
Air Transport Command was a United States Air Force unit that was created during World War II as the strategic airlift component of the United States Army Air Forces. ATC also operated an air transportation system for military personnel. Inactivated on 1 June 1948, Air Transport Command was the precursor to what became the Military Air Transport Service in 1948 and was redesignated Military Airlift Command in 1966. It was consolidated with MAC in 1982, providing a history of long range airlift through 1992 when the mission was transferred to todays Air Mobility Command. By no means least among the achievements of the Army Air Forces in World War II was its development of a system of air transport. That system, and its functions, soon became synonymous with the organization which controlled it, railroads was used to move the equipment and aircraft from one base to another and to the Ports of Embarkation along the East Coast for subsequent sea shipment to the battlefields of France. It wasnt until the 1920s that the development of cargo and personnel transport aircraft began with such as the Boeing Model 40. In the early 1930s, the Air Corps began formally experimenting with the use of air transport for the distribution of aviation supplies. The group, redesignated the 10th Transport Group in 1937, also transported supplies from one depot to another, with the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939, several European governments approached the United States for military equipment. They needed immediate help for the battles they might soon have to fight on their own soil against invading German armies. The French ordered Douglas DB-7 two-engine light bombers, Curtiss P-36 Hawks, the idea of developing a regular military service for ferrying aircraft was the result of several factors. Production of aircraft by United States manufacturers was increasing for both the Army Air Corps and for purchase by the British, as produced and ready for delivery at the factory, these aircraft were flyable but also needed modifications before they were ready for combat service. It was advantageous to fly the aircraft to a modification center where changes could be made. By ferrying these bombers under their own power, vital shipping space was saved, however, the British Government had limited funds, and was rapidly running out of resources for the purchase of war materiel of all types from the United States. In the spring of 1941, the Roosevelt Administration was committed to all possible help, short of actual combat, to the United Kingdom. With that clear intention, the doors were opened for larger numbers of aircraft to be sent to the Royal Air Force to defend Great Britain and it was also clear that the pioneering efforts of the British would have to be expanded to accommodate the increased number of aircraft. These shipments to the British caused a shortage in the United States of multi-engine aircraft in particular, Air Corps units were in need of training in long-range navigation, weather and radio-flying that a coast-to-coast ferrying service would give them in the latest models of aircraft. This would make possible the ferrying of medium and light bombers across the North Atlantic Ocean, the British ferrying service was well under way when the Lend-Lease Act became law on 11 March 1941
24.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
25.
United States Department of the Interior
–
The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
26.
Bituminous coal
–
Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called glutius. It is of quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite. Formation is usually the result of pressure being exerted on lignite. Its coloration can be black or sometimes brown, often there are well-defined bands of bright. These distinctive sequences, which are classified according to either dull, bright-banded or bright, bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material. Its primary constituents are macerals, vitrinite, and liptinite, the carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%, the rest is composed of water, air, hydrogen, and sulphur, which have not been driven off from the macerals. Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m³, bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m³. The heat content of coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg on a moist. Within the coal mining industry, this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp, extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring, good ventilation and vigilant site management. Bituminous coals are graded according to vitrinite reflectance, moisture content, volatile content, plasticity, generally, the highest value bituminous coals have a specific grade of plasticity, volatility and low ash content, especially with low carbonate, phosphorus, and sulphur. Plasticity is vital for coking as it represents its ability to form specific plasticity phases during the coking process. Low phosphorus content is vital for these coals, as phosphorus is a highly damaging element in steel making, cooking coal is best if it has a very narrow range of volatility and plasticity. This is measured by the free swelling index test, volatile content and swelling index are used to select coals for coke blending as well. Volatility is also critical for steel-making and power generation, as this determines the rate of the coal. High volatile content coals, while easy to ignite often are not as prized as moderately volatile coals, the smelter must balance the volatile content of the coals to optimize the ease of ignition, burn rate, and energy output of the coal. Carbonates are deleterious as they stick to the boiler apparatus. Smithing coal is a type of high-quality bituminous coal ideally suited for use in a coal forge and it is as free from ash, sulphur, and other impurities as possible. The constituents of the coal should be as follows, Cannel coal is a coal which ignites easily producing a bright flame, the name may derive from northern English pronunciation of candle coal
27.
