1.
Gyumri
–
Gyumri is the second largest city in Armenia and the capital of the Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th century, when the city was known as Alexandropol and it was renamed to Leninakan during the Soviet period. The citys population grew above 200,000 prior to the 1988 Spitak earthquake, as of the 2011 census, the city had a population of 121,976, down from 150,917 reported at the 2001 census. Archaeological excavations conducted throughout the Soviet period have shown that the area of modern-day Gyumri has been populated since at least the third millennium BC, the area was mentioned as Kumayri in the historic Urartian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BC. In 720 BC, the Cimmerians conquered the region and probably founded the Kumayri settlement, historians believe that Xenophon passed through Kumayri during his return to the Black Sea, a journey immortalized in his Anabasis. At the decline of the Urartu Kingdom by the half of the 6th century BC. However, at the beginning of the 5th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Satrapy of Armenia under the rule of the Orontids. An alternative theory suggests that Kumayri has been formed as a settlement in the late 5th century BC, ca.401 BC. Later in 331 BC, the territory was included in the Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenian Kingdom as part of the Shirak canton. Between 190 BC and 1 AD Kumayri was under the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia, during the 1st century AD, Shirak was granted to the Kamsarakan family, who ruled over Kumayri during the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia. In 658 AD, at the height of the Arab Islamic invasions, Kumayri was a significant and quite-developed urban settlement during the Middle Ages. According to the Armenian scholar Ghevond the Historian, the town was a centre of the Armenian rebellion led by Artavazd Mamikonian against the Islamic Arab Caliphate, after 2 centuries of Islamic rule over Armenia, the Bagratids declared independence in 885 establishing the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia. Kumayri entered e new era of growth and progress, particularly when the city of Ani became the capital of the kingdom in 961. By the second half of the 10th century, Kumayri was under the influence of the Armenian Pahlavuni family, the Pahlavunis had a great contribution in the progress of Shirak with the foundation of many fortresses, monastic complexes, educational institutions, etc. After the fall of Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045, during the Zakarid rule, the Eaastern Armenian territories, mainly Lori and Shirak, entered into a new period of growth and stability, becoming a trade centre between the east and the west. After the Mongols captured Ani in 1236, Armenia turned into a Mongol protectorate as part of the Ilkhanate, and the Zakarids became vassals to the Mongols. After the fall of the Ilkhanate in the century, the Zakarid princes ruled over Lori, Shirak. By the last quarter of the 14th century, the Ag Qoyunlu Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, in 1400, Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia, and captured more than 60,000 of the survived local people as slaves
2.
Armenia
–
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a sovereign state in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. The Republic of Armenia constitutes only one-tenth of historical Armenia, Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia, in the 1st century BC the Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great. Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in between the late 3rd century to early years of the 4th century, the state became the first Christian nation. The official date of adoption of Christianity is 301 AD. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century, under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century. Declining due to the wars against the Byzantines, the fell in 1045. An Armenian principality and later a kingdom Cilician Armenia was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, during World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, in 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the worlds oldest national church, as the countrys primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD, Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which was proclaimed in 1991, the native Armenian name for the country is Հայք. The name in the Middle Ages was extended to Հայաստան, by addition of the Persian suffix -stan, the further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription as Armina, the ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία and Ἀρμένιοι are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus. Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a descendant of Hayk
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Division (military)
–
A division is a large military unit or formation, usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. Infantry divisions during the World Wars ranged between 10,000 and 30,000 in nominal strength, in most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, in turn, several divisions typically make up a corps. In the West, the first general to think of organising an army into smaller units was Maurice de Saxe, Marshal General of France. He died at the age of 54, without having implemented his idea, victor-François de Broglie put the ideas into practice. He conducted successful practical experiments of the system in the Seven Years War. The first war in which the system was used systematically was the French Revolutionary War. It made the more flexible and easy to manoeuvre. Under Napoleon, the divisions were grouped together into corps, because of their increasing size, napoleons military success spread the divisional and corps system all over Europe, by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, all armies in Europe had adopted it. In modern times, most military forces have standardized their divisional structures, the peak use of the division as the primary combat unit occurred during World War II, when the belligerents deployed over a thousand divisions. With technological advances since then, the power of each division has increased. Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with support units to allow independent operations. In more recent times, divisions have mainly been organized as combined arms units with subordinate units representing various combat arms, in this case, the division often retains the name of a more specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II, in general, two new types of cavalry were developed, air cavalry or airmobile, relying on helicopter mobility, and armored cavalry, based on an autonomous armored formation. The former was pioneered by the 11th Air Assault Division, formed on 1 February 1963 at Fort Benning, on 29 June 1965 the division was renamed as the 1st Cavalry Division, before its departure for the Vietnam War. After the end of the Vietnam War, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganised and re-equipped with tanks, the development of the tank during World War I prompted some nations to experiment with forming them into division-size units. Many did this the way as they did cavalry divisions, by merely replacing cavalry with AFVs. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units had many tanks, instead, a more balanced approach was taken by adjusting the number of tank, infantry, artillery, and support units. A panzer division was a division of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS of Germany during World War II
5.
Russia
–
Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
6.
Polkovnik
–
This article is about the OF-5 rank Polkovnik in mostly Slavophone countries. For the equivalent rank in Anglophone armed forces see Colonel, in Austria, Polkovnik is a military rank in Slavic countries mostly which corresponds to a colonel in English-speaking states, and oberst in several German-speaking and Scandinavian countries. The term originates from an ancient Slavic word for a group of soldiers, however, in Cossack Hetmanate and Slobozhanshchyna, polkovnyk was an administrative rank similar to a governor. Usually this word is translated as colonel, however the transliteration is also in common usage, Polkovnik began as a commander of a distinct group of troops, arranged for battle. The rank of polkovnik was also used in the Estonian army until 1924, the rank was legalized by Table of Ranks that placed it in the 6th grade as the second-top field officer, right under the brigadier. A promotion to the rank of polkovnik gave a privilege of hereditary nobility, the Red Army reintroduced the polkovnik rank in 1935, together with a number of other former Russian ranks, and it has been used in many ex-USSR countries, including Russia, to the present day. The Rank insignia to Polkovnik is as follows, Ranks and rank insignia of the Russian armed forces until 1917 Ranks and rank insignia of the Red Army 1935–1940, 1940–1943 Ranks and rank insignia of the Soviet Army 1943–1955, and. By the end of the 17th century, the title of the assignment became a de facto rank as such and started to denote the commanding officer of the entire regiment. During the rule of Sanacja in the period between World War I and World War II, a number of officers were promoted to the rank. During the Invasion of Poland in 1939, the Polish divisions were commanded by officers of many grades, in fact 22 divisions out of 42 were commanded by colonels in 1939. The pułkownicy also commanded units of all sizes, from divisions down to mere battalions, in the 18th century, a polkovnyk was a leader of a palanka, a territorial unit of the Zaporozhian Host. The military council elected a palanka polkovnyk to serve for a term of one year and he represented the Kosh Otaman in the palanka and had significant powers, including the right to condemn Cossacks to the death penalty. At the time of liquidation of the Zaporozhian Host by the Russian government in 1775, as symbol of office a polkovnyk wore a pernach in his belt. In the Registered Cossack Army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th centuries, a polkovnyk commanded a regiment, after the reform of the Cossack army by hetman Mykhailo Doroshenko in the 1620s there were six Cossack regiments, each comprising one thousand Cossacks. Polkovnyks were elected by the Cossack Council subject to the approval of the Polish government, a polkovnyk obtained a salary for his service, and enjoyed considerable privileges. After the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted the Ordination of 1638, during Khmelnytsky Uprising and in the Cossack Hetmanate, a polkovnyk headed a territorial administrative unit, the regiment. In modern Ukraine, the rank of polkovnyk resembles the similar rank of the former Soviet Army. Історія України в особах, термінах, назвах і поняттях. -Луцьк, Вежа,2000
7.
Armenian language
–
The Armenian language is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenians. Like Hellenic Greek, it has its own branch in the language tree. It is the language of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. It has historically been spoken throughout the Armenian Highlands and today is spoken in the Armenian diaspora. Armenian has its own script, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots. Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages and it is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological developments within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups, Armenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest. Its language has a literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian, and to an extent by Greek, Persian. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible and he is also credited by some with the creation of the Caucasian Albanian alphabet. In The Anabasis, Xenophon describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. W. M. However, unlike shared innovations, the retention of archaisms is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two meant that Iranian and Armenian were the same language. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann used the method to distinguish two layers of Iranian loans from the older Armenian vocabulary. Meillets hypothesis became popular in the wake of his Esquisse, eric P. Hamp supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis, anticipating even a time when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian. Nevertheless, as Fortson comments, by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, graeco--Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-third millennium BC
8.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
9.
