1.
String instrument
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String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner. Musicians play some string instruments by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum—and others by hitting the strings with a wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord or piano, with bowed instruments, the player rubs the strings with a horsehair bow, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician operates a wheel that rubs the strings. Bowed instruments include the string instruments of the Classical music orchestra. All of the string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers. Some types of string instrument are mainly plucked, such as the harp, in the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, in most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it, the vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow, some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body. Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, the development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. During the medieval era, instrument development varied from country to country, Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four stringed precursor to the guitar and these instruments typically used catgut and other materials, including silk, for their strings. String instrument design refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period of musical history, violins and guitars became more consistent in design, and were roughly similar to what we use in the 2000s. At the same time, the 19th century guitar became more associated with six string models. In big bands of the 1920s, the guitar played backing chords. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier, the development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack, in the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called stacks
2.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
3.
Plucked string instrument
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Plucked string instruments are a subcategory of string instruments that are played by plucking the strings. Plucking is a way of pulling and releasing the string in such a way as to give it an impulse that causes the string to vibrate, plucking can be done with either a finger or a plectrum. Most plucked string instruments belong to the family, which generally consist of a resonating body, and a neck. The zither family does not have a neck, and the strings are stretched across the soundboard, in the harp family, the strings are perpendicular to the soundboard and do not run across it. The harpsichord does not fit any of these categories but is also a string instrument. Bowed string instruments, such as the violin, can also be plucked in the known as pizzicato, however, as they are usually played with a bow. Struck string instruments can be plucked as an extended technique. Plucked string instruments are not a category in the Sachs-Hornbostel classification, as some of them are simple chordophones and others are composite
4.
Chordophone
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A chordophone is a musical instrument that makes sound by way of a vibrating string or strings stretched between two points. It is one of the four divisions of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. What many would call string instruments are classified as chordophones, violins, guitars, lyres, and harps are examples. However, the word also embraces instruments that many would hesitate to call string instruments, such as the musical bow, Hornbostel-Sachs divides chordophones into two main groups, instruments without a resonator as an integral part of the instrument, and instruments with such a resonator. Most western instruments fall into the group, but the piano. Hornbostel and Sachs criterion for determining which sub-group an instrument falls into is that if the resonator can be removed without destroying the instrument, then it is classified as 31. This is not true of the violin, because the passes over a bridge located on the resonator box. Electric string instruments often have a pickup that produces a signal that can be amplified. The electric guitar is the most common example, but many other chordophones use pickups—including mandolins, violins, when a chordophone is played, the strings vibrate and interact with each other. There is usually something that makes the sound resonate, such as the body of a guitar or violin, the strings are set into motion by either plucking, strumming, by rubbing with a bow, or by striking. Common chordophones are the banjo, cello, double bass, dulcimer, guitar, harp, lute, piano, sitar, ukulele, viola and violin
5.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
6.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
7.
Classical guitar
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The classical guitar is the member of the guitar family used in classical music. It is an acoustical wooden guitar with strings made of nylon, the traditional classical guitar has twelve frets clear of the body and is held on the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the soundhole. The modern steel string guitar, on the hand, usually has fourteen frets clear of the body and is commonly played off the hip. Examples of early guitars include the early romantic guitar. Classical guitar strings once made of catgut are now made of polymers as nylon. A guitar family tree may be identified, the flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. Todays modern classical guitar was established by the designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier. Cultural baroque court music, 19th century opera and its influences, 19th century folk songs, Latin American music, thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela, lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc. Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e. g. different colour-spectrum characteristics, different response and these guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia, that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba. When considering the guitar from a perspective, the musical instrument used is just as important as the musical language. As an example, It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta on a classical guitar. The reason is that the guitar used courses, which are two strings close together, that are plucked together. This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an part of an interpretation. Additionally the sound aesthetic of the guitar is very different from modern classical type guitars. However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily for earlier repertoire, Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called modern school in the 1920s and beyond. Some people consider it to have been influence of Segovia. It was the 19th century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega who first popularized the Torres design as a solo instrument. Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound - rich in overtones -, later in Spain a style of music emerged that favored a stronger fundamental, With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached
8.
Guitar
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The guitar is a musical instrument classified as a fretted string instrument with anywhere from four to 18 strings, usually having six. The sound is projected either acoustically, using a wooden or plastic and wood box, or through electrical amplifier. It is typically played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers, the guitar is a type of chordophone, traditionally constructed from wood and strung with either gut, nylon or steel strings and distinguished from other chordophones by its construction and tuning. There are three types of modern acoustic guitar, the classical guitar, the steel-string acoustic guitar, and the archtop guitar. The tone of a guitar is produced by the strings vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar. The term finger-picking can also refer to a tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass. The acoustic bass guitar is an instrument that is one octave below a regular guitar. Early amplified guitars employed a body, but a solid wood body was eventually found more suitable during the 1960s and 1970s. As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars and solid-body guitars. The electric guitar has had a influence on popular culture. The guitar is used in a variety of musical genres worldwide. It is recognized as an instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, mariachi, metal, punk, reggae, rock, soul. The term is used to refer to a number of chordophones that were developed and used across Europe, beginning in the 12th century and, later, in the Americas. The modern word guitar, and its antecedents, has applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times. Many influences are cited as antecedents to the modern guitar, at least two instruments called guitars were in use in Spain by 1200, the guitarra latina and the so-called guitarra morisca. The guitarra morisca had a back, wide fingerboard. The guitarra Latina had a sound hole and a narrower neck. By the 14th century the qualifiers moresca or morisca and latina had been dropped, and it had six courses, lute-like tuning in fourths and a guitar-like body, although early representations reveal an instrument with a sharply cut waist
9.