Pentecostal Church of God
–
The Pentecostal Church of God is a trinitarian Pentecostal Christian denomination headquartered in Bedford, Texas, United States. As of 2010, there were 620,000 members,6,750 clergy in 4,825 churches world-wide, the PCG is a member of the National Association of Evangelicals, the Pentecostal World Conference and the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America. The churchs official publication is The Pentecostal Messenger, sinclair, an early Pentecostal pastor in Chicago, and a former Assemblies of God presbyter served as the first moderator. The Pentecostal Assemblies of the USA was dissolved in 1922, in 1927, the denominational headquarters relocated to Ottumwa, Iowa, in 1933, to Kansas City, Missouri, in 1951, to Joplin, Missouri in 1951, and in 2012, to Bedford, Texas. The reason for the move was because of income due to declining membership. The Bedford building solved this problem by combining the national office, the PCG has a Pentecostal and Evangelical statement of faith. It believes the Old and New Testaments of the Bible are the word of God which is the only rule of Christian faith. The Son, Jesus Christ, is eternally begotten of the Father, conceived by the Holy Spirit, Jesus died on the cross as a substitutionary sacrifice to redeem and restore humanity to God. All who believe in him are justified and he rose again and will return to establish his kingdom. Salvation is available through Jesus work on the cross and is a gift from God made possible by grace through faith, the PCG believes it is possible to lose ones salvation if one turns away from God. After salvation, a Christian can receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit, the evidence of this baptism is speaking in other tongues. It believes in the doctrine of sanctification as a definite and progressive work of grace and it believes heaven and hell are real places. Heaven is for those who have received the gift of salvation, the true Church is made of all true Christians. There are two ordinances, water baptism, and the Lords Supper, water baptism is by immersion and is for believers only. Baptism is a symbol of identification with Christs death, burial, the Lords Supper is a memorial to Christs death and resurrection. The PCG only uses unfermented grape juice, though not an ordinance, divine healing is believed to be provided for in the atonement of Christ and available to all believers. The PCG believes that Christ will return and that his return is imminent and it believes his coming will be personal, pre-tribulational, and pre-millennial. The church is led by a General Bishop and a General Convention which meets biennially and it is divided into a number of districts, including four Hispanic districts in the United States
28.
Standard Oil of New Jersey
–
Exxon /ˈɛksɒn/ was the brand name of oil and natural resources company Exxon Corporation, prior to 1972 known as Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. In 1999, Exxon Corporation merged with Mobil to form ExxonMobil, the Exxon brand is still used by ExxonMobils downstream operations as a brand for certain of its gas stations, motor fuel and related products. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was one of the Seven Sisters that dominated the petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the 1970s. Exxon replaced the Esso, Enco, and Humble brands in the United States on January 1,1973. As a result, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was restricted from using Esso in the U. S. except in those states awarded to it in the 1911 Standard Oil antitrust settlement. In states where it was restricted from using the Esso name, the Humble brand was used at Texas stations for decades, as those operations were under the direction of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey affiliate Humble Oil & Refining Company. In the middle to late 1950s, use of the Humble brand spread to other states, including Arizona, New Mexico. Enco was created as an acronym for the phrase Energy Company, Humble introduced the Enco brand in 1960 in Oklahoma and surrounding states, to replace Humbles subsidiary Oklahoma and Pate brands. Humble also tried marketing under Enco in Ohio, but Standard Oil Company of Ohio protested that the Enco name, consequently, stations in Ohio were rebranded as Humble, and remained so until the Exxon brand came into use. After the Enco brand was discontinued in Ohio, it was moved to other non-Esso states, in 1961, Humble stations in Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas were rebranded to Enco. That same year, Enco appeared on former Carter stations in the Midwest, in 1963, Humble Oil and Tidewater Oil Company began negotiating a sale of Tidewaters West Coast refining and marketing operations. The sale would have given Humble Oil a large number of existing Flying A stations and distributorships, as well as a refinery in California, however, the Justice Department objected to the sale on anti-trust grounds. Humble Oil continued to expand its West Coast operations, adding California to its territory, building a large number of new Enco stations. In 1967, Humble Oil purchased all remaining Signal stations from Standard Oil Company of California and rebranded them as Enco outlets, finally, in 1969, Humble Oil opened a new refinery in Benicia, California. By 1967, Humble Oils Esso stations in the Southeast were rebranded to Enco, in the 1960s and early 1970s, Humble Oil continued to have difficulties promoting itself as a nationwide marketer of petroleum products, despite a number of high-profile marketing strategies. These included the popular Put a Tiger in Your Tank advertising campaign and accompanying tiger mascot, introduced in 1959, to promote Enco Extra and Esso Extra gasolines. Humble Oil also used similar logotypes, use of the Humble name in all Enco and Esso advertising, in addition, Humble Oil was a major promoter and broadcast sponsor for college football in the Pacific-8 and Southwestern conferences. But Humble Oil still faced competition from such national brands such as Shell and Texaco
29.