Transcaucasian Military District
–
The Transcaucasian Military District, a military district of the Soviet Armed Forces, traces its history to May 1921 and the incorporation of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia into the USSR. It was disbanded by being redesignated as a Group of Forces in the early 1990s after the Soviet Union collapse and it was originally formed from the Red Armys Separate Caucasian Army, which became the Red Banner Caucasian Army in August 1923. On 17 May 1935 the Red Banner Caucasus Army was redesignated the Transcaucasian Military District, the Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijani national formations, plus units from the 11th Soviet Red Army, all joined the new district about this time. On 1 August 1941 the 46th Army was formed from the 3rd Rifle Corps headquarters, 45th Army was formed from the 23rd Rifle Corps. 45th and 46th Armies guarded the Turkish border, the 44th Army was formed from the 40th Rifle Corps and the 47th Army formed from the 27th Mechanized Corps. Both armies were deployed on the Iranian border, on 23 August, the military district became the Transcaucasus Front. District headquarters was subordinated to the military council and directed the formation of new units. It was disbanded on 14 September 1941, on 28 January 1942, the military district was reformed when the Caucasian Front was divided into the Transcaucasian Military District and the Crimean Front. The district was commanded by Ivan Tyulenev and included the 45th and 46th Armies, as well as 4 rifle divisions, on 28 April 1942, the district became the second formation of the Transcaucasian Front. On 9 July 1945, the Tbilisi and Baku Military Districts were formed from the Transcaucasian Front, Tbilisi Military District Headquarters was based in Tbilisi and was formed from the Transcaucasian Front headquarters. The district controlled forces in the Georgian and Armenian SSRs, the district controlled forces in the Azerbaijan SSR and Dagestan ASSR. It was commanded by Colonel general Vladimir Kolpakchi, former 69th Army commander, in October 1945, Army General Ivan Maslennikov took command. On 15 November 1945, control of forces in the Nakhichevan ASSR was transferred from the Tbilisi Military District to the Baku Military District, lieutenant General Mikhail Ozimin became Tbilisi Military District commander in April 1946. In May 1946, both became part of the Transcaucasian Military District, commanded by Maslennikov. After the war the Transcaucasus Front reverted to being a part of the Headquarters Transcaucasus Military District, in 1979 Scott and Scott reported the District headquarters address as Tbilisi-4, Ulitsa Dzneladze, Dom 46. The District became part of the Southern Direction, headquartered in Baku and including the North Caucasus and Turkestan Military Districts, in the late 1970s, the equipment was partly handed over to Armenia - traditions, honors and awards were transferred to the 5209th Weapons and Equipment Storage Base. 127th Motor Rifle Division, Leninakan 164th Motor Rifle Division, Yerevan - disbanded June 1992 and it was made up of 2 aviation divisions and six independent aviation regiments. On 26 September 1992 the district was disbanded, according to Michael Holm, another, earlier report said on 1 January 1993, the District became the Group of Russian Forces in the Transcaucasus
10.
7th Guards Army (Soviet Union)
–
The Red Armys 7th Guards Army was re-designated from the Soviet 64th Army on April 16,1943. Shumilov, who had commanded the 64th Army, continued to command 7th Guards Army through the rest of the war and it included the 15th, 36th, 72nd, 73rd, 78th and 81st Guards Rifle Divisions, which were incorporated in the 24th and 25th Guards Rifle Corps. As part of the Voronezh Front and the Steppe Front since July 18,1943, the Army participated in the Battle of Kursk and the Battle for the Dnieper River from July through August,1943. Subsequently, as part of the 2nd Ukrainian Front, it participated in the Kirovograd Offensive, and those of Uman and Botoşani, Iassy-Kishinev, Debrecen, Budapest, Bratislava and Brno, and Prague. The 7th Guards Army was stationed in Austria as part of the Central Group of Forces briefly after the war, on 1 May 1945 it comprised 23rd Rifle Corps, 25th Guards Rifle Corps, and 27th Guards Rifle Corps. In 1946 it comprised three rifle corps totaling nine divisions, and that year General Ivan Fedyuninsky took command for a period, in early 1990 the division was transferred to the Soviet Border Troops of the KGB, and Rokhlin was promoted to major-general in February of the same year. Later the division was transferred to the Azerbaijani Army, but to the representatives of the Nakhichivan government rather than authorities from the Azerbaijani Ministry of Defence, the 7th Guards Army was disbanded on 14 August 1992, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. General Lieutenant Fyodor Reut was among the Armys last commanders, most of the formations disbanded/dissolved, among them the 15th MRD, whose equipment were partly handed over to Armenia when it disbanded in 1992. The 15th MRDs traditions, honors and awards were transferred to the 5209th Weapons, the 127th MRD later became the Russian 102nd Military Base. From Volga up to Prague, Moscow,1966 Shumilov, M. Guardsmen, in the book Kursk Fight, 3rd edition, Narod. ru 7th Guards Army Narod. ru 64th Army
11.
Yerevan
–
Yerevan is the capital and largest city of Armenia as well as one of the worlds oldest continuously inhabited cities. Situated along the Hrazdan River, Yerevan is the administrative, cultural and it has been the capital since 1918, the thirteenth in the history of Armenia, and the seventh located in or around the Ararat plain. The history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, Erebuni was designed as a great administrative and religious centre, a fully royal capital. During the centuries long Iranian rule over Eastern Armenia that lasted from the early 16th century up to 1828, in 1828, it became part of Imperial Russia alongside the rest of Eastern Armenia which conquered it from Iran through the Russo-Persian War between 1826 and 1828. After World War I, Yerevan became the capital of the First Republic of Armenia as thousands of survivors of the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire settled in the area, the city expanded rapidly during the 20th century as Armenia became part of the Soviet Union. As of 2011, the population of Yerevan was 1,060,138, according to the official estimate of 2016, the current population of the city is 1,073,700. Yerevan was named the 2012 World Book Capital by UNESCO, Yerevan is an associate member of Eurocities. One theory regarding the origin of Yerevans name is the city was named after the Armenian king, Yervand IV, the last leader of the Orontid Dynasty, and founder of the city of Yervandashat. However, it is likely that the name is derived from the Urartian military fortress of Erebuni. As elements of the Urartian language blended with that of the Armenian one, while looking in the direction of Yerevan, after the ark had landed on Mount Ararat and the flood waters had receded, Noah is believed to have exclaimed, Yerevats. In the late medieval and early periods, when Yerevan was under Turkic and later Persian rule. This name is widely used by Azerbaijanis. The city was known as Erivan under Russian rule during the 19th. The city was renamed back to Yerevan in 1936, up until the mid-1970s the citys name was spelled Erevan, more often than Yerevan, in English sources. The principal symbol of Yerevan is Mount Ararat, which is visible from any area in the capital, the seal of the city is a crowned lion on a pedestal with the inscription Yerevan. The lions head is turned backwards while it holds a scepter using the front leg. The symbol of eternity is on the breast of the lion with a picture of Ararat in the upper part, the emblem is a rectangular shield with a blue border. On 27 September 2004, Yerevan adopted an anthem, Erebuni-Yerevan, written by Paruyr Sevak and it was selected in a competition for a new anthem and new flag that would best represent the city
12.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
13.
Red Army
–
The Workers and Peasants Red Army was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution, the Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. The Red Army is credited as being the land force in the Allied victory in the European theatre of World War II. During operations on the Eastern Front, it fought 75%–80% of the German land forces deployed in the war, inflicting the vast majority of all German losses and ultimately capturing the German capital. In September 1917, Vladimir Lenin wrote, There is only one way to prevent the restoration of the police, at the time, the Imperial Russian Army had started to collapse. The Tsarist general Nikolay Dukhonin estimated that there had been 2 million deserters,1.8 million dead,5 million wounded and 2 million prisoners and he estimated the remaining troops as numbering 10 million. Therefore, the Council of Peoples Commissars decided to form the Red Army on 28 January 1918 and they envisioned a body formed from the class-conscious and best elements of the working classes. All citizens of the Russian republic aged 18 or older were eligible, in the event of an entire unit wanting to join the Red Army, a collective guarantee and the affirmative vote of all its members would be necessary. Because the Red Army was composed mainly of peasants, the families of those who served were guaranteed rations, some peasants who remained at home yearned to join the Army, men, along with some women, flooded the recruitment centres. If they were turned away they would collect scrap metal and prepare care-packages, in some cases the money they earned would go towards tanks for the Army. Nikolai Krylenko was the supreme commander-in-chief, with Aleksandr Myasnikyan as deputy, Nikolai Podvoisky became the commissar for war, Pavel Dybenko, commissar for the fleet. Proshyan, Samoisky, Steinberg were also specified as peoples commissars as well as Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich from the Bureau of Commissars, at a joint meeting of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, held on 22 February 1918, Krylenko remarked, We have no army. The Red Guard units are brushed aside like flies and we have no power to stay the enemy, only an immediate signing of the peace treaty will save us from destruction. This provoked the insurrection of General Alexey Maximovich Kaledins Volunteer Army in the River Don region, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk aggravated Russian internal politics. The situation encouraged direct Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, a series of engagements resulted, involving, amongst others, the Czechoslovak Legion, the Polish 5th Rifle Division, and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian Riflemen. The Whites defeated the Red Army on each front, Leon Trotsky reformed and counterattacked, the Red Army repelled Admiral Kolchaks army in June, and the armies of General Denikin and General Yudenich in October. By mid-November the White armies were all almost completely exhausted, in January 1920, Budennys First Cavalry Army entered Rostov-on-Don. 1919 to 1923 At the wars start, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments, Civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, removing Russia from the Great War
14.
Berdiansk
–
Berdyansk, or Berdiansk is a port city in the Zaporizhia Oblast of south-east Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Sea of Azov and it serves as an administrative center of Berdyansk Raion, though it does not belong to the region. The city is named after the river Berda forming Berdyanskaya spit at the foot of which it is located. Berdyansk is an attractive place, home to a safari zoo, water park, museums, health resorts with mud baths and climatic treatments. The neighboring settlement was known as Berdy, the city name changed to Novo-Nogaisk in 1830. The present name was given to the city in 1841 by special decree of Nicholas I, between 1939 and 1958 the city was known as Osipenko, so named after Hero of the Soviet Union Polina Osipenko. This name has now given to the nearby village Osipenko where Polina Osipenko was born. In 1824, Count Mikhail Vorontsov, Governor General of the Caucasus Viceroyalty and its task was to find a place to build a new seaport to assist in the defence of Russias southern borders. In the autumn of 1824 Captain Kritsky, the supervisor, reported on several prospective sites. In an official report to Vorontsov, Kritsky wrote, the quality of Berdyansk Spit surpasses that of Obitochnaya Spit, you can build a landing stage and port on it unless you concede to Sevastopol. On November 3,1827, the act was issued separating land for the city and the pier,1827 is officially considered the year of foundation of Berdyansk. The marina opening ceremony took place on July, 1st,1830, the new port authority quickly grew and Berdyansk was granted city status in 1835. In 1838, the Nizhneberdiansky beacon was built and it is a 23-metre octahedral whitestone tower with an orange stripe in the middle. The beacon fires protected sailing ships and was first seen in 1840, almost half a century later, in 1883, the oil lamps were replaced by electric lights. The old beacon was refurbished and upgraded with newer equipment and it remains on watch, lighting the way for ships along the nearby coast. 1842 Berdyansk became the district center, on January 31,1845, the first Berdyansk coat of arms was created. At the top, on a field, is a silver Nogays nomadic tent together with a black plow. In the bottom part, on a field, sits a black anchor to symbolize the districts affinity with the sea
15.