Acoustic guitar
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An acoustic guitar is a guitar that produces sound acoustically—by transmitting the vibration of the strings to the air—as opposed to relying on electronic amplification. The sound waves from the strings of an acoustic guitar resonate through the guitars body and this typically involves the use of a sound board and a sound box to strengthen the vibrations of the strings. The main source of sound in a guitar is the string. The string vibrates at a frequency and also creates many harmonics at various different frequencies. The frequencies produced can depend on string length, mass, gitterns, a small plucked guitar were the first small guitar-like instruments created during the Middle Ages with a round back like that of a lute. Modern guitar shaped instruments were not seen until the Renaissance era where the body, the earliest string instruments that related to the guitar and its structure where broadly known as the vihuelas within Spanish musical culture. Vihuelas where string instruments that were seen in the 16th century during the Renaissance. Later, Spanish writers distinguished these instruments into 2 categories of vihuelas, the vihuela de arco was an instrument that mimicked the violin, and the vihuela de penola was played with a plectrum or by hand. When it was played by hand it was known as the vihuela de mano, vihuela de mano shared extreme similarities with the Renaissance guitar as it used hand movement at the sound hole or sound chamber of the instrument to create music. The real production of guitars kicked off in France where the popularity, the production became so large that early famous creators such as Gaspard Duyffooprucgars instruments were being sold as copies by other guitar makers in Lyon. Benoist Lejeune, a maker, offered and sold guitar copies of Duyffoprucgars instruments and was later imprisoned for using his mark and work. During this time, the production was increasing tremendously but it was not until Robert and Claude Denis appeared overproducing the early Renaissance guitar in Paris, as father and son, Robert and Claude produced hundreds of guitars that increased the popularity of the instrument greatly. Because of them and the great many guitar inventors of this time, by 1790 only six-course vihuela guitars were being created and had become the main type and model of guitar used in Spain. Most of the older 5-course guitars where still in use but were also being modified to a six-coursed acoustical guitar, by the 19th century, coursed strings where evolved into 6 single-stringed instruments much like that of the guitar today. It had evolved into the modern look except for size, retaining a smaller frame, the acoustic guitars soundboard, or top, also has a strong effect on the loudness of the guitar. No amplification actually occurs in this process, because no energy is added to increase the loudness of the sound. All the energy is provided by the plucking of the string, but without a soundboard, the string would just cut through the air without actually moving it much. The soundboard increases the surface of the area in a process called mechanical impedance matching
10.
Seven-string guitar
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The seven-string guitar adds one additional string, commonly used to extend the bass range but it can also be used to extend the treble range of the 6 string guitar. In the latter case, the bass string lies next to the existing bass strings. Such unfrettable bass strings were known as diapasons or bourdons. Some types of seven-string guitars are specific to certain cultures such as the Russian and Brazilian guitars, the history of the seven-string guitar stretches back more than 230 years. During the Renaissance period, the European guitar generally had four courses, by the mid-Baroque period it more commonly had five courses and used a variety of tunings, some of them re-entrant. By the early eighteenth century six double-strung courses had become common, up to this point most stringed instruments were strung with gut strings. Around 1800 quality metal-wire strings became widely available and these new strings were more durable, remained in tune better, and—most importantly—produced a louder sound than the traditional gut strings. It is likely all of these factors contributed to the development of the seven-string guitar. The seven-string guitar never became as widely accepted in Europe as the six-string instrument, french guitarist Napoleon Coste composed works with a seven-string guitar specifically in mind. The Italian guitarist Mario Maccaferri was an advocate of bass strings. By contrast, in Russia the seven-string guitar became widely popular, despite some brief setbacks in the mid-20th century, during which six-string instruments rose in prominence, the seven-string Russian guitar has remained popular in Russia to this day. In the New World, a guitarra séptima or guitarra sétima—with fourteen strings and these instruments may still be found in use in Mexico, although the modern six-string instrument has become far more common. It is known in Russia as the semistrunnaya gitara or affectionately as the semistrunka, some of these were published again in the Soviet Union in 1926. Early instruments used gut, and latter silk strings, rarely wire, whatever material was used for stringing, the Russian guitar is traditionally played without a pick, using fingers for either strumming or picking. While greatly popular in Russia and Ukraine, this type of guitar has only recently been generating some interest outside of its traditional homeland, the earliest music published for a seven-string guitar was in St. Petersburg, Russia, on 15 December 1798. The school was owned by Ignác František Held and it was introduced to Brazil in the late 19th century as a steel string guitar. The style of counterpoint and accompaniment technique was developed throughout the 20th century, especially by Dino 7 Cordas. In the early 1980s, guitarist Luiz Otavio Braga had a string version made
11.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
12.