Exxon Corporation
–
Exxon Mobil Corporation is an American multinational oil and gas corporation headquartered in Irving, Texas. It is the largest direct descendant of John D. Rockefellers Standard Oil Company, the worlds seventh largest company by revenue, ExxonMobil is also the seventh largest publicly traded company by market capitalization. The company was ranked ninth globally in the Forbes Global 2000 list in 2016, ExxonMobil was the second most profitable company in the Fortune 500 in 2014. ExxonMobil is the largest of the worlds Big Oil companies, or supermajors, with production of 3.921 million BOE. In 2008, this was approximately 3 percent of world production, when ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is 14th in the world—with less than 1 percent of the total. ExxonMobils reserves were 25.2 billion BOE at the end of 2013, ExxonMobil has a history of lobbying for climate change denial and against the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The company has also been the target of accusations of improperly dealing with rights issues, influence on American foreign policy. ExxonMobil was formed in 1999 by the merger of two oil companies, Exxon and Mobil. Both Exxon and Mobil were descendants of Standard Oil, established by John D. Rockefeller, in 1882, it together with its affiliated companies was incorporated as the Standard Oil Trust with Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and Standard Oil Company of New York as its largest companies. The Anglo-American Oil Company was established in the United Kingdom in 1888, in 1890, Standard Oil, together with local ship merchants in Bremen established Deutsch-Amerikanische Petroleum Gesellschaft. In 1891, a branch for the Netherlands and Belgium. At the same year, a branch for Italy, Società Italo Americana pel Petrolio, was established in Venice. The Standard Oil Trust was dissolved under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1892, however, in 1893, the Chinese and the whole Asian kerosene market was assigned to Standard Oil Company of New York in order to improve trade with the Asian counterparts. In 1898, Standard Oil of New Jersey acquired controlling stake in Imperial Oil of Canada, in 1899, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey became the holding company for the Standard Oil Interests. The anti-monopoly proceedings against the Standard Oil were launched in 1898, by 1911, with public outcry at a climax, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Standard Oil must be dissolved and split into 34 companies. Two of these companies were Jersey Standard, which eventually became Exxon, and Socony, over the next few decades, Jersey Standard and Socony grew significantly. John Duston Archbold was the first president of Jersey Standard, Archbold was followed by Walter C. Teagle in 1917, who made it the largest oil company in the world, in 1919, Jersey Standard acquired a 50% share in Humble Oil & Refining Co. a Texas oil producer
30.
University of Louisville
–
The University of Louisville is a public university in Louisville, Kentucky, a member of the Kentucky state university system. When founded in 1798, it was the first city-owned public university in the United States, the university is mandated by the Kentucky General Assembly to be a Preeminent Metropolitan Research University. UofL enrolls students from 118 of 120 Kentucky counties, all 50 U. S. states, the University of Louisville School of Medicine is touted for the first fully self-contained artificial heart transplant surgery as well as the first successful hand transplantation. The University Hospital is also credited with the first civilian ambulance, the nations first accident services, now known as an emergency room, between 1999 and 2006 UofL was one of the fastest growing medical research institutions according to National Institutes of Health rankings. As of 2006, the melanoma clinic ranked third in among public universities in NIH funding, the research program fourth. UofL is also known for its Louisville Cardinals athletics programs, several of which are among the most successful in the country, the Louisville Cardinals Womens Volleyball program has three-peated as champions of the Big East Tournament, and were Atlantic Coast Conference Champions in 2015. Womens track and field program has won Outdoor Big East titles in 2008,2009 and 2010, the University of Louisville traces its roots to a charter granted in 1798 by the Kentucky General Assembly to establish a school of higher learning in the newly founded town of Louisville. It opened 15 years later and offered college and high school courses in a variety of subjects. It was headed by Edward Mann Butler from 1813 to 1816, despite the Jefferson Seminarys early success, pressure from newly established public schools and media critiques of it as elitist would force its closure in 1829. Eight years later, in 1837, the Louisville City council established the Louisville Medical Institute at the urging of renowned physician, as he had earlier at Lexingtons Transylvania University, Caldwell rapidly led LMI into becoming one of the leading medical schools west of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1840, the Louisville Collegiate institute, a medical school, was established after an LMI faculty dispute. It opened in 1844 on land near the present day Health sciences campus, the university experienced rapid growth in the 20th century, adding new schools in the liberal arts, graduate studies, dentistry, engineering, music and social work. In 1923, the school purchased what is today the Belknap Campus, the school had attempted to purchase a campus donated by the Belknap family in The Highlands area in 1917, but a citywide tax increase to pay for it was voted down. The Belknap Campus was named after the family for their efforts, in 1931, U of L established the Louisville Municipal College for Negroes on the former campus of Simmons University, as a compromise plan to desegregation. As a part of U of L, the school had an equal standing with the other colleges. It was dissolved in 1951 when U of L desegregated, during World War II, Louisville was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. In the second half of the 20th century, schools were opened for business, education, talk of U of L joining the public university system of Kentucky began in the 1960s. As a municipally funded school, the movement of people to the suburbs of Louisville created budget shortfalls for the school, at the same time, the schools well established medicine and law schools were seen as assets for the state system
31.
Kentucky
–
Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
32.
University of Texas at Austin
–
Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
33.
New Mexico Museum of Art
–
The New Mexico Museum of Art, the oldest art museum in the state of New Mexico, is one of four state-run museums in Santa Fe. It is one of eight museums in the operated by the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs. The museum is located at 107 West Palace Avenue, one block off the historic Santa Fe Plaza. Cannon, Bob Haozous and Jaune Quick-to-See Smith, art of the New Deal, new media, including video installations, the Museum of Art hosts changing exhibitions featuring artists of New Mexico and the Southwest. The shows range from art to contemporary lithographs and photographs. The museum also attracts traveling exhibitions with international scope, the auditorium has a seating capacity of 450. The auditorium displays several murals depicting St. Francis of Assisi which were designed by Donald Beauregard and completed by Carlos Vierra. The museum library contains art books, periodicals, biographical files of artists represented in the permanent collection, New Mexico Museum of Art official website Museum of New Mexico New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs
34.