Odessa Military District
–
It was reorganized as part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the Military of Moldova in 1992. In 1998 most of its territory was transformed into the Southern Operational Command and it was the second of two districts on the territory of the future Ukraine, the other being Kiev Military District. OVO existed from 1862 -1918 as part of the Imperial Russian Armed Forces and it encompassed the territories of Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, Tauride, Bessarabia guberniyas. The district bordered Kingdom of Romania, Kiev Military District, Don Voisko Oblast, in the 1870s and 1880s the Commander of the district served as the interim Governor General of Odessa city concurrently. In January 1918 the Odessa Military District headquarters was transformed into the headquarters of the Soviet Romanian Front under the jurisdiction of Rumcherod, with the establishment of the Ukrainian government on its territory, it was terminated. OVO was reinstated as the Ukrainian forces were pushed out the area in April to August 1919, the district was reformed by the decision of October 11,1939 specifically for the occupation of Bessarabia after the Soviet Union signed Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. At that time its territory included the newly created Moldovian SSR, six oblasts of the Ukrainian SSR, by directives OV/583 and OV/584 of the Soviet Peoples Commissariat of Defense, units of the Odessa Military District, currently commanded by Mjr. Boldin, were ordered into battle ready state in the spring of 1940, Soviet troop concentrations along the Romanian border took place between April 15 and June 10,1940. The Southern Front had 32 infantry divisions,2 motorized infantry divisions,6 cavalry divisions,11 tank brigades,3 paratrooper brigades,30 artillery regiments, the first plan was prepared for the case that Romania would not accept to evacuate Bessarabia and Bukovina. The Soviet 12th Army was supposed in such a situation to strike Southward along the Prut river towards Iaşi, the target of this plan was to surround the Romanian troops in the Bălţi-Iaşi area. The second plan took into consideration the case that Romania would succumb to Soviet demands, in such a situation, Soviet troops were given the mission to reach quickly the Prut river, and take charge of the evacuation process of the Romanian troops. The first plan was taken as the basis of action, along the portions where the offensive was supposed to take place, Soviets prepared to have at least a triple superiority of men and means. On September 10,1941 the district was abolished as it was overran by the Armed Forces of Nazi Germany, the District was reformed on April 23,1944 with its headquarters at Kirovohrad, which in October 1944 relocated to Odessa. In 1948, 4th Guards Army, with 10th Guards Rifle Corps and 24th Guards Rifle Corps, 82nd Rifle Corps existed until 13 June 1955, when it was renamed 25th Rifle Corps, and 25.6.57 it was renamed 25th Army Corps. HQ in Nikolayev with the 28th Guards Motor Rifle Division, 34th gv. MSD, in May 1955 the districts forces included the 10th Guards Rifle Corps, 25th Rifle Corps and 32nd Rifle Corps, and the 48th, and 66th Guards Rifle Divisions. In May 1957 the 20th Rifle Division became the 93rd Motor Rifle Division, in 1960 the 113th Guards Motor Rifle Division and 95th Motor Rifle Division were disbanded. From September 1984 the District came under command of the South-Western Strategic Direction, the Odessa Military District was transferred to the jurisdiction of Ukraine after the dissolution of the Soviet Union on January 3,1992 at 18,00. William E. Odom says that in accordance with the Minsk agreements, Shaposhnikov sent an order on 3 January 1992, president Kravchuk then approved the firing of the three military district commanders
16.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
17.
Leninakan
–
Gyumri is the second largest city in Armenia and the capital of the Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th century, when the city was known as Alexandropol and it was renamed to Leninakan during the Soviet period. The citys population grew above 200,000 prior to the 1988 Spitak earthquake, as of the 2011 census, the city had a population of 121,976, down from 150,917 reported at the 2001 census. Archaeological excavations conducted throughout the Soviet period have shown that the area of modern-day Gyumri has been populated since at least the third millennium BC, the area was mentioned as Kumayri in the historic Urartian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BC. In 720 BC, the Cimmerians conquered the region and probably founded the Kumayri settlement, historians believe that Xenophon passed through Kumayri during his return to the Black Sea, a journey immortalized in his Anabasis. At the decline of the Urartu Kingdom by the half of the 6th century BC. However, at the beginning of the 5th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Satrapy of Armenia under the rule of the Orontids. An alternative theory suggests that Kumayri has been formed as a settlement in the late 5th century BC, ca.401 BC. Later in 331 BC, the territory was included in the Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenian Kingdom as part of the Shirak canton. Between 190 BC and 1 AD Kumayri was under the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia, during the 1st century AD, Shirak was granted to the Kamsarakan family, who ruled over Kumayri during the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia. In 658 AD, at the height of the Arab Islamic invasions, Kumayri was a significant and quite-developed urban settlement during the Middle Ages. According to the Armenian scholar Ghevond the Historian, the town was a centre of the Armenian rebellion led by Artavazd Mamikonian against the Islamic Arab Caliphate, after 2 centuries of Islamic rule over Armenia, the Bagratids declared independence in 885 establishing the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia. Kumayri entered e new era of growth and progress, particularly when the city of Ani became the capital of the kingdom in 961. By the second half of the 10th century, Kumayri was under the influence of the Armenian Pahlavuni family, the Pahlavunis had a great contribution in the progress of Shirak with the foundation of many fortresses, monastic complexes, educational institutions, etc. After the fall of Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045, during the Zakarid rule, the Eaastern Armenian territories, mainly Lori and Shirak, entered into a new period of growth and stability, becoming a trade centre between the east and the west. After the Mongols captured Ani in 1236, Armenia turned into a Mongol protectorate as part of the Ilkhanate, and the Zakarids became vassals to the Mongols. After the fall of the Ilkhanate in the century, the Zakarid princes ruled over Lori, Shirak. By the last quarter of the 14th century, the Ag Qoyunlu Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, in 1400, Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia, and captured more than 60,000 of the survived local people as slaves
18.
Russian Ground Forces
–
The Ground Forces of the Russian Federation are the land forces of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, formed from parts of the collapsing Soviet Army in 1992. The formation of these forces posed economic challenges after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the primary responsibilities of the Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, the security of occupied territories, and the defeat of enemy troops. The Ground Forces must be able to achieve goals both in nuclear war and non-nuclear war, especially without the use of weapons of mass destruction. Furthermore, they must be capable of protecting the interests of Russia within the framework of its international obligations. The Main Command of the Ground Forces is officially tasked with the objectives, The training of troops for combat. The improvement of troops structure and composition, and the optimization of their numbers, the development of military theory and practice. The development and introduction of training manuals, tactics. The improvement of operational and combat training of the Ground Forces, the newly re-emergent Russia retained most of the ranks of the Soviet Army, with some minor changes. The principal difference from the usual Western style is some variation in generals rank titles—in at least one case, Colonel General, the gallery below shows a selection of insignia, common to the Ground Forces – LF. As the Soviet Union dissolved, efforts were made to keep the Soviet Armed Forces as a military structure for the new Commonwealth of Independent States. The last Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed commander of the CIS Armed Forces in December 1991. Among the numerous treaties signed by the republics, in order to direct the transition period, was a temporary agreement on general purpose forces. Thirty-seven divisions had to be withdrawn from the four groups of forces and the Baltic States, some idea of the scale of the withdrawal can be gained from the division list. For the dissolving Soviet Ground Forces, the withdrawal from the former Warsaw Pact states and the Baltic states was a demanding, expensive. However, the facilities in those districts were inadequate to house the flood of personnel and equipment returning from abroad, the need for destruction and transfer of large amounts of weaponry under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe also necessitated great adjustments. The Ministry of Defence newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda published a plan on 21 July 1992. Later one commentator said it was put together by the General Staff to satisfy the public demand for radical changes. The General Staff, from that point, became a bastion of conservatism, the reform plan advocated a change from an Army-Division-Regiment structure to a Corps-Brigade arrangement
19.
Tank
–
A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle designed for front-line combat, with heavy firepower, strong armour, and tracks providing good battlefield maneuverability. The first tanks were designed to overcome the deadlock of trench warfare, now they are a mainstay of ground forces. Modern tanks are versatile mobile land weapon platforms, mounting a large-calibre cannon in a rotating gun turret. In both offensive and defensive roles, they are units that are capable of performing tasks which are required of armoured units on the battlefield. As a result of advances, tanks underwent tremendous shifts in capability in the years since their first appearance. Tanks in World War I were developed separately and simultaneously by Great Britain and this was a prototype of a new design that would become the British Armys Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The name tank was adopted by the British during the stages of their development. While the British and French built thousands of tanks in World War I, Germany was unconvinced of the tanks potential, Tanks of the interwar period evolved into the much larger and more powerful designs of World War II. Tanks in the Cold War were designed with these weapons in mind, improved engines, transmissions and suspensions allowed tanks of this period to grow larger. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design, during the Cold War, the main battle tank concept arose and became a key component of modern armies. Modern tanks seldom operate alone, as they are organized into combined arms units which involve the support of infantry and they are also usually supported by reconnaissance or ground-attack aircraft. The tank is the 20th century realization of an ancient concept, the internal combustion engine, armour plate, and continuous track were key innovations leading to the invention of the modern tank. Many sources imply that Leonardo da Vinci and H. G. Wells in some way foresaw or invented the tank, leonardos late 15th century drawings of what some describe as a tank show a man-powered, wheeled vehicle with cannons all around it. However the human crew would not have power to move it over larger distance. In the 15th century, Jan Žižka built armoured wagons containing cannons, the caterpillar track arose from attempts to improve the mobility of wheeled vehicles by spreading their weight, reducing ground pressure, and increasing their traction. Experiments can be traced back as far as the 17th century and it is frequently claimed that Richard Lovell Edgeworth created a caterpillar track. It is true that in 1770 he patented a machine, that should carry and lay down its own road and his own account in his autobiography is of a horse-drawn wooden carriage on eight retractable legs, capable of lifting itself over high walls. The description bears no similarity to a caterpillar track, armoured trains appeared in the mid-19th century, and various armoured steam and petrol-engined vehicles were also proposed
20.