Organology
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Organology is the science of musical instruments and their classification. It embraces study of history, instruments used in different cultures, technical aspects of how instruments produce sound. There is a degree of overlap between organology, ethnomusicology and the branch of the devoted to musical instruments. A number of ancient cultures left documents detailing the musical instruments used and their role in society, one of the most important organologists of the 17th century is Michael Praetorius. His Syntagma musicum is one of the most quoted works from time on the subject. Praetoriuss Theatrum instrumentorium contains possibly the first pictures of African instruments in a European publication, for much of the 18th and 19th centuries, little work was done on organology. Explorers returned to Europe with instruments from different cultures, however, so that by the end of the 19th century and this led to a renewed interest in the subject. This remains the most common scheme used by organologists today. Andre Schaeffner introduced a system based on state-of-matter of the sound-producing mechanism, reference to Kartomis book, page 173. A number of societies exist dedicated to the study of musical instruments, among the more prominent are the Galpin Society, based in the United Kingdom, and the American Musical Instrument Society, based in the United States. Filaret Kolessa – Ukrainian folklorist and ethno-organologist
13.
English guitar
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The English guitar or guittar, is a stringed instrument – a type of cittern, which was popular in many places in Europe from around 1750–1850. The instrument was known in Norway as a guitarre and France as cistre or guitarre allemande. There are many examples in Norwegian museums, like the Norsk Folkemuseum and British, including the Victoria, the English guitar has a pear-shaped body, a flat base, and a short neck. The instrument is related to the Portuguese guitar and the German waldzither. Early examples had tuning pegs, but many examples have what are commonly referred to now as Preston tuners. It usually had ten strings in a repetitive open C tuning, of which the highest eight are paired in four courses, C E GG cc ee gg. The English guitar may have influenced the development and tuning of the Russian guitar, which has seven strings tuned to open G in thirds with two fourths, D, G, B, D, g, b, d
14.
Open G tuning
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Among alternative tunings for the guitar, an open G tuning is an open tuning that features the G-major chord, its open notes are selected from the notes of a G-major chord, such as the G-major triad. For example, a popular open-G tuning is D-G-D-G-B-D, an open-G tuning allows a G-major chord to be strummed on all six strings with neither fretting of the left hand nor a capo. Like other open tunings, it allows the eleven major chords besides G major each to be strummed by barring at most one finger on exactly one fret, open tunings are common in blues and folk music, and they are used in the playing of slide and bottleneck guitars. Repetitive open-G tunings are used by Russian guitars, Dobro guitars, the repetitive open-G tuning D-G-B-D-G-B-D is used by the Russian guitar, which has seven strings tuned mostly in major thirds. Dobros use a full six-string tuning with a bottom G, G-B-D-G-B-D, bad Company guitarist Mick Ralphs has used another open-G tuning, which listed the initial six overtones of the G note, G-G-D-G-B-D for Hey Hey and while writing the demo of Cant Get Enough. The overtones tuning G-G-D-G-B-D was used by Joni Mitchell for Electricity, For the Roses, truncating this tuning to G-D-G-B-D for his five-string guitar, Keith Richards plays this overtones-tuning on The Rolling Stones Honky Tonk Women, Brown Sugar and Start Me Up. American rock band, Eagles of Death Metal, uses this tuning for the majority of their songs, minor thirds tuning Scordatura, alternative tunings of stringed instruments Stringed instrument tunings Denyer, Ralph. Special contributors Isaac Guillory and Alastair M. Crawford, madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin, Department of Electrical Engineering. 2010 PDF version by Bill Sethares
15.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
16.
Bard (Soviet Union)
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Because in bard music songwriters perform their own songs, the genre is also commonly referred to as author song. Bard poetry differs from other poetry mainly in being sung with guitar accompaniment as opposed to being spoken. Another difference is that it focuses less on style and more on meaning and this means that fewer stylistic devices are used, and the poetry is often in the form of a narrative. What separates bard poetry from other songs is that the music is far less important than the lyrics, chord progressions are very simple. A far more obvious difference is the nature of the genre, songs are written to be sung and not to be sold. These romances were written in a minor key and performed with a guitar accompaniment. Bard poetry may be classified into two main genres, tourist song and political song, although some other subgenres are also recognized, such as outlaw song. Initially the term bard was used by fans of the tourist song genre, and outside those circles, however, there was a need for a term to distinguish this style of song from the traditional mainstream pop song, and the term eventually stuck. Many bards performed their songs for small groups of using a Russian guitar. Those who became popular were eventually able to hold modest concerts, bards were rarely permitted to record their music, given the political nature of many of their songs. As a result, bard tunes usually made their way around via the copying of amateur recordings made at concerts and it is these types of situations and virtues that tourist songs use for their subject matter. A notable subgenre of the Tourist song was the Sea song, as with other tourist songs, the goal was to sing about people in hard conditions where true physical and emotional conflicts appear. Vladimir Vysotsky had several songs of this sort, since his style suited them perfectly, many of Alexander Gorodnitskys songs are about the sea since he actually had the opportunity to experience life at sea. While some songs were simply about sailors, others were about pirates, with the romanticism of songs like Brigantine by Pavel Kogan, pirate songs are still popular at author song concerts today. Almost every bard has at least one song of this type, another name for this genre was amateur song. This term reflects the cultural phenomenon of the Soviet Union called amateur performing arts and it was a widespread, often heavily subsidized occupation of Soviet people in their spare time. Every major industrial enterprise and every kolkhoz had a Palace of Culture, or at least a House of Culture, for performers to practice. Many of them, as well as universities, had Clubs of Amateur Song, which, in fact, were clubs of bard song
17.