Texas State University
–
Texas State University is a public research university located in San Marcos, Texas, United States. Established in 1899 as the Southwest Texas State Normal School, it opened in 1903 to 303 students and it has 10 colleges and about 50 schools and departments, including nationally recognized programs in Geography, Criminal Justice and Music. Texas State is classified as a university with higher research activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, faculty from the various college have consistently been given Fulbright Scholar grants resulting in Texas State being recognized as one of the top producing universities of Fulbright Scholars. The 36th President of the United States, Lyndon B, Johnson, graduated from the institution in 1930. Texas States main campus consists of 245 buildings on 492 acres of land along the San Marcos River. The university operates the Science, Technology and Advanced Research Park, the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State is the largest forensics research facility in the world. Texas State Universitys intercollegiate sports teams, commonly known as the Bobcats, compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, the Southwest Texas State Normal School was proposed in a March 3,1899, bill by State Representative Fred Cocke. Cocke represented the citizens of Hays and surrounding counties where the school was to be located. While there was opposition to the bill, with the support of State Senator J. B. Dibrell, it was passed and signed into law on May 10,1899. The schools purpose was to provide training and teach domestic sciences. Any students earning a diploma and teaching certificate from the school would be authorized to teach in the public schools. In October 1899, the San Marcos City Council voted to donate 11 acres of land at what was known as Chautauqua Hill for the school to be built on. It was not until 1901 that the Texas legislature accepted this donation, the building now known as Old Main was completed and the school opened its doors to its first enrollment of 303 students in September 1903. The San Marcos East End Ward School, comprising the first eight grades of the district, was moved onto the Southwest Texas State campus in 1917. On November 8,1965, the schools most famous alumnus, Johnson, returned to his alma mater to sign the Higher Education Act of 1965, which was part of his Great Society. The campus has grown substantially from its original 11 acres in 1899, during the first 40 years of the schools history, the campus was expanded to accommodate 18 buildings around the original Main Building. These buildings included academic buildings, a library, buildings to house the San Marcos school students, dormitories, a dining hall, the university bought the property in 1994 intending to use the land as a research and education center
35.
Dolph Briscoe Center for American History
–
The Dolph Briscoe Center for American History is an organized research unit and public service component of The University of Texas at Austin named for Dolph Briscoe, the 41st Governor of Texas. The Center collects and preserves documents and artifacts of key themes in Texas and United States history, the Center also has permanent, touring, and online exhibits available to the public. The Center has five divisions, Research and Collections, the Military History Institute, the Sam Rayburn Museum, the Briscoe-Garner Museum, the Research and Collections Division is located on the University of Texas campus in Austin. The Institute focuses on key military engagements of the United States and its collections are available for research and educational purposes. The Institute also does outreach through conferences and lectures, the Sam Rayburn Museum is located in Bonham. It contains exhibits documenting the life and career of former Texas congressman, the Rayburn Museum became a division of the Briscoe Center in 1991 and is open to the public. The Briscoe-Garner Museum is located in Uvalde, the museum documents the lives of John Nance Garner and Dolph Briscoe, both Uvalde natives and historically important political figures from Texas. On November 20,1999, the City of Uvalde transferred ownership of the Garner Museum to The University of Texas at Austin to become a division of the Briscoe Center for American History. In 2011, the Board of Regents of The University of Texas System approved the renaming of the John Nance Garner Museum to the Briscoe-Garner Museum, Winedale is a complex of nineteenth-century structures and modern facilities situated on 225 acres of land near Round Top. Winedale offers examples of early Texas architecture and crafts, a center, continuing education seminars. Local workers supervised by Newton Peschel were Newton Vokel, Martin Bartels, a mason, Mr. Yoakum, constructed foundations and chimneys. List of museums in Central Texas List of museums in North Texas The Dolph Briscoe Center for American History
36.
Austin Independent School District
–
Austin Independent School District is a school district based in the city of Austin, Texas, United States. Established in 1881, the district serves most of the City of Austin, the City of Sunset Valley, the Village of San Leanna, the district operates 129 schools including 84 elementary schools,18 middle schools, and 16 high schools. As of 2013 AISD covers 172.4 square miles of land within the City of Austin, in 2011, the school district was rated academically acceptable by the Texas Education Agency. Forty-nine percent of districts in Texas in 2011 received the same rating, no state accountability ratings will be given to districts in 2012. A school district in Texas can receive one of four possible rankings from the Texas Education Agency, Exemplary, Recognized, Academically Acceptable, the district also funds some facilities construction and improvements through the issuance of debt by bond elections, AISDs most recent bond election was in 2013. Austin Ed Fund serves as a catalyst for generating and distributing external resources for the support of innovation, community members can learn more or donate at www. austinedfund. org. On April 14,2014, superintendent Dr. Meria Joel Carstarphen announced that she was resigning to become the superintendent of Atlanta Public Schools in Atlanta, on January 26,2015, Dr. Paul Cruz was promoted from interim to full superintendent. Winn - 1881–1894 Prof. Thomas Green Harris - 1895–1903 Arthur N. McCallum, carruth - 1950–1970 Dr. Jack L. Davidson - 1970–1980 Dr. John Ellis - 1980–1990 Dr. Gonzalo Garza - 1990–1991 Dr. Jim B. In 1970 the student body of AISD was 65% non-Hispanic white, in the late 1970s the student body was 57% non-Hispanic white, 26% Hispanic and Latino, and 15% African-American. Until 1978 AISD categorized Hispanics and Latinos as white so they could integrate them with African-Americans while leaving non-Hispanic whites out of integration and that year it was forced to integrate Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites. In 2000 the student body of AISD was 37% non-Hispanic white, images of AISD High Schools The following high schools cover grades 9 to 12, unless otherwise noted. The Magnet is not housed separately from Kealings comprehensive program, images of AISD Elementary Schools Toney Burger Center I. I. Nelson Field Delco Activity Center Ellie Noack Sports Complex House Park List of school districts in Texas List of high schools in Texas McGee, black Students Are Eight Percent of AISD – and Nearly One-Fourth of Suspensions
37.