Armoured personnel carrier
–
An armoured personnel carrier is a type of armoured fighting vehicle designed to transport infantry to the battlefield. APCs are colloquially referred to as taxis or battle buses. Armoured personnel carriers are distinguished from infantry fighting vehicles by the weaponry they carry, by convention, they are not intended to take part in direct-fire battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to provide protection from shrapnel and small arms fire. Examples include the American M113, the French VAB, the Dutch-German GTK Boxer, the genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, without infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented with carrying machine-gun crews in the Mark V* tank, britain therefore designed the first purpose built armoured troop transport, the Mark IX, but the war ended before it could be put to use. During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3 and German SdKfz 251 played a similar to post-war APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the full-tracked Universal Carrier, over the course of the war, APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity, to purpose built vehicles. Obsolete armoured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as the various Kangaroos converted from M7 Priest self-propelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart, during the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing them with newer APCs, the Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60 and BTR-80 remain in production, czechoslovakia and Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT-64 SKOT. A cold war example of a Kangaroo is the heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 dismountable troops, although some can carry more than 20, in addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many with a gunner and/or commander as well. An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a combination of the two, as in a half-track, both systems have advantages and limitations. Tracked vehicles have more traction off-road and more maneuverability, including a turn radius. Wheeled APCs are faster on road, can cross long distances, and are expensive to develop, produce. However, wheeled vehicles have higher pressure than tracked vehicles with a comparable weight. The higher ground pressure increases the likelihood of becoming immobilized by soft terrains such as mud and their tracks can propel the APC in the water
21.
Artillery
–
Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
22.
Mikoyan MiG-29
–
The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a twin-engine jet fighter aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. The MiG-29 entered service with the Soviet Air Force in 1982, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the militaries of a number of former Soviet republics have continued to operate the MiG-29, the largest of which is the Russian Air Force. The Russian Air Force wanted to upgrade its fleet to the modernised MiG-29SMT configuration. The MiG-29 has also been a popular aircraft, more than 30 nations either operate or have operated the aircraft to date. As of 2013, the MiG-29 is in production by Mikoyan, at the height of the Cold War, a Soviet response was necessary to avoid the possibility of a new American fighter gaining a serious technological advantage over existing Soviet fighters. Thus the development of a new air superiority became a priority. In 1969, the Soviet General Staff issued a requirement for a Perspektivnyy Frontovoy Istrebitel, specifications were extremely ambitious, calling for long range, good short-field performance, excellent agility, Mach 2+ speed, and heavy armament. The Russian aerodynamics institute TsAGI worked in collaboration with the Sukhoi design bureau on the aircrafts aerodynamics, by 1971, however, Soviet studies determined the need for different types of fighters. The PFI program was supplemented with the Perspektivnyy Lyogkiy Frontovoy Istrebitel program, PFI and LPFI paralleled the USAFs decision that created the Lightweight Fighter program and the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and Northrop YF-17. The PFI fighter was assigned to Sukhoi, resulting in the Sukhoi Su-27, detailed design work on the resultant Mikoyan Product 9, designated MiG-29A, began in 1974, with the first flight taking place on 6 October 1977. The workload split between TPFI and LPFI became more apparent as the MiG-29 filtered into front line service with the Soviet Air Forces in the mid-1980s, the Soviet Union did not assign official names to most of its aircraft, although nicknames were common. Total production was about 840 aircraft, in the 1980s, Mikoyan developed the improved MiG-29S to use longer range R-27E and R-77 air-to-air missiles. It added a hump to the upper fuselage to house a jamming system. The weapons load was increased to 4,000 kg with airframe strengthening and these features were included in new-built fighters and upgrades to older MiG-29s. In the post-Soviet era, MiG-29 development was influenced by the Mikoyan bureaus apparent lesser political clout than rival Sukhoi, Mikoyan had developed improved versions of the MiG-29, called MiG-29M/M2 and MiG-29SMT. On 15 April 2014, the Russian Air Force placed an order for a batch of 16 MiG-29 SMT fighters, there have been several upgrade programmes conducted for the MiG-29. Common upgrades include the adoption of NATO/ICAO standard-compatible avionics, service life extensions to 4,000 flight hours, safety enhancements, greater combat capabilities and reliability. In 2005, the Russian Aircraft Corporation “MiG” established a family of 4++ generation multirole fighters
23.
S-300 missile system
–
The S-300 is a series of initially Soviet and later Russian long range surface-to-air missile systems produced by NPO Almaz, based on the initial S-300P version. The S-300 system was developed to defend against aircraft and cruise missiles for the Soviet Air Defence Forces, subsequent variations were developed to intercept ballistic missiles. The system is automated, though manual observation and operation are also possible. Components may be near the command post, or as distant as 40 km. Each radar provides target designation for the command post. The command post compares the data received from the targeting radars up to 80 km apart, filtering false targets, the central command post features both active and passive target detection modes. The project-managing developer of the S-300 is Almaz-Antey, S-300 uses missiles developed by both MKB Fakel and NPO Novator design bureaus. The S-300 is regarded as one of the most potent anti-aircraft missile systems currently fielded, an evolved version of the S-300 system is the S-400, which entered limited service in 2004. The tests have completed in 1978 and 1983. There are currently three main variations, the S-300P is the original version of the S-300 system which became operational in 1978. In 1987, over 80 of these sites were active, mainly in the area around Moscow, the P suffix stand for PVO-Strany. An S-300PT unit consists of a 36D6 surveillance radar, a 30N6 fire control system, the 5P85-1 vehicle is a semi-trailer truck. Usually a 76N6 low altitude detection radar is also a part of the unit and this system broke substantial new ground, including the use of a passive electronically scanned array radar and multiple engagements on the same Fire-control system. It took over one hour to set up this system for firing. It was originally intended to fit the Track Via Missile guidance system onto this model, However, the TVM system had problems tracking targets below 500 m. Rather than accept the limitation, the Soviets decided that the tracking of low altitude targets was a must and this allowed the minimum engagement altitude to be set at 25 m. Improvements to the S-300P have resulted in several major subversions for both the internal and the export market, the S-300PT-1 and S-300PT-1A are incremental upgrades of the original S300PT system. They introduce the 5V55KD missile and the launch method thereafter employed
24.
89th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)
–
The 89th Infantry Rifle Division was a distinguished division in the Soviet Red Army during the Second World War. The division was primarily remembered for its formation, composed primarily of ethnic Armenians. The division was established at Kursk prior to June 1941, on 22 June 1941 it was part of 33rd Rifle Corps in the interior Orel Military District. Fighting as part of the 19th Army, it was wiped out at Vyazma in October 1941, the division was re-formed in December 1941 in the capital of the Armenian SSR, Yerevan, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It was a redesignation of the 474th Rifle Division, which was formed on 14 December 1941 and it published its own weekly Armenian-language newspaper called the Red Soldier. In August 1942, the 89th Division was dispatched toward the North Caucasus Front, as the Soviet armies shifted to the offensive during the winter of 1942-43, the 89th Division began its gradual advance toward the Crimea. The units advance picked up pace in the month, averaging about 30-40 kilometers a day as it approached the Sea of Azov. The Germans put up a resistance in the Crimea. In September 1943, the division was redeployed and ordered to attack the Axis defensive fortifications on the Taman Peninsula, the 89th distinguished itself in these two battles and was given the honorary title of Tamanskaya. On November 21, the 89th Division participated in the Kerch–Eltigen Operation, the unit landed near the settlements of Baksi and Adzhimushkay, not far from the Strait of Kerch, and held its position for five months despite withering Axis fire. Beginning in January 1944, it slowly made headway toward Kerch, in recognition of its efforts, on 24 April 1944 the division was awarded with the Order of the Red Star. In May 1944, the Soviet army began its offensive to retake Sevastopol, the 89th Division was given the objective of capturing the Gornaya Height, which would then open the way to Sevastopol. This was accomplished and the unit took part in Sevastopols. For the liberation of the Sevastopol the division was bestowed with the Order of the Red Banner, Senior Lieutenants Simeon K. Baghdasaryan and Khoren A. Khachaturyan, and Senior Sergeants Aydin Gh. Harutyunyan, Harutyun R. Mkrtchyan and Vardges A. Rostomyan were awarded with the Order of the Hero of Soviet Union, in October–September 1944, the division was transferred first to Brest and then deployed along the defensive line near Lublin. By now, the unit was referred to as the Little Armenian Land. With these routes secure, the Soviets now prepared for the capture of Berlin, on April 30 the division had encountered the twin four-story structures at Flakturm III at Humboldthain Park. Safaryan ordered that they be encircled, and brought his artillery to bear against the towers and had his sappers lay a thousand kilograms of explosives at the foundations
25.