Alternate bass
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In music, alternate bass is a performance technique on many instruments where the bass alternates between two notes, most often the root and the fifth of a triad or chord. The perfect fifth is often, but not always, played below the root, the alternation between the root note and the fifth scale degree below it creates the characteristic sound of the alternate bass. On the guitar and bass guitar this is accomplished with the right hand alternating between two or more strings, often the two on the guitar. On the Stradella bass system commonly found on accordions, the left-hand bass-note buttons are arranged according to the circle of fifths, the bass button for the fifth is directly above the bass button for the root
18.
Machine head
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A machine head is a geared apparatus for tuning stringed musical instruments by adjusting string tension. Machine heads are used on mandolins, guitars, double basses etc. and are located on the instruments headstock. Non-geared tuning devices that are used on violins, violas, cellos, lutes, older Flamenco guitars, friction pegs hold the string in tune by way of friction caused by their tapered shape and by the string pull created by the tight string. Some other commonly used names for guitar tuners are pegs, gears, machines, cranks, knobs. Traditionally, a machine head consists of a cylinder or capstan, mounted at the center of a pinion gear, a knob or button. The capstan has a hole through the far end from the gear, and the string is made to go through that hole, to complete the string installation, the string is tightened by turning the capstan using the tuning knob. The worm gear ensures that the capstan cannot turn without a movement on the knob, banjos usually employ a different mechanism using planetary gears - in this case the knob and the capstan both rotate on the same axis. A few guitars have used this design, the guitarist adjusts the tension of the various strings using the knobs so that they are correctly tuned, a higher tension yields a sharper pitch, a lower tension a flatter pitch. Typical tensions for steel-string acoustic guitars with light tension strings are 10.5 kgf to 13.8 kgf, normally, worm gears provide a gear ratio of 14,1. Versions with an 18,1 gear ratio also exist, trading better accuracy in fine tuning against slower initial string winding, vintage and vintage-reproduction guitars frequently have individual open-gear tuners, enclosed tuners not having become common until after WWII. Bass tuners generally feature larger knobs than guitar tuners as well, often these are distinctively shaped, gear ratios of 20,1 are used often. Exposed gears are more common in premium bass guitars than in six string non-bass instruments. Since the 1950s, guitar performance techniques evolved, and aggressive usage of a vibrato bar became widespread, however, the original machine heads couldnt withstand the rigors of constant string tension changing, and strings could go out of tune after using a vibrato mechanism several times. However, such machine heads reached limited success, mostly because of their price, as of 2006, many break strings when tension is increased while the mechanism is locked and later unlocked, which frequently happens in music stores. Note that on some guitars, such as those with Floyd Rose bridge, in this case, main machine heads at headstock may be missing entirely, as well as the headstock itself. Steinbergers and Hohners require specialist double-ball end strings, whereas the Washburn Bantam can take regular strings, certain instrumental families, most notably the Violin family have been actively resistant to the use of machine heads, insisting on the continued use of friction pegs. The fitting of them on instruments in these families is often regarded as blasphemous, the exact reasoning behind this resistance varies from case to case, with appearance, tradition, and simplicity, among others, being cited. This resistance remains despite the issues with friction pegs losing tuning, coming loose
19.
Equal temperament
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An equal temperament is a musical temperament, or a system of tuning, in which the frequency interval between every pair of adjacent notes has the same ratio. In equal temperament tunings, the interval is often found by dividing some larger desired interval, often the octave. That resulting smallest interval, 1⁄12 the width of an octave, is called a semitone or half step, the standard pitch has not always been 440 but has varied and generally risen over the past few hundred years. For example, some music has been written in 19-TET and 31-TET, in Western countries, when people use the term equal temperament without qualification, they usually mean 12-TET. To avoid ambiguity between equal temperaments that divide the octave and ones that divide some other interval, the equal division of the octave. According to this system, 12-TET is called 12-EDO, 31-TET is called 31-EDO. Other instruments, such as wind, keyboard, and fretted instruments, often only approximate equal temperament. Some wind instruments that can easily and spontaneously bend their tone, most notably trombones, use tuning similar to string ensembles, the two figures frequently credited with the achievement of exact calculation of equal temperament are Zhu Zaiyu in 1584 and Simon Stevin in 1585. Kenneth Robinson attributes the invention of equal temperament to Zhu Zaiyu, Zhu Zaiyu is quoted as saying that, in a text dating from 1584, I have founded a new system. I establish one foot as the number from which the others are to be extracted, altogether one has to find the exact figures for the pitch-pipers in twelve operations. Kuttner disagrees and remarks that his claim cannot be considered correct without major qualifications, kuttner proposes that neither Zhu Zaiyu or Simon Stevin achieved equal temperament, and that neither of the two should be treated as inventors. The origin of the Chinese pentatonic scale is traditionally ascribed to the mythical Ling Lun, allegedly his writings discussed the equal division of the scale in the 27th century BC. However, evidence of the origins of writing in this period in China is limited to rudimentary inscriptions on oracle bones, an approximation for equal temperament was described by He Chengtian, a mathematician of Southern and Northern Dynasties around 400 AD. He came out with the earliest recorded approximate numerical sequence in relation to equal temperament in history,900849802758715677638601570536509.5479450, historically, there was a seven-equal temperament or hepta-equal temperament practice in Chinese tradition. Zhu Zaiyu, a prince of the Ming court, spent thirty years on research based on the equal temperament idea originally postulated by his father and he described his new pitch theory in his Fusion of Music and Calendar 乐律融通 published in 1580. An extended account is given by Joseph Needham. Similarly, after 84 divisions the length was divided by a factor of 128,84 =27 =128, according to Gene Cho, Zhu Zaiyu was the first person to solve the equal temperament problem mathematically. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit in China recorded this work in his personal journal, in 1620, Zhus work was referenced by a European mathematician
20.