Robert E Lee
–
Robert Edward Lee was an American general known for commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War from 1862 until his surrender in 1865. During this time, he served throughout the United States, distinguished himself during the Mexican–American War, during the first year of the Civil War, Lee served as a senior military adviser to President Jefferson Davis. Once he took command of the field army in 1862 he soon emerged as a shrewd tactician and battlefield commander, winning most of his battles. Lees strategic foresight was more questionable, and both of his major offensives into Union territory ended in defeat, Lees aggressive tactics, which resulted in high casualties at a time when the Confederacy had a shortage of manpower, have come under criticism in recent years. Lee surrendered his army to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9,1865. By this time, Lee had assumed command of the remaining Southern armies. Lee rejected the proposal of an insurgency against the Union. He urged them to rethink their position between the North and the South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the political life. Lee became the great Southern hero of the War, an icon of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy to some. But his popularity even in the North, especially after his death in 1870. Barracks at West Point built in 1962 are named after him, Robert Edward Lee was born at Stratford Hall Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, to Major General Henry Lee III, Governor of Virginia, and his second wife, Anne Hill Carter. His birth date has traditionally been recorded as January 19,1807, one of Lees great grandparents, Henry Lee I, was a prominent Virginian colonist of English descent. Lees family is one of Virginias first families, descended from Richard Lee I, Esq. the Immigrant, Lees mother grew up at Shirley Plantation, one of the most elegant homes in Virginia. Lees father, a planter, suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments. Little is known of Lee as a child, he spoke of his boyhood as an adult. Nothing is known of his relationship with his father who, after leaving his family, mentioned Robert only once in a letter. In 1811, the family, including the newly born child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street, still close to the center of town. In 1812, Harry Lee was badly injured in a riot in Baltimore
38.
Cajun music
–
Cajun music, an emblematic music of Louisiana, is rooted in the ballads of the French-speaking Acadians of Canada. Cajun music is mentioned in tandem with the Creole-based, Creole-influenced zydeco form. These French Louisiana sounds have influenced American popular music for decades, especially country music. Cajun music is relatively harsh with a beat and a lot of forward drive. Besides the voices, only two instruments are heard, the accordion and fiddle, but usually in the background can also be heard the high. The harmonies of Cajun music are simple, basically I, IV, and V, tonic, sub-dominant, the melodic range is just one octave, rising a fifth above the tonic and descending a fourth below. Because the Cajun accordion is an instrument it can only play tunes in a few keys. For example, a C accordion is tuned such that the entire C scale is available on the ten buttons, a C accordion can also play a tune in the key of G, but one note of the G scale will be missing which is F#. So tunes played in the key of G will not have an F# note, a C accordion can also play a few Cajun songs in the key of F however the Bb note will be missing. Also it can play in the key of D with a bluesy sound since the F natural note becomes a third or minor third in the key of D. However a skilled player can play in these other keys. Since an instrument must match the range, much Cajun singing is sung in the singers upper range. The accordionist gives the vocal melody greater energy by repeating most notes and this style comprises the roots of Cajun dance music, involving only a few instruments such as the Cajun accordion, fiddle, and triangle. This form holds firm to a rhythm with staccato style notes. Each fiddle solo is composed of a major scale riff, repeated between verses and this form has existed since the early 1900s and the waltz and two-step are the most common dances of this Cajun music genre. Many songs that became standards in the Cajun music repertoire were first recorded in this period of the 1920s and 1930s, a number of the most prominent traditional Cajun musicians are featured in the 1989 documentary JAi Ete Au Bal. Amédé Ardoin, Canray Fontenot, Wade Frugé, Dewey Segura, Joe Falcon and Cléoma Falcon, and this style involves heavy elements of Texas country music influence and a move away from the traditional accordion. This music has more of a style popularized by Bob Wills
39.