Batumi
–
Batumi is the second largest city of Georgia, located on the coast of the Black Sea in the countrys southwest. Much of Batumis economy revolves around tourism and gambling, but the city is also an important sea port and includes industries like shipbuilding, food processing and light manufacturing. Since 2010, Batumi has been transformed by the construction of modern high-rise buildings, Batumi is located on the site of the ancient Greek colony in Colchis called Bathus or Bathys – derived from the Greek phrase βαθύς λιμεν bathus limen or βαθύς λιμήν bathys limin meaning deep harbor. Under Hadrian, it was converted into a fortified Roman port, from 1010, it was governed by the eristavi of the king of Georgia. In the late 15th century, after the disintegration of the Georgian kingdom, Batumi passed to the princes of Guria, de Thoisy was taken captive and released through the mediation of the emperor John IV of Trebizond. In the 15th century in the reign of the prince Kakhaber Gurieli and they returned to it in force a century later and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Georgian armies at Sokhoista. Batumi was recaptured by the Georgians several times, first in 1564 by prince Rostom Gurieli, who lost it soon afterwards, in 1723, Batumi again became part of the Ottoman Empire. It was the last Black Sea port annexed by Russia during the Russian conquest of that area of the Caucasus, in 1878, Batumi was annexed by the Russian Empire in accordance with the Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Occupied by the Russians on August 28,1878, the town was declared a port until 1886. It functioned as the center of a military district until being incorporated in the Government of Kutaisi on June 12,1883. Finally, on June 1,1903, with the Okrug of Artvin, it was established as the region of Batumi, the expansion of Batumi began in 1883 with the construction of the Batumi-Tiflis-Baku railway and the finishing of the Baku-Batumi pipeline. Henceforth, Batumi became the chief Russian oil port in the Black Sea, the town expanded to an extraordinary extent and the population increased rapidly, from 8,671 inhabitants in 1882 to 12,000 in 1889. By 1902 the population had reached 16,000, with 1,000 working in the refinery for Baron Rothschilds Caspian, in the late 1880s and after, more than 7400 Doukhobor emigrants sailed for Canada from Batumi, after the government agreed to let them emigrate. Canada settled them in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, during 1901, sixteen years prior to the October Revolution, Joseph Stalin, the future leader of the Soviet Union, lived in the city organizing strikes. Kemal Atatürk ceded the area to the Bolsheviks of the Soviet Union on the condition that it be granted autonomy, when the USSR collapsed in 1989, Aslan Abashidze was appointed head of Adjaras governing council and subsequently held onto power throughout the unrest of the 1990s. Whilst other regions, such as Abkhazia, attempted to break away from the Georgian state, Abashidze exploited the central governments weaknesses and ruled the area as a personal fiefdom. In May 2004, he fled to Russia because of protests in Tbilisi sparked by the Rose Revolution. Batumi today is one of the port cities of Georgia
26.
Akhalkalaki
–
Akhalkalaki is a town in Georgias southern region of Samtskhe-Javakheti. Akhalkalaki lies on the edge of the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, the city is located about 30 km from the border with Turkey. In 2002 over 90 percent of the population were ethnic Armenians. The city was passed from Ottomans to Russians after Russo-Turkish War, on January 4,1900, an earthquake destroyed much of the town and killed 1,000 people in the area. As of the 2014 census the town had a population of 8,295, in 1066 the city was destroyed during the Seljuq invasions of the Kingdom of Georgia. Akhalkalaki had alternated between Georgian and Armenian rule until it passed to the Georgian Bagratids in the 11th century, in 11th century Akhalkalaki became political and economical centre of Javakheti. In the 16th century the city came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, under the Ottoman rule, the town was known as Ahılkelek. The population was mainly Georgian but had converted to Islam by 1829. The city was passed from the Ottomans to the Russians after the Russo-Turkish War in 1828–1829, after this event most of the native Muslims left the area for the Ottoman Empire and in their place Christian Armenian refugees from Erzurum and Bayazid settled here. In 1887 there were 4303 inhabitants in Akhalkalaki, including Russians -61, Armenians —4080, Jews —63, according to Georgian encyclopedia, after the establishment of a Russian regime, Georgian Muslims were deported to Turkey and Armenians were settled down from the Vilayet of Erzurum. Since 1829 most native Georgian Muslims left and the area was resettled by Armenian refugees from the Ottoman Empire, Akhalkalaki is a predominantly Armenian populated city. According to the 2014 census the district had 45,070 inhabitants, in April 2005, an agreement was signed to build a new railway connecting Turkey with Georgia and Azerbaijan, passing through Akhalkalaki. This would bypass an existing line through Gyumri in Armenia which has closed by Turkey, blockading Armenia. It is here where the break-of-gauge will be, the city was a home to the Soviet-era 147th Motor Rifle Division up until the early 1990s. After the fall of the Soviet Union the Division became the Russian 62nd Military Base which was transferred, according to the Sochi agreement
27.
Georgia (country)
–
Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
28.
Commonwealth of Independent States
–
The Commonwealth of Independent States, also called the Russian Commonwealth, is a regional organization formed during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Nine out of the 15 former Soviet Republics are member states, Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008, while the Baltic states chose not to participate. The CIS has few supranational powers but aims to be more than a purely symbolic organization, nominally possessing coordinating powers in the realms of trade, finance, lawmaking and it has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention. Furthermore, eight of the nine CIS member states participate in the CIS Free Trade Area, three organizations are under the overview of the CIS, namely the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Eurasian Economic Union, and the Union State. While the first and the second are military and economic alliances, in March 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, proposed a federation by holding a referendum to preserve the Union as the Union of Sovereign States. The new treaty signing never happened as the Communist Party hardliners staged a coup in August that year. Following the events of August, the republics had declared their independence fearing another coup, at the same time they announced that the new alliance would be open to all republics of the former Soviet Union, and to other nations sharing the same goals. The CIS charter stated that all the members were sovereign and independent nations, Georgia joined two years later, in December 1993. At this point,12 of the 15 former Soviet Republics participated in the CIS, the three Baltic states did not, reflecting their governments view that the post-1940 Soviet occupation of their territory was illegitimate. In May 2009, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine joined the Eastern Partnership, there are nine full member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Creation Agreement remained the main constituent document of the CIS until January 1993, the charter formalised the concept of membership, a member country is defined as a country that ratifies the CIS Charter. Turkmenistan has not ratified the charter and changed its CIS standing to associate member as of 26 August 2005 in order to be consistent with its UN-recognised international neutrality status, thus it does not regard itself as a member of the CIS. In 1993 Ukraine became an Associate Member of CIS, following the 2014 parliamentary election, a new bill to denounce the CIS agreement was introduced. In September 2015 the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed Ukraine will continue taking part in CIS on a selective basis, since that month Ukraine has had no representatives in the CIS Executive Committee building. Since its inception, one of the goals of the CIS has been to provide a forum for discussing issues related to the social. To achieve this goal member states have agreed to promote and protect human rights, even before the 1995 human rights treaty, the Charter of the CIS that was adopted in 1991 created, in article 33, a Human Rights Commission sitting in Minsk, Belarus. This was confirmed by decision of the Council of Heads of States of the CIS in 1993, in 1995, the CIS adopted a human rights treaty that includes civil and political as well as social and economic human rights. This treaty entered force in 1998
29.
Armenian Air Force
–
The Armenian Air Force is the air arm formed by independent Armenia in 1992 in the wake of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It is organized and equipped principally to provide Armenian ground forces with air support in the form of ground attack. It provided effective support during the battles with Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh region from 1992–1994 and it currently lacks air superiority fighters, but air defense is provided by MiG-29s of the Russian Air Force under a military cooperation treaty. Since 2003, the Armenian government has been funding a modernization, the Azeris also claimed Armenian Mi-24 attack helicopters were employed in support of an assault on Shusha in February 1992. Azerbaijani helicopter gunships were used in fighting in the region. The armed helicopter came from the former 7th Guards Helicopter Regiment and were taken over in 1991, other aircraft reportedly taken over by the Armenians in 1991 include six An-2, one An-24 and one An-32 transports, as well as ten Yak-52 trainers. Territorial conflicts with Azerbaijan instigated an expansion of Armenia’s air and air defense forces in 1993–1994. The bulk of Armenia’s aviation-related investment, however, went to greatly strengthening the Armenian Air Defense organization, to help redress its relative military weaknesses compared to Azerbaijan and Turkey, on 16 March 1995 Armenia signed a treaty with Russia giving the latter a 25-year-long military presence in Armenia. A follow-on agreement defining terms and conditions was signed 27 September 1996 which authorized the establishment of Russian bases at Gyumri and Yerevan. Russian aviation forces in Armenia comprise 18 MiG-29 fighters of the 426th Fighter Squadron, Russian MiG-29s arrived in four separate batches, five on 16 December 1998, five on 26 February 1999, four more on 18 June and the final four on 22 October 1999. This serial deployment of Russian aircraft to their Armenian base was initially misinterpreted as deliveries to the Armenian Air Force, the Armenian Air Force experienced a major expansion and modernization in 2004–2005. It tripled its fixed-wing combat arm through the procurement of ten surplus Su-25 from Slovakia for a total of US$1 million in August 2004 and these twenty-year-old aircraft – which had not been flown for a decade and required work to re-certify their flightworthiness – were delivered in September 2005. The Su-25 receipt was also originally mis-reported as an acquisition of ten Su-27 air superiority fighters, also in 2004, Armenia received a pair of L-39C trainers from each of Russia and the Ukraine, as well as two Il-76 transports from Russia in May. Recently, there have been unverified reports that Armenia received up to ten Su-27 from Russia in 2006, ostensibly, these would have been procured on preferential terms under the provisions of the 2002 Collective Security Treaty Organization agreement. The first Armenian combat loss was suffered on 12 November 1992 when an Mi-24 gunship operating in support of the Armenians’ Martuni Offensive was shot down near the village of Kazakh. On 23 November two Mi-8 transports were hit by groundfire, downing one and seriously damaging another, another Mi-8 was lost on 30 December, the Armenian Air Force helped bring up reinforcements for a counterattack that began 7 January. The first day of action, the Armenian Air Force suffered its worst single-day losses with an Mi-8, Mi-24 and a Su-25 shot down. By the time the Azeri attack had been defeated at the end of the month, in late March 1993, the Armenians kicked off a new offensive in the north aimed at opening a second supply route from Armenia
30.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
31.