G major
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G major is a major scale based on G, with the pitches G, A, B, C, D, E, and F♯. Its key signature has one sharp, F♯, G majors relative minor is E minor, and its parallel minor is G minor. For orchestral works in G major, the timpani are typically set to G and D, in the Baroque era, G major was regarded as the key of benediction. Of Domenico Scarlattis 555 keyboard sonatas, G major is the key for 69. Pianist Jeremy Denk observes that the Goldberg Variations are 80 minutes in G major, twelve of Joseph Haydns 104 Symphonies are in G major. See also, List of symphonies in G major, likewise one of Haydns most famous piano trios, No. 39, and one of his last two complete published string quartets, are in G major, G major is the home key of Mozarts Eine kleine Nachtmusik, serving as the tonic for three of its four movements. However, almost none of his works such as his symphonies or concertos are in this key. 17, Flute Concerto No.1 and his String Quartet No,14, along with some examples among his juvenilia. G sometimes called the key, is one of the most frequently-employed keys across classical. It is the key stipulated by Queen Elizabeth II to be used for God Save the Queen in Canada, the music to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, was originally written in G major. God Defend New Zealand was originally composed by John Joseph Woods in A-flat, key Major and minor Chord Chord names and symbols Media related to G major at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Perfect fourth
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In classical music from Western culture, a fourth is a musical interval encompassing four staff positions, and the perfect fourth is a fourth spanning five semitones. For example, the interval from C to the next F is a perfect fourth, as the note F lies five semitones above C. Diminished and augmented fourths span the same number of staff positions, the perfect fourth may be derived from the harmonic series as the interval between the third and fourth harmonics. The term perfect identifies this interval as belonging to the group of perfect intervals, so called because they are neither major nor minor, up until the late 19th century, the perfect fourth was often called by its Greek name, diatessaron. Its most common occurrence is between the fifth and upper root of all major and minor triads and their extensions. A perfect fourth in just intonation corresponds to a ratio of 4,3, or about 498 cents, while in equal temperament a perfect fourth is equal to five semitones. A helpful way to recognize a fourth is to hum the starting of the Bridal Chorus from Wagners Lohengrin. Other examples are the first two notes of the Christmas carol Hark, the Herald Angels Sing or El Cóndor Pasa, and, for a descending perfect fourth, the second and third notes of O Come All Ye Faithful. The perfect fourth is a perfect interval like the unison, octave, and perfect fifth, in common practice harmony, however, it is considered a stylistic dissonance in certain contexts, namely in two-voice textures and whenever it appears above the bass. Conventionally, adjacent strings of the bass and of the bass guitar are a perfect fourth apart when unstopped, as are all pairs. Sets of tom-tom drums are also tuned in perfect fourths. The 4,3 just perfect fourth arises in the C major scale between G and C, play The use of perfect fourths and fifths to sound in parallel with and to thicken the melodic line was prevalent in music prior to the European polyphonic music of the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, the fourth and fifth together were the concordantiae mediae after the unison and octave, in the 15th century the fourth came to be regarded as dissonant on its own, and was first classed as a dissonance by Johannes Tinctoris in his Terminorum musicae diffinitorium. In practice, however, it continued to be used as a consonance when supported by the interval of a third or fifth in a lower voice. Modern acoustic theory supports the medieval interpretation insofar as the intervals of unison, octave, the octave has the ratio of 2,1, for example the interval between a at A440 and a at 880 Hz, giving the ratio 880,440, or 2,1. The fifth has a ratio of 3,2, and its complement has the ratio of 3,4, ancient and medieval music theorists appear to have been familiar with these ratios, see for example their experiments on the Monochord. In early western polyphony, these simpler intervals were generally preferred, however, in its development between the 12th and 16th centuries, In the earliest stages, these simple intervals occur so frequently that they appear to be the favourite sound of composers. Later, the more complex intervals move gradually from the margins to the centre of musical interest
22.