Racial segregation
–
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. As a result, the act of separating oneself from other people on the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not constitute segregation. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental, in the United States, segregation was mandated by law in some states and came with anti-miscegenation laws. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. Wherever there have been multiracial communities, there has been racial segregation, only areas with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social stratification, seem to be exempt. Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has described as quasi-apartheid. Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates and this internal system of apartheid met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and ensuing independence war. In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i. e. Slavic, according to Wilhelm Raabe, down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend. The ban on marriage was a part of the Nuremberg Laws. At first the laws were aimed primarily at Jews but were extended to Gypsies, Negroes. Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty. To preserve the purity of the German blood, after the war began. In an effort to split Polish identity they attempted to establish ethnic divisions of Kashubians and Gorals, based on these groups alleged Germanic component. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition, Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, after Kristallnacht, the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as undesirable racial groups in the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with 400,000 people, the Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000. Between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens were transported to the Reich for forced labour, although Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory measures
40.
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
–
Oklahoma City is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Oklahoma. The county seat of Oklahoma County, the city ranks 27th among United States cities in population, the population grew following the 2010 Census, with the population estimated to have increased to 631,346 as of July 2015. Oklahoma Citys city limits extend into Canadian, Cleveland, and Pottawatomie counties, the city ranks as the eighth-largest city in the United States by land area. Oklahoma City has the largest municipal population of any city in the Great Plains region of the central United States as well as all neighboring states to Oklahoma, excluding Texas, lying in the Great Plains region, Oklahoma City features one of the largest livestock markets in the world. Oil, natural gas, petroleum products and related industries are the largest sector of the local economy, the city is situated in the middle of an active oil field and oil derricks dot the capitol grounds. The federal government employs large numbers of workers at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma City is on the I-35 Corridor, which is one of the primary travel corridors south into neighboring Texas and Mexico and north towards Wichita and Kansas City. Located in the Frontier Country region of the state, the citys northeast section lies in a region known as the Cross Timbers. The city was founded during the Land Run of 1889, the city was the scene of the April 19,1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, in which 168 people died. It was the deadliest terror attack in the history of the United States until the attacks of September 11,2001, and remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U. S. history. Oklahoma City was settled on April 22,1889, when the known as the Unassigned Lands was opened for settlement in an event known as The Land Run. Some 10,000 homesteaders settled the area that would become the capital of Oklahoma, the town grew quickly, the population doubled between 1890 and 1900. Early leaders of the development of the city included Anton Classen, John Shartel, Henry Overholser, by the time Oklahoma was admitted to the Union in 1907, Oklahoma City had surpassed Guthrie, the territorial capital, as the population center and commercial hub of the new state. Soon after, the capital was moved from Guthrie to Oklahoma City, before World War II, Oklahoma City developed major stockyards, attracting jobs and revenue formerly in Chicago and Omaha, Nebraska. With the 1928 discovery of oil within the city limits, Oklahoma City became a center of oil production. Post-war growth accompanied the construction of the Interstate Highway System, which made Oklahoma City a major interchange as the convergence of I-35, I-40 and it was also aided by federal development of Tinker Air Force Base. In 1950, the Census Bureau reported citys population as 8. 6% black and 90. 7% white, patience Latting was elected Mayor of Oklahoma City in 1971, becoming the citys first female mayor. Latting was also the first woman to serve as mayor of a U. S. city with over 350,000 residents. As with many other American cities, center city population declined in the 1970s and 1980s as families followed newly constructed highways to move to housing in nearby suburbs
41.
Slave
–
A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced in the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
42.
New Mexico
–
New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
43.
Quilt
–
In the twenty-first century, quilts are frequently displayed as non-utilitarian works of art but historically quilts were often used as bedcovers, and this use persists today. There are many traditions regarding the uses of quilts, Quilts may be made or given to mark important life events such as marriage, the birth of a child, a family member leaving home, or graduations. Modern quilts are not always intended for use as bedding, and may be used as wall hangings, table runners, quilting techniques are often incorporated into garment design as well. Quilt shows and competitions are held locally, regionally, and nationally, there are international competitions as well, particularly in the United States, Japan, and Europe. The following list summarizes most of the reasons a person decide to make a quilt, Bedding Decoration Armor Commemoration Education Campaigning Documenting events / social history. Imported fabric was expensive, and local homespun fabric was labor-intensive to create. It was essential for most families to use and preserve textiles efficiently, saving or salvaging small scraps of fabric was a part of life for all households. Small pieces of fabric were joined together to make larger pieces, in units called “blocks. ”Creativity could be expressed in the designs, or simple “utility quilts, ” with minimal decorative value. Crib quilts for infants were needed in the cold of winter, quilting was often a communal activity, involving all the women and girls in a family or in a larger community. The tops were prepared in advance, and a bee was arranged. Quilting bees were important social events in communities, and were typically held between periods of high demand for farm labor. Quilts were frequently made to commemorate major events, such as marriages. There are many traditions regarding the number of quilts a young woman was expected to have prior to her wedding. Given the demands on a new wife, and the curve in her new role. Specific wedding quilts continue to be made today, Wedding ring quilts, which have a patchwork design of interlocking rings, have been made since the 1930s. White wholecloth quilts with high-quality, elaborate quilting, and often trapunto decorations as well, are traditional for weddings. Interestingly, it was considered bad luck to incorporate heart motifs in a wedding quilt, Quilts were often made for other events as well, such as graduations, or when individuals left their homes for other communities. One example of this is the quilts made as gifts for pastors
44.