Russo-Georgian War
–
The Russo-Georgian War was a war between Georgia, Russia and the Russian-backed self-proclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The war took place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations between Russia and Georgia, both constituent republics of the Soviet Union. The fighting took place in the strategically important Transcaucasia region, which borders the Middle East and it was regarded as the first European war of the 21st century. The Republic of Georgia declared its independence in early 1991 as the Soviet Union began to fall apart, following the war, a joint peacekeeping force of Georgian, Russian, and Ossetian troops was stationed in the territory. Meanwhile, a stalemate developed in the region of Abkhazia. By August 1,2008, Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages, to put an end to these deadly attacks and restore order, the Georgian Army was sent to the South Ossetian conflict zone on 7 August. Georgians took control of most of Tskhinvali, a separatist stronghold, Georgia later stated it was also responding to Russia moving non-peacekeeping units into the country. Russia accused Georgia of aggression against South Ossetia, and launched a land, air. Russian and Ossetian forces battled Georgian forces in and around South Ossetia for several days, Russian and Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge held by Georgia. Russian naval forces blockaded part of the Georgian coast and this was the first war in history in which cyber warfare coincided with military action. An active information war was waged during and after the conflict. President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated an agreement on 12 August. Russian forces temporarily occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti, the South Ossetians destroyed most ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia and were responsible for an ethnic cleansing of Georgians. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August, in response, Russia mostly completed its withdrawal of troops from Georgia proper on 8 October. In the aftermath, Russias international relations were largely unharmed, the war displaced 192,000 people and while many returned to their homes after the war,20,272 people remained displaced as of 2014. Russia has, since the war, occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia in violation of the agreement of August 2008. In the tenth century AD, Georgia for the first time emerged as a concept in the territories where the Georgian language was used to perform Christian rituals. After the Mongol invasions of the region, the Kingdom of Georgia eventually was broken up into several kingdoms, in the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire gradually annexed the Georgian lands
32.
2015 Gyumri massacre
–
The 2015 Gyumri massacre was a mass murder of seven members of the Armenian Avetisyan family in Gyumri, Armenia, on January 12,2015. Spontaneous demonstrations in Gyumri and Yerevan ensued, demanding that Permyakov be tried, perceived inadequate government response further triggered public outrage in Armenia in early 2015 following the incident. In August 2016, Permyakov was sentenced to life on charges of murder by an Armenian court, the existence of a Russian military base in Armenia is controversial. Several incidents have occurred in the past involving the base, the two men were tried in Armenia, Popov was sentenced to 14 years in prison and Kamenev to 15. Whether or not the two served their terms in Armenia is unclear and little is known about this court’s investigation. In 2013, two children were killed by a mine on the field in the vicinity of the military base. The field was not fenced or given properly warning, but nonetheless the command of the military based never punished anyone, on January 12,2015, six people were found dead in Gyumri, Armenia. The Armenian Investigative Committee named Valery Permyakov, a Russian servicemen stationed at the Russian 102nd Military Base in Gyumri and he left a gun and his military uniform at the scene of the crime. The six victims were identified on the same day and they include a couple, their son and daughter-in-law, a 2-year-old granddaughter, and an unmarried daughter. The victims were, Seryozha Karapeti Avetisyan Hasmik Rafiki Avetisyan Aida Seryozhahi Avetisyan Armen Seryozhahi Avetisyan Araks Avetisyan Hasmik Armeni Avetisyan, Seryozha Armeni Avetisyan survived the attack and was taken to a local hospital in critical condition. The infant died of wounds on January 19 in a Yerevan hospital, the sole suspect is Valery Pavlovich Permyakov, a soldier of the Russian 102nd Military Base. His parents - Pavel Gennadievich and Maria Kuzminichna are Christians of Evangelical Faith and his father repairs refrigerators and is a pastor of Evangelical Christians in Zabaykalsky Krai. Valery has a brother and four sisters, his brother was convicted of murder or attempted murder. The family has relatives in the US, Valery Permyakov has completed 9 years of high school in the town of Baley in Zabaykalsky Krai. On 20 May 2014 he was drafted from Baley, on 3 December he was transferred from Chita to Gyumri, and served in a tank battalion. According to his colleagues, he gave the impression of a person and had no problems with the service. On January 13,2015, protest took place at the Russian embassy in Yerevan, protesters demanded the removal of the Russian military base from the territory of Armenia and the expulsion of the Russian ambassador. Residents of Gyumri also held a rally in the city’s central square
33.
T-72
–
The T-72 is a Soviet second-generation main battle tank that entered production in 1971. About 20,000 T-72 tanks were built, making it one of the most widely produced post–World War II tanks, the T-72 was widely exported and saw service in 40 countries and in numerous conflicts. The development of the T-72 was a result of the introduction of the T-64 tank. The T-64 was an ambitious project to build a competitive tank with a weight of not more than 36 tons under the direction of Alexander Morozov in Kharkov. To achieve that goal, the crew was reduced to three soldiers, saving the loader by introducing an automated loading system and this and other steps allowed a reduced weight, but caused problems when looking for a reliable engine to fit in the smaller hull. The production of the T-64 with a 115-mm gun began in 1964, problems with the first batch of T-64 tanks were centred on the 5TDF700 hp engine and the auto loading mechanism. The engine was unreliable, was difficult to repair and had a life span of only a World War 2-era tank engine. A strong lobby around designer Morozov advocated for the T-64 in Moscow, preventing rival developments, the 5TDF was too complex and its production twice as costly as the V-45 engine. In 1967, the Uralvagonzavod formed Section 520, which was to prepare the serial production of the T-64 for 1970. The team soon found out that the more powerful V-45 engine put a lot of stress on the fragile T-64 hull, a more stable solution had to be found. Under influence from Kharkov, the idea had been turned down by Moscow, but this construction, with its big, rubbercoated roadwheels now formed the basis for the mobilisation model of the T-64. Additional changes were made to the loading system, which also was taken from an earlier project. Ammunition, consisting of a projectile and a propellant charge was now stored horizontally on two levels, not vertically on one level like in the T-64. It was said to be more reliable than the T-64 autoloader, in 1964, two 125-mm guns of the D-81 type had been used to test their installation in the T-62, so the Ural plant was ready to adopt the 125-mm calibre for the T-64A as well. Uralvagonzavod produced the first prototype with a 125-mm gun and V-45K engine in 1968 as Object 172, after intensive comparative testing with the T-64A, Object 172 was re-engineered in 1970 to deal with some minor problems. However, being only a model, a serial production of Object 172 was not possible in peacetime. In an unclear political process decree number 326-113 was issued, which allowed the production of Object 172 in the Soviet Union from 1, January 1972 and freed Uralvagonzavod from the T-64A production. At least some technical documentation on the T-72 is known to have passed to the CIA by the Polish Colonel Ryszard Kuklinski between 1971 and 1982
34.
BMP development
–
The BMP series of infantry fighting vehicles were among the first production line Infantry Fighting Vehicles. Included in the series are the mainline BMPs, the airborne variant BMDs, BMP stands for Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty, meaning infantry fighting vehicle). They were initially developed in the 1960s in the Soviet Union, world War II began with the concepts of armored warfare relatively undeveloped, particularly the use of combined arms teams. Tank and infantry units were organized as separate units, which led to problems of command. As the war progressed the doctrine of combined arms became better refined, most of these vehicles were half-tracks. There were expedient measures, the infantry of the Red Army often rode on the top of tanks, in 1944 the Canadians introduced the practice of converting self-propelled guns and tanks to carry infantry - known as Kangaroos. The Kangaroo pointed the way forward, offering better armor than half-tracks. In the post-war era most armies started introducing fully tracked vehicles in the armored personnel carrier role, including the Soviet BTR-50, British FV432. These vehicles generally suffered in terms of range and speed, and many forces also adopted wheeled vehicles in addition to, the German Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30 was an exception as it carried a 20mm cannon for support of its infantry and against light vehicles. During the 1950s this mode of combat was increasingly questioned, unloading the infantry onto a battlefield that was assumed to be littered with chemical and nuclear poisons did not seem like a good idea. Further, while the APCs moved to and from combat the infantry section in the back had nothing to do, a claustrophobic environment where the men could not add to the fight. The Soviets were the second to adapt to new style of combat, issuing requirements and then introducing the BMP in the late 1960s. The requirement for the BMP was first drawn up in the late 1950s, the requirement stressed speed, good armament, and the ability for all squad members to fire from within the vehicle.30 IFV. Side armor should be capable of withstanding 7.62 mm armor-piercing bullets from a distance of 75 m, the requirements also included an NBC protection system, observation devices similar to those used in MBTs and a radio capable of communicating with unit commanders and tanks. The smoothbore gun and the ATGM launching system were to be mounted in a compact one-man turret from the Tula Instrument Engineering Design Bureau, the requirements were issued to the various design bureaus between 1959 and 1960. There was a question as to whether the BMP should be tracked or wheeled, the prototypes were, Obyekt 1200 from Bryansk Automobile Works,1964 - an 8-wheeled design, similar to the BTR-60PB APC. Like the said APC, the Obyekt 1200 prototype had an engine design which counted against it. It was eliminated because its cross-country ability was similarly mediocre to the said APC due to the overweight of the 8 x 8 chassis
35.