Major third
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In classical music from Western culture, a third is a musical interval encompassing three staff positions, and the major third is a third spanning four semitones. Along with the third, the major third is one of two commonly occurring thirds. It is qualified as major because it is the larger of the two, the major third spans four semitones, the third three. The major third may be derived from the series as the interval between the fourth and fifth harmonics. The major scale is so named because of the presence of this interval between its tonic and mediant scale degrees, the major chord also takes its name from the presence of this interval built on the chords root. The older concept of a made a dissonantly wide major third with the ratio 81,64. The septimal major third is 9,7, the major third is 14,11. A helpful way to recognize a third is to hum the first two notes of Kumbaya or of When the Saints Go Marching In. A descending major third is heard at the starts of Goodnight, Ladies and Swing Low, in equal temperament three major thirds in a row are equal to an octave. This is sometimes called the circle of thirds, in just intonation, however, three 5,4 major thirds are less than an octave. For example, three 5,4 major thirds from C is B♯, the difference between this just-tuned B♯ and C, like that between G♯ and A♭, is called a diesis, about 41 cents. The major third is classed as an imperfect consonance and is considered one of the most consonant intervals after the unison, octave, perfect fifth, a diminished fourth is enharmonically equivalent to a major third. For example, B–D♯ is a third, but if the same pitches are spelled B and E♭. B–E♭ occurs in the C harmonic minor scale, the major third is used in guitar tunings. For the standard tuning, only the interval between the 3rd and 2nd strings is a third, each of the intervals between the other pairs of consecutive strings is a perfect fourth. In an alternative tuning, the tuning, each of the intervals are major thirds. Decade, compound just major third Ear training List of meantone intervals Doubling the cube, 21/3 = 3√2
23.
Major thirds tuning
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Among alternative tunings for guitar, a major-thirds tuning is a regular tuning in which each interval between successive open strings is a major third. Other names for major-thirds tuning include major-third tuning, M3 tuning, all-thirds tuning, by definition, a major-third interval separates two notes that differ by exactly four semitones. The Spanish guitars tuning mixes four perfect fourths and one major-third and this tuning, which is used for acoustic and electric guitars, is called standard in English, a convention that is followed in this article. For each M3 tuning, the open strings form a triad in two octaves. For guitars with six strings, every major-third tuning repeats its three open-notes in two octaves, so providing many options for fingering chords, by repeating open-string notes and by having uniform intervals between strings, major-thirds tuning simplifies learning by beginners. These features also facilitate advanced guitarists improvisation, precisely the aim of jazz guitarist Ralph Patt when he began popularizing major-thirds tuning between 1963 and 1964. In standard tuning, the successive open-strings mix two types of intervals, four perfect-fourths and the third between the G and B strings, E-A-D-G-B-E. Only major thirds occur as open-string intervals for major-thirds tuning, which is also called major-third tuning, all-thirds tuning, a popular M3 tuning has the open strings G♯-C-E-G♯-C-E, in which the low G♯ is a major third above the low E of standard tuning. Consequently, a string for the low E is often added to restore the standard E-E range. While M3 tuning can use standard sets of strings, specialized string gauges have been recommended. Besides this M3 tuning, which has the notes, there are exactly three other M3 tunings, which have distinct sets of open-note pitch classes. The other major-thirds tunings respectively have the notes, and. Major-thirds tunings require less hand-stretching than other tunings, because each M3 tuning packs the octaves twelve notes into four consecutive frets, the major-third intervals allow major chords and minor chords to be played with two–three consecutive fingers on two consecutive frets. Every major-thirds tuning is regular and repetitive, two properties that facilitate learning by beginners and improvisation by advanced guitarists, in major-thirds tuning, the chromatic scale is arranged on three consecutive strings in four consecutive frets. Consequently, three hand-positions partition the fingerboard of classical guitar, which has exactly 12 frets, only two or three frets are needed for the guitar chords—major, minor, and dominant sevenths—which are emphasized in introductions to guitar-playing and to the fundamentals of music. Each major and minor chord can be played on two successive frets on three successive strings, and therefore each needs only two fingers, other chords—seconds, fourths, sevenths, and ninths—are played on only three successive frets. For fundamental-chord fingerings, major-thirds tunings simplicity and consistency are not shared by standard tuning, each major-thirds tuning repeats its open-notes after every two strings, which results in two copies of the three open-strings notes, each in a different octave. This repetition again simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation and this advantage is not shared by two popular regular-tunings, all-fourths and all-fifths tuning
24.
Cittern
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The cittern or cithren is a stringed instrument dating from the Renaissance. Modern scholars debate its exact history, but it is accepted that it is descended from the Medieval citole. It looks much like the modern-day flat-back mandolin and the modern Irish bouzouki and its flat-back design was simpler and cheaper to construct than the lute. It was also easier to play, smaller, less delicate, played by all classes, the cittern was a premier instrument of casual music-making much as is the guitar today. The cittern is one of the few metal-strung instruments known from the Renaissance period and it generally has four courses of strings, one or more course being usually tuned in octaves, though instruments with more or fewer courses were made. The tuning and narrow range allow the player a number of chord shapes useful for both simple song accompaniment and dances, however much more complex music was written for it. Its bright and cheerful timbre make it a valuable counterpoint to gut-strung instruments, the Spanish bandurria, still used today, is a similar instrument. DUMAIN, The head of a bodkin, BIRON, A Deaths face in a ring. The leading 18th century Swedish songwriter Carl Michael Bellman played mostly on the cittern, in Germany the cittern survives under the names Waldzither and Lutherzither. The last name comes from the belief that Martin Luther played this instrument, also, the names Thüringer Waldzither in Thüringer Wald, Harzzither in the Harz mountains, Halszither in German-speaking Switzerland are used. There is a tendency in modern German to interchange the words for cittern, the term waldzither came into use around 1900, to distinguish citterns from zithers. The cittern family survives as the Corsican cetara and the Portuguese guitar, the guitarra portuguesa is typically used to play the popular traditional music known as fado. Chitarra Italiana Cithara Italica English guitar Stringed instrument tunings Gregory Doc Rossi Martina Rosenberger Musics Delight on the Cithren, John Playford. Renovata Cythara, The Renaissance Cittern Pages Stefan Sobell website G.1550 at the National Music Museum Decorated Cittern by Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, ca.1685 at The Metropolitan Museum of Art
25.