Shasta Dam
–
Shasta Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam across the Sacramento River in Northern California in the United States. At 602 feet high, it is the eighth-tallest dam in the United States, located at the north end of the Sacramento Valley, Shasta Dam creates Shasta Lake for long-term water storage, flood control, hydroelectricity and protection against the intrusion of saline water. The largest reservoir in the state, Shasta Lake can hold about 4,500,000 acre feet, however, bonds did not sell due to the onset of the Great Depression and Shasta was transferred to the federal Bureau of Reclamation as a public works project. Construction started in earnest in 1937 under the supervision of Chief Engineer Frank Crowe, during its building, the dam provided thousands of much-needed jobs, it was finished twenty-six months ahead of schedule in 1945. When completed, the dam was the second-tallest in the United States after Hoover, however, it has greatly changed the environment and ecology of the Sacramento River, and flooded sacred Native American tribal lands. In recent years, there has been debate whether or not to raise the dam in order to allow for increased water storage. In the late 19th century, the Central Valley was the destination for large numbers of immigrants traveling into California from the eastern United States. The valleys land was coveted for farming due to its fertile soils, mild climate, gentle topography, by the late 1800s, both the valley and Delta regions were intensely cultivated with various crops including wheat, cotton, rice, citrus, and melons. The low-lying topography of the Sacramento Valley makes it vulnerable to flooding in the winter, conversely, as farming increased, low river flows dropped even lower, leading to saltwater intrusion from San Francisco Bay into the Delta. This caused water shortages for Delta farms, and led to a teredo infestation between 1919 and 1924 destroying piers and ships in Suisun Bay. In a bid to solve the salinity problem, local residents proposed constructing a barrage across the mouth of Suisun Bay. In 1919 a different solution came in the form of the Marshall Plan and it proposed a large dam across the Sacramento River just downstream of its confluence with the Pit River near the copper mining town of Kennett, several hundred miles to the north of the Delta. The dam would store water for release during the dry months when the Delta was most vulnerable to saltwater intrusion, with the added benefit of controlling floods in the winter. The Marshall Plan was not widely supported due to its high cost, however, the state of California continued to search for a solution. In 1931, State Engineer Edward Hyatt published a similar but less extensive proposal called the State Water Plan, initially, the state of California intended to finance the project entirely on its own through the sale of revenue bonds. The project was approved in the legislature by a slim margin, mostly riding on Central and Northern California voters. Southern California generally opposed the project because they needed money to build an aqueduct to the Colorado River, in 1933, the state authorized the sale of bonds to fund the Central Valley Project, whose main component was to be Shasta Dam. Unable to raise the money, California turned to the federal government for help
45.
Shepherd
–
A shepherd /ˈʃɛpərd/ or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards herds of sheep. Shepherd derives from Old English sceaphierde, shepherding is among the oldest occupations, beginning some 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor. Sheep were kept for their milk, meat and especially their wool, over the next thousand years, sheep and shepherding spread throughout Eurasia. Some sheep were integrated in the farm along with other animals such as chickens. To maintain a large flock, the sheep must be able to move from pasture to pasture and this required the development of an occupation separate from that of the farmer. The duty of shepherds was to keep their flock intact, protect it from predators, in ancient times, shepherds also commonly milked their sheep, and made cheese from this milk, few shepherds still do this today. In many societies, shepherds were an important part of the economy, unlike farmers, shepherds were often wage earners, being paid to watch the sheep of others. Shepherds also lived apart from society, being largely nomadic and it was mainly a job of solitary males without children, and new shepherds thus needed to be recruited externally. Shepherds were most often the sons of farming peasants who did not inherit any land. Shepherds would normally work in groups either looking after one large flock, or each bringing their own and they would live in small cabins, often shared with their sheep, and would buy food from local communities. Less often shepherds lived in covered wagons that traveled with their flocks, shepherding developed only in certain areas. In the lowlands and river valleys, it was far more efficient to grow grain and cereals than to allow sheep to graze, thus the raising of sheep was confined to rugged and mountainous areas. In pre-modern times shepherding was thus centered on such as the Middle East, Greece, the Pyrenees, the Carpathian Mountains. The shepherds crook is a strong multi-purpose stick or staff, often fashioned with a hooked end, in modern times, shepherding has changed dramatically. The abolition of common lands in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth century moved shepherding from independent nomads to employees of massive estates. Some families in Africa and Asia have their wealth in sheep, in the USA, many sheep herds are flocked over public BLM lands. Wages are higher than was the case in the past, keeping a shepherd in constant attendance can be costly. Also, the eradication of sheep predators in parts of the world have lessened the need for shepherds, in places like Britain, hardy breeds of sheep are frequently left alone without a shepherd for long periods of time
46.