BMP-1
–
The BMP-1 is a Soviet amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle. BMP stands for Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty 1, meaning infantry fighting vehicle, the BMP-1 was the first mass-produced infantry fighting vehicle of USSR. It was called the M-1967, BMP and BMP-76PB by NATO before its designation was known. It would increase infantry squad mobility, provide support to them. The BMP-1 was first tested in combat in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, based on lessons learned from this conflict, and early experiences in the Soviet War in Afghanistan, a version with improved fighting qualities was developed, called the BMP-2. It was accepted into service in August 1980, in 1987, the BMP-3, a radically redesigned vehicle with a completely new weapon system, entered service in limited numbers with the Soviet Army. Existing APCs offered little or no protection from nuclear or chemical weapons. Furthermore, the infantry had to disembark to be able to use their weapons, the requirement for the BMP, which was first drawn up in the late 1950s, stressed speed, good armament, and the ability for all squad members to fire from within the vehicle. The armament had to direct support for dismounted infantry in the attack and defense. The vehicle needed to protect the crew from.50 cal machinegun fire and 20–23 mm caliber autocannons across the frontal arc, firepower consisted of the innovative combination of the 73 mm 2A28 Grom gun and a launcher for the 9M14 Malyutka anti-tank wire-guided missile. Requirements were issued to the design bureaus between 1959 and 1960. There was a question as to whether the BMP should be tracked or wheeled, so a number of configurations were explored. The tracked Obyekt 764 was chosen because its front-engine design provided a convenient, the original prototype was built in 1964, followed by the improved Obyekt 765 in 1965, which was accepted by the Army in 1966, under a designation BMP-1. A large number of variants of the BMP-1 were produced, with the most notable IFV variants being, BMP-2, MLI-84, the BMP went into production with the Soviet Army in 1966. The first series was produced until 1969 and it was replaced by the improved production model, the BMP-1, which was produced from 1969 until 1973. This, in turn, was replaced by the Obyekt 765 Sp3, a number of improvements were made to the reliability of the chassis, engine and transmission during mass production. The last version of the BMP-1 IFV, which was produced from 1979 to 1983, was armed with a more powerful ATGM launcher 9P135M-1 for the ATGM Konkurs/Fagot. Upgrades of the BMP-1 were performed by KMZ as well as by tank repair workshops of the Ministry of Defence during scheduled, more than 20,000 BMP-1s and vehicles based on it were built in the USSR
36.
BMP-1 variants
–
This is a complete list of variants and designations of the BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicle. It is sorted by country of origin, BMP – The original main prototype of the BMP-1 was developed by the design bureau of the Chelyabinsk Tractor Works and built in 1965. In comparison with Obyekt 765Sp1, Obyekt 764 was 4 mm higher, had a swimming speed of 10 km/h, a lower maximum range. The vehicle had a curved shock-absorber behind the first road wheel, to start production of the new vehicle, the design of the fighting and troop compartments were improved. Unlike the BMP-1, Obyekt 764 used a waterjet for swimming, Obyekt 764 also had a larger main fuel tank, while the BMP-1 had the main fuel tank reduced in size and partially placed under the troop compartment. Obyekt 765 – An improved Obyekt 764. Obyekt 765 was fitted with a location system for its eight passengers. It was developed in the mid-1960s and its turret was moved to the rear of the hull. It was also fitted with three additional 7.62 mm PKT general-purpose machine guns in ball mounts in the middle of the hull, BMP-1 – An early type with a shorter nose section and a larger angled plate at the top of the hull line. The two tool stowage boxes on the fenders were removed, the swim vanes were modified by reducing the number of vanes from seven to four and the fender profile was raised nearer to the horizontal. The fume extraction ports on the roof to the rear of the turret were moved outwards. The single torsion bar used to spring the rear roof troop hatches was replaced by a torsion bar system. The firing ports on the side were moved up into the armor plate and it was built from 1966 to 1969. It is sometimes known as the BMP-A by some Western sources. NATO gave it the designation BMP Model 1966. BMP-1 – The standard production version weighs 13 tonnes and it was built from 1969 to 1973. Vehicles produced from the mid-1970s had a hull with more space inside as well as a different shaped nose section which also made it 20 cm longer. The triangular air intake behind the turret was replaced by a circular telescopic snorkel which was raised when the vehicle was afloat. The roof hatches were also rearranged, the air intake located to the front left side of the drivers station was removed. To the left of the turret was a prominent NBC filter cover, NATO gave it the designation BMP Model 1970. BMP-1 – A slightly improved and 200 kg heavier version of Obyekt 765Sp2
37.
122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30)
–
The 122-mm howitzer D-30 is a Soviet howitzer that first entered service in the 1960s. It is a robust piece that focuses on the features of a towed field gun suitable for all conditions. The D-30 has a range of 15.4 kilometers. With its striking three-leg mounting, the D-30 can be traversed through 360 degrees. Although no longer manufactured in the nations of the former Soviet Union, the barrel assembly of the 2A18 gun is used by the 2S1 self-propelled howitzer. There are also Egyptian, Chinese, Serbian and Syrian self-propelled variants, the Syrian conversion utilizes the hull of a T-34 tank. The 122 mm calibre was adopted by Russia in the early 20th century, development of the D-30 began in the 1950s, as a replacement for the M-30 howitzer, widely used in divisional and regimental artilleries. The D-30 also replaced the remaining 76 mm M1942 guns in motor rifle regiments, military requirements that led to the D-30 can only be deduced. Its role supporting tank and motor rifle regiments, and Soviet doctrine from the Great Patriotic War, suggest that while indirect fire was the primary role, direct fire anti-tank was very important. The latter is evidenced by the very effective HEAT shell, the low silhouette of the piece, its wide and rapid top-traverse and its shield. The D-30 was designed by the established design bureau at Artillery Plant No 9 in Sverdlovsk. This team was responsible for designing the earlier M-30, the post-war 152 mm D-20 gun-howitzer, Soviet divisional artillery was assigned to manoeuvre regiments and as divisional troops. A RAG was normally three batteries, each of six pieces, to motor rifle and tank regiment. DAGs were mostly equipped with 152 mm pieces, but the DAG of a rifle division included a D-30 battalion. The role of an RAG was a field artillery role to support manoeuvre forces with indirect. The D-30 entered Soviet service in 1963 and is referred to as the M1963. In 1967, widespread introduction of self-propelled guns was authorised and the D-30s barrel, when the 2S1 entered service, it was usually assigned to tank regiments and motor rifle regiments equipped with BMP infantry fighting vehicles. D-30s were retained in motor rifle regiments equipped with BTR APCs, the D-30 has been widely exported and used in wars around the world, notably in the Middle East, and particularly in the Iran–Iraq War, a long-lasting war of attrition similar to World War I
38.
BTR-60
–
The BTR-60 is the first vehicle in a series of Soviet eight-wheeled armoured personnel carriers. It was developed in the late 1950s as a replacement for the BTR-152 and was seen in public for the first time in 1961. The BTR-152 and BTR-40, the first two Soviet mass-produced APCs developed after the Second World War, gave the Soviet Army useful experience with wheeled armoured personnel carriers. However, even as they were designed, they werent suited for the needs of the Soviet Army as they lacked a roof, the low combat values of the BTR-152 and BTR-40 were exposed when the Egyptian Army used them during the Suez Crisis. This was one of the reasons why the new APC was developed, between 1956 and 1957, a decision was made to convert all rifle and mechanized divisions into motor rifle divisions and a requirement for a new transport vehicle was drawn up. Two design bureaus were given the requirements, GAZ led by V. A. Dedkov, the vehicle was also supposed to be amphibious. The GAZ design team started to work on the new APC during the winter of 1956, despite the fact that the army wanted a fully roofed vehicle with NBC protection system, the GAZ design did not have those features. It was argued that firing from the interior would be difficult. The prototype was built between 1957 and 1958, ZiL developed a 6x6 design, the ZiL-153, similar in hull shape to the GAZ design. There were also three other 8x8 prototypes, Obyekt 560, Obyekt 1015, Obyekt 1015B and Obyekt 1020B, all prototypes were submitted to and passed state trials in 1959. Even though the Obyekt 1015B performed best, the GAZ design was selected, officially, the committee that made the decision did so because of the GAZ plants production capabilities and experience. The main reason was that the GAZ design was the simplest and cheapest one and introduced the lowest amount of technological advancements, BTR-60P had open-roofed crew and troop compartments, which was deemed to be a serious disadvantage. Accordingly, a new version with a roof, designated BTR-60PA. This new versions capacity was reduced from 16 soldiers to 14 soldiers, the appearance of the German HS.30 APC, which was armed with a 20 mm cannon, prompted the addition of the conical BPU-1 turret. This turret, which was developed for the BRDM-2 amphibious armoured scout car, was armed with the KPVT14.5 mm heavy machine gun. The new vehicle was designated the BTR-60PAI and entered production in 1965 and it was, however, quickly replaced by the BTR-60PB, which had a better sighting system for the machine guns. BTR-60 was a design for its time. It had a layout for an APC, the crew compartment was in the front, the troop compartment in the middle
39.
BTR-70
–
The BTR-70 is an eight-wheeled armored personnel carrier originally developed by the Soviet Union during the late 1960s under the manufacturing code GAZ-4905. On August 21,1972, it was accepted into Soviet service, large quantities were also produced under license in Romania as the TAB-77. The BTR-70 was developed as a successor for the earlier BTR-60 series of Soviet wheeled armored personnel carriers, specifically the BTR-60PB. It evolved out of an earlier, unsuccessful project known as the GAZ-50 to design a new wheeled infantry fighting vehicle on the chassis and it initially received the NATO reporting name BTR M1970. In 1971, the Soviet Armed Forces began investigating the possibility of an updated BTR-60PB redesigned to make the more compatible with the BMP-1 in terms of tactical training. This resulted in the development of a BTR-60PB prototype essentially converted into an infantry fighting vehicle. Despite retaining the original BTR-60PB chassis, the GAZ-50 incorporated several elements of the BMPs design, the revised internal layout reduced the number of passengers to nine. New hatches were provided for debarking in the lower hull. Other modifications included a slightly thicker hull, increased power-to-weight ratio and this alteration was to allow the vehicle to continue moving even if one engine failed. The prototype was armed with a turret resembling that of the BMP-1, there was some debate as to the GAZ-50s viability in its intended role, for example, projected manufacturing costs were high due to the incorporation of the BMP-1 turret and armament. Furthermore, while the prototype would allow motorized units to emulate the tactics of Soviet mechanized infantry, it simply did not offer the protection, mobility. Most of the funding earmarked for the program was diverted into producing larger numbers of BMPs instead. In Soviet service, the new BTRs received the designation BTR-70, compared to the earlier BTR-60PB, relatively small numbers of BTR-70s were produced. The design was regarded as suffering from some of the same disadvantages. These flaws became especially evident when the vehicle was tested in combat during the Soviet–Afghan War. As a result, in 1984 the Soviet Army took delivery of a new wheeled armored personnel carrier, the BTR-80, which was powered by a single 260 horsepower diesel engine, production of the BTR-70 was terminated that year. The Soviet Union only exported BTR-70s to four states, Afghanistan, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, and Romania. However, many have since been inherited by the armies of various post-Soviet republics or re-exported, the BTR-70 is powered by two petrol engines
40.