Torban
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The torban is a Ukrainian musical instrument that combines the features of the Baroque Lute with those of the psaltery. The Тorban differs from the more common European Bass lute known as the Theorbo in that it had additional short treble strings strung along the side of the soundboard. The Torban was manufactured and used mainly in Ukraine, but also encountered in neighbouring Poland. There are about 40 torbans in museums around the world, with the largest group of 14 instruments in St. Petersburg, the term torban was often misapplied in the vernacular in western Ukraine to any instrument of the Baroque Lute type until the early 20th century. The surviving printed musical literature for torban is extremely limited, notwithstanding the use of the instrument in Eastern Europe. It was a part of the urban oral culture in Ukraine. A few virtuoso players are known by their reputation, such as Andrey Sychra, the Widort family produced three generations of torban players, Gregor Widort, his son Cajetan, and grandson Franz. Such aristocratic associations sealed the fate in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution. A predecessor of the called the kobza was the instrument of the common folk. Later in the 20th century, some banduras were often manufactured to imitate the look of the torban, Ukrainian folk music Cherkasky, L. - Ukrainski narodni muzychni instrumenty // Tekhnika, Kiev, Ukraine,2003 -262 pages
26.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
27.
Theorbo
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For his 1607 opera LOrfeo, Claudio Monteverdi lists duoi chitaroni among the instruments required for performing the work. The round-backed chitarra was still in use, often referred to as chitarra Italiana to distinguish it from chitarra alla spagnola in its new flat-backed Spanish incarnation. The etymology of tiorba is still obscure, it is hypothesized the origin may be in Slavic or Turkish torba, according to Athanasius Kircher, tiorba was a nickname in Neapolitan dialect for a grinding board used by perfumers for grinding essences and herbs. It is possible the appearance of new large instrument resulted in jokes. Robert Spencer has noted the confusion the two names were leading to in 1600, Chitarone, ò Tiorba che si dica. In the performance of basso continuo, theorboes were often paired with a pipe organ. The most prominent early composers and players in Italy were Giovanni Girolamo Kapsberger, little solo music survives from England, but William Lawes and others used theorbos in chamber ensembles and opera orchestras. In France, theorbos were appreciated and used in orchestral or chamber music until the half of the 18th century. Court orchestras at Vienna, Bayreuth and Berlin still employed theorbo players after 1750, the tuning of large theorboes is characterized by the octave displacement, or re-entrant tuning, of the two uppermost strings. Piccinini and Michael Praetorius mention the use of metal strings. The Lang Romanische Theorba, Chitarron also appears to have strings attached to the bridge. The string courses, unlike those of a Renaissance lute or archlute, were often single, typically, theorboes have 14 courses, though some used 15 or even 19 courses. This is theorbo tuning in A, modern theorbo players usually play 14-course instruments. Some players have used a theorbo tuned a step lower in G. Most of the repertoire is in the A tuning. The Italians Kapsberger, Castaldi, Piccinini, Viviani, Melli, Pittoni and Bartolotti, in the French treatises, chords in which a lower note sounds after the bass were also used when the bass goes high. The English theorbo had just the first string at the lower octave, diego Cantalupi, La tiorba ed il suo uso in Italia come strumento per il basso continuo, pre-press version of the dissertation discussed in 1996 at the Faculty of Musicology, University of Pavia. Davide Rebuffa, Il liuto, LEpos, Pelermo 2012, ekkehard Schulze-Kurz, Die Laute und ihre Stimmungen in der ersten Hälfte des 17
28.
Major triad
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In music theory, a major chord is a chord that has a root note, a major third above this root, and a perfect fifth above this root note. When a chord has these three notes alone, it is called a major triad, in Western classical music from 1600 to 1820 and in Western pop, folk and rock music, a major chord is usually played as a triad. The major triad, along with the triad, is one of the basic building blocks of tonal music. It is considered consonant, stable, or not requiring resolution, in Western music, a minor chord, in comparison, sounds darker than a major chord. Major triads with notes, such as major seventh chord, are also called major chords. Major seventh chords are used in jazz and occasionally in rock music, in jazz, major chords may also have other chord tones added, such as the ninth and the thirteenth scale degrees. A minor chord differs from a chord in having a minor third above the root instead of a major third. A minor chord can also be described as a third with a major third on top, in contrast to a major chord. They both contain fifths, because a major third plus a minor third equals a perfect fifth, an augmented chord is like a major chord, but with a raised fifth. An C augmented chord consists of the notes C, E and G♯. Augmented chords are used in jazz, play An example of a major chord is the C major chord, which consists of the notes C, E and G. In harmonic analysis or on a sheet, a C major chord is usually notated C. A root position C major chord contains C, E and G, a first inversion C Major chord contains E as its lowest note, followed by a G and C above the E. A second inversion C major chord contains G as its lowest note, the additional notes above the bass note can be in any order and the chord still retains its inversion identity. For example, a C major chord which went from lowest to highest note E, followed by C and G above the E, in this table, the chord names are in the leftmost column. The chords are given in root position, for a given chord name, the following three columns indicate the individual notes that make up this chord. Thus in the first row, the chord is C major, most pianos and electric pianos and synthesizer keyboards are tuned to equal temperament. In equal temperament, each semitone is the distance apart. Another tuning system that is used is just intonation, in just intonation, a major chord is tuned to the frequency ratio 4,5,6
29.