Japanese American internment
–
62 percent of the internees were United States citizens. These actions were ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after Imperial Japans attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U. S. who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150, 000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, the internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with one drop of Japanese blood were placed in internment camps. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U. S. mainland were relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans, the Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsus appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders and he appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate the camps. The Commissions report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors, the legislation admitted that government actions were based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The U. S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs. Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,112,000 resided on the West Coast, about 80,000 were nisei and sansei. The rest were issei immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U. S. citizenship under U. S. law, from 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U. S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast, most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the US to join their husbands, the practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U. S. resulted in a large increase in the number of picture brides. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and they lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century, the Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other undesirable Asian countries
47.
Snake handling
–
The practice began in the early 20th century in Appalachia and plays only a small part in the church service. They shall take up serpents, and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them, they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall recover. Behold, I give unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the enemy, and nothing shall by any means hurt you. And the barbarous people shewed us no little kindness, for they kindled a fire, and received us every one, because of the present rain, and because of the cold. And when Paul had gathered a bundle of sticks, and laid them on the fire, there came a viper out of the heat, and he shook off the beast into the fire, and felt no harm. Kimbrough notes that claims of Hensley being the originator of snake handling are usually found to be unsubstantiated by research, and the origins of the observance are unclear. Hood and Williamson similarly argue that the beginnings of Pentecostal snake handling rites cannot be ascribed to a person. The media has focused on popular snake handlers such as Hensley, and he later traveled the Southeast promoting the practice, eventually resigning his ministry to start the first holiness movement church to require snake handling as evidence of salvation. If believers truly had the Holy Spirit within them, Hensley argued, they should be able to handle rattlesnakes and they should also be able to drink poison and suffer no harm whatsoever. Snake handling as a test or demonstration of faith became popular wherever Hensley traveled and preached in the towns of Tennessee, Kentucky, the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio. Sister-churches later sprang up throughout the Appalachian region, in July 1955, Hensley died following a snakebite received during a service he was conducting in Altha, Florida. Hensleys life was unusual for a clergyman and he had four wives and was frequently drunk. Practitioners of snake handling continue to view him as a great man, kimbrough recorded a discussion with an advocate of snake handling who dismissed Hensleys personal failings as slanderous fabrications. His advocacy, leadership, and – in particular – his personal charisma were important factors in the advancement of the movement, in 2001, about 40 small churches practiced snake handling, most of them considered to be holiness-Pentecostals or charismatics. In 2004, there were four snake handling congregations in the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, a 2013 article by National Public Radio gave a figure of about 125 churches where snakes are handled, but also indicated that snake handlers are notoriously private. As in the days, worshipers are still encouraged to lay hands on the sick, speak in tongues, provide testimony of miracles. Snake handlers do not worship snakes, instead using the snakes to show non-Christians that God protects them from harm. In church services, when they feel the anointing of the Holy Spirit come upon them, these Christians reach into boxes, pick up venomous snakes and hold them up as they pray, sing, most preach against any use of tobacco or alcohol
48.
Denver Post
–
The Denver Post is a daily newspaper that has been published in Denver, Colorado, United States, since 1892. The Post is the newspaper of MediaNews Group Inc. founded in 1983 by William Dean Singleton. MediaNews is today one of the nations largest newspaper chains, publisher of 61 daily newspapers, MediaNews bought The Denver Post from the Times Mirror Co. on Dec.1,1987. Times Mirror had bought the paper from the heirs of founder Frederick Gilmer Bonfils in 1980, as the major newspaper in Denver, the Post ranks 12th daily and 10th Sunday of the largest-circulation newspapers in the United States. As of March 2016, it has a weekday circulation of 1.2 million. The Denver Post receives roughly six million unique visitors generating more than 13 million page views. In August 1892, The Evening Post was founded by supporters of Grover Cleveland with $50,000 and it was a Democratic paper used to publicize political ideals and stem the number of Colorado Democrats leaving the party. Cleveland had been nominated for president because of his reputation for honest government, however, Cleveland and eastern Democrats opposed government purchase of silver, Colorados most important product, which made Cleveland unpopular in the state. Following the bust of silver prices in 1893, the country and Colorado went into a depression, a new group of owners with similar political ambitions raised $100,000 and resurrected the paper in June 1894. Neither had newspaper experience, but they were adept at the business of promotion, through the use of sensationalism, editorialism, and flamboyant circus journalism, a new era began for The Post. Circulation grew and eventually passed the three daily papers combined. On November 3,1895 the papers changed to Denver Evening Post. On January 1,1901 the word Evening was dropped from the name, among well-known Post reporters were Gene Fowler and sob sister Polly Pry. Damon Runyon worked briefly for The Post in 1905–06 before gaining fame as a writer in New York, after the deaths of Tammen and Bonfils in 1924 and 1933, Helen and May Bonfils, Bonfils daughters, became the principal owners of The Post. In 1946, The Post hired Palmer Hoyt away from the Portland Oregonian to become editor and publisher of the Post, with Hoyt in charge, news was reported fairly and accurately. He took editorial comment out of the stories and put it on an editorial page and he called the page The Open Forum and it continues today. In 1960 there was an attempt by publishing mogul Samuel I. Newhouse. Helen Bonfils brought in her friend and lawyer Donald Seawell to save the paper, the fight led to a series of lawsuits as Post management struggled to maintain local ownership
49.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