BTR-50
–
The BTR-50 is a Soviet amphibious armored personnel carrier based on the PT-76 light tank. The BTR-50 is tracked, unlike most in the BTR series, the BTR-50 shares many similarities with two other APCs, the OT-62 TOPAS and the Type 77. Like the PT-76, the BTR-50 has a flat, boat-shaped hull, unlike the PT-76, it has a new superstructure added to the front of the vehicle. The hull of the BTR-50 is made of all-welded steel with the compartment in the front, the troop compartment in the center. It has the ability to transport up to 20 fully equipped infantrymen and they mount and dismount the APC by climbing over the sides of the hull. The driver sits in the center of the front of the hull and has three blocks and periscopes located at the top of the sloping glacis plate. During night operations, the periscope can be swapped for the TVN-28 night vision device. The driver also has a hatch that opens upwards—while it cannot be used to leave the vehicle. In combat, the hatch is closed and the driver can use a vision block, there is an emergency hatch under the drivers seat. The commander, who sits on the side of the vehicle at the front, has three vision blocks and periscopes in a projecting bay. On top of bay is a cupola that opens forward and can be locked vertically. The vehicle can operate in temperatures from −40 °C to +40 °C, the torsion bar suspension consists of six evenly spaced large rubber-tired road wheels with a drive sprocket at the rear and an idler at the front. The road wheels are hollow to assist its amphibious capabilities and these wheels increase the APCs buoyancy by 30%. The first and last road wheels have a shock absorber. There is a small, thin, horizontal skirt over each track, the BTR-50 is powered by a V-6 6-cylinder 4-stroke in line water-cooled diesel engine developing 240 hp at 1800 rpm. This gives it a speed of 44 km/h with a cruising range of 400 km. The vehicle can negoiate 30° side slopes, ascend 60° gradients, the engine has a cooling system and a pre-heater. The APC has a five gear manual transmission system similar to that in the T-34/85 medium tank
41.
BMP-2
–
The BMP-2 is a second-generation, amphibious infantry fighting vehicle introduced in the 1980s in the Soviet Union, following on from the BMP-1 of the 1960s. Although the BMP-1 was a design, its main armament, the 2A28 Grom. Therefore, the Soviet Union decided to produce an updated and improved version of the BMP-1, the main emphasis was put on improving the main armament. In 1972, work got under-way to develop a version of the BMP-1. During its combat debut in the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian and Syrian BMPs proved vulnerable to.50 calibre machine-gun fire in the sides and rear, and to 106 mm recoilless rifles. The 73 mm gun proved inaccurate beyond 500 metres, and the AT-3 Sagger missile could not be guided effectively from the confines of the turret, several Soviet technical teams were sent to Syria in the wake of the war to gather information. These lessons, combined with observations of western AFV developments, resulted in a replacement program for the original BMP in 1974, the first product of this program was the BMP-1P upgrade, which was intended as a stopgap to address the most serious problems with the existing design. Smoke grenade launchers were added to the rear of the turret, the BMP-1P was in production by the late 1970s and existing BMP-1s were gradually upgraded to the standard during the 1980s. The BMP-2 is broadly similar to the BMP-1, the commander now sits with the gunner in an enlarged turret. Only seven troops can be carried instead of eight, two rear infantry roof hatches instead of four. In the centre of the vehicle is the welded steel turret, the gunner sits to the commanders left and has a smaller rectangular hatch with a rearward-facing day periscope, additionally there are three other day periscopes facing forward and left. The gunner has a BPK-1-42 binocular sight with a vision range of 650 metres, or 350 metres using the infra-red searchlight. An FG-126 infra-red searchlight is mounted coaxially to the 30 mm cannon, the driver sits in the front left of the vehicle, with the engine in a separate compartment to his right. The driver has his own entry hatch above him, with three day periscopes, the centre TNPO-170A periscope can be replaced with either a TNPO-350B extended periscope for amphibious operation or a TVNE-1PA night vision scope. An infantryman sits immediately behind the driver, and has a firing port, TNPO-170A periscopes are used throughout the vehicle and are electrically heated. The BMP-1 and BMP-2 share the same chassis and have almost identical road performance, the BMP-2 is heavier, but also has a more powerful engine to compensate. The BMP-2 is amphibious with little preparation, using hydrodynamic fairings to convert track momentum into water jets. Peacetime regulations require that any BMPs entering water must have a radio set, since its bearings are not airtight
42.
2S1 Gvozdika
–
The 2S1 Gvozdika is a Soviet self-propelled howitzer based on the chassis MT-LB APC, mounting the 122 mm 2A18 howitzer. An alternative Russian designation is SAU-122 but in the Russian Army it is known as Gvozdika. The 2S1 is fully amphibious with little preparation, and once afloat is propelled by its tracks. A variety of tracks are also available to allow the 2S1 to operate in snow or swamp conditions. It is NBC protected and has infra-red night-vision capability, the 2S1 has seven road wheels on each side, the running gear can be fitted with different widths of track to match terrain. The interior is separated into a compartment on the left, an engine compartment on the right. Within the fighting compartment the commander sits on the left, the loader on the right, the all-welded turret is located above the fighting compartment. The 2S1 utilizes a 122 mm howitzer based on the towed D-30 howitzer, the gun is equipped with a power rammer, a double-baffle muzzle brake and a fume extractor. It is capable of firing HE, leaflet, HE/RAP, armor-piercing HE, flechette, the first prototype was ready in 1969. The 2S1 entered service with the Soviet Army in the early 1970s and was first seen in public at a Polish Army parade in 1974, the vehicle was deployed in large numbers. It was designated the M1974 by the U. S. Army and manufactured in Bulgarian, Polish, 2S34 Hosta – Modernisation of the 2S1 with the 122 mm 2A31 gun replaced by the 120 mm 2A80. Further improvements include a new control system, a battlefield observation system. One unit, the 21st Mechanized Brigade in Totskoye is currently being equipped with the system, 2S15 Norov – A prototype tank destroyer equipped with a radar-based fire control system and a 100 mm gun. The 2S1 Gvozdika were produced in Poland by Huta Stalowa Wola under the name 2S1 Goździk, 2S1M Goździk – Version with special amphibious kit that increases the vehicles amphibious capabilities. 2S1T Goździk – Version with a TOPAZ digital fire control system from WB electronics, the system consists of a FONET-IP digital intercom system, new digital radio, military GPS receiver, military computer and dedicated software. The same system is used on other Polish Armed Forces artillery systems like the AHS Krab, Dana-T, model 89 – Romanian variant that uses a modified version of the hull of the MLI-84. Raad-1 – Iranian variant that is based on the hull of the Boragh APC, original there were 144 pieces of Gvozdikas. Romania –48 reserve status since 2005 Slovenia –8 reserve status Soviet Union – Passed on to successor states Yugoslavia – Passed on to successor states, FAS. org Armscontrol. ru Huta Stalowa Wola – Polish manufacturer Arsenal Co
43.
T-54/T-55 operators and variants
–
The T-54/T-55 tank series is the most widely used tank in the world and has seen service in over 50 countries. It also served as the platform for a variety of specialty armored vehicles. Abkhazia – A number of T-55s were in service at the beginning of the 1992-1993 War in Abkhazia and these were all lost in the first four months of the fighting, at which point Abkhazian forces had captured 8 T-55s from the Georgians. At peak strength, there were 100 T-55s and T-72s in service, more than 50 T-55s and T-72s were in service in 2004. 87 T-55s and T-72s were in service before the 2008 South Ossetia war, between 50 and 60 T-55s and T-72s are currently in service. Afghanistan –50 T-54s and 50 T-55s were ordered in 1961 from the Soviet Union,200 T-54s were ordered in 1978 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1978 and 1979. 705 T-55s were ordered in 1978 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1978 and 1991,1,000 T-54s, T-55s, T-62s and PT-76s were in service on 1 April 1992. Currently 600 T-55s are in service and are to be replaced with M60 Pattons, algeria –40 T-54s were ordered in 1963 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1963. 25 T-54s and 25 T-55s were ordered in 1965 from the Soviet Union,100 T-54s were ordered in 1966 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1966 and 1967. 100 T-55s were ordered in 1966 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1967,50 T-55s were ordered in 1981 from the Soviet Union and delivered in 1982. 324 T-54s and T-55s were in service in early 2001 and 320 in early 2003 and 2004 and 270 in 2006, Angola –150 T-54s and possibly T-55s were ordered in 1975 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1975 and 1978. 100 T-55s were ordered in 1987 from the Soviet Union and delivered between 1987 and 1988,30 T-55s were received between 1993 and 1994 from Russia. 62 T-55Ms were ordered in 1999 from Belarus and delivered in 1999,31 T-55s were ordered in 1999 from Bulgaria and delivered in 1999. 205 T-55AM2s were ordered in 1999 from Slovakia with 150 being delivered in 1999 and 55 in 2000,90 T-54s and T-55s were in service in 2000. Around 560 T-54s, T-55s, T-62s and T-72s were in service in early 2001,400 T-54s and T-55s were in service in 2004 and around 200 in 2005 and 2006. Bangladesh –15 T-54s were ordered in 1973 from Egypt and delivered in 1975,15 T-55s were ordered in 1975 from Egypt and delivered in 1975. 240 T-54s, T-55s, Type 59s and Type 62s were in service in early 2001 and 180 in early 2003,100 T-54s and T-55s were in service in 2004 and 2006. 122 modernized T-54s and T-55s with laser rangefinders and improved armor protection are currently in service, Bosnia and Herzegovina –10 T-55s were ordered in 1997 from Egypt and delivered in 1997
Divisions of the Soviet Union 1945–1957