Arpeggio
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A broken chord is a chord broken into a sequence of notes. A broken chord may repeat some of the notes from the chord, an arpeggio is a type of broken chord where the notes that compose a chord are played or sung in a rising or descending order. An arpeggio may also more than one octave. The word arpeggio comes from the Italian word arpeggiare, which means to play on a harp, even though the notes of an arpeggio are not played or sung all together at the same time, listeners hear the sequence of notes as forming a chord. When an arpeggio also contains passing tones that are not part of the chord, Arpeggios enable composers writing for monophonic instruments that play one note at a time, to voice chords and chord progressions in musical pieces. Arpeggios and broken chords are used to help create rhythmic interest. A notable example of which is the Alberti bass figuration which was used in piano music from the Classical music period. With an Alberti bass, rather play the notes of a chord all at once. An arpeggio is a group of notes which are played one after the other, executing an arpeggio requires the player to play the sounds of a chord individually to differentiate the notes. The notes all belong to one chord, the chord may, for example, be a simple chord with the 1st, 3rd, and 5th notes of the scale in it. An arpeggio for the chord of C major going up two octaves would be the notes, an arpeggio is a type of broken chord. Other types of broken chords play chord notes out of sequence or more than one note, Arpeggios can rise or fall for more than one octave. Students of musical instruments and singers learn how to play and sing scales and they are often a requirement for music examinations. An arpeggiated chord means a chord which is spread, i. e. the notes are not played at the same time, arpeggiated chords are often used in harp and piano music. An arpeggiated chord may be written with a vertical line in front of the chord. It is spread from the lowest to the highest note, occasionally, composers such as Béla Bartók have asked for them to be played from top to bottom. This is shown by adding an arrow pointing down, some ostinato figures consist of arpeggios. Any instrument may employ arpeggiation, but the instruments use arpeggios most often
30.
Barre chord
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Players use this chording technique to play a chord that is not restricted by the tones of the guitars open strings. For instance, if a guitar is tuned to concert pitch, with the open strings being E, A, D, G, B, E. To play an F♯ chord the guitarist may barre strings so that the root is F♯. Barre chords are sometimes called moveable chords, as the player can move the whole chord shape up. Commonly used in popular and classical music, Barre chords are frequently used in combination with open chords. Playing a chord with the barre technique slightly affects tone quality, a closed, or fretted, note sounds slightly different than an open, unfretted, string. Barre chords are a part of the sound of pop music. For example, if a guitarist plays an E major and wants the next chord to be an F♯ Major—barring the open E major up two frets from the open position produces a barred F♯ Major chord. The term barre comes from the method of using the finger to form a rigid bar across all of the strings. The specific spelling barre is French, translating to rod or bar also translating as closed off, note, notes of each chord are listed in order from bottom, thickest string string to top. Barre chords are used when a performer wishes to voice a chord in higher positions on the guitar. Choice of key may result in using barre chords as the basic open chord fingerings of the first position of a standard-tuned guitar are not available for use in the chosen key. The two most commonly barred notes are variations of fingering shapes that are used to play the chords A and E on first, or open, position. The E type barre chord is made of an E chord shape moved up and down the frets and being barred, for example, the E chord barred one fret up becomes an F chord. The next fret up is F♯, followed by G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, C♯, D, E♭, and then back to E at fret twelve. The A type barre chord, occasionally called the barre, is made by sliding the A chord shape up. When the A chord is barred, the finger lies across the top five strings. Either the ring or little finger is then barred across the 2nd, 3rd, for instance, if barred at the second fret, the A chord becomes B. From fret one to twelve, the barred A becomes B♭, B, C, C♯, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, sometimes the highest note in a double barre chord is left out
31.
Voicing (music)
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In music theory, voicing is the manner in which one distributes, or spaces, notes and chords among the various instruments or simultaneous vertical placement of notes in relation to each other. In triad chords, close root position voicing is the most compact voicing, with the notes in major third intervals, close and open harmony are harmony constructed from close- and open-position chords, respectively. Many composers, as developed and gained experience, became more enterprising. For example, the theme from the movement of Beethoven’s early Piano Sonata No. 10, presents chords mostly in closed position, Whereas in the theme of the Arietta movement that concludes his last Piano Sonata No,32, Op.111 as simplicity itself … its widely-spaced harmonization creates a mood of almost mystical intensity. Ravel’s Pavane de la Belle au Bois Dormant from his 1908 suite Ma Mère lOye exploits the delicate transparency of voicing afforded through the medium of the piano duet, four hands can cope better that two when it comes to playing widely spaced chords. The two chords that open and close Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms have distinctive sonorities arising out of the voicing of the notes, austin remarks, The first and last chords of the Symphony of Psalms are famous. The doubling number of an octave is the number of individual voices assigned to each pitch within the chord, for example, in the three images in the introduction above only one pitch is doubled, the G in the rightmost image. One nomenclature for describing classes of voicings is the drop-n terminology, such as drop-2 voicings, drop-2-and-4 voicings. This systems views voicings as being built from the top down, the implicit, non-dropped, default voicing in this system is where all voices are in the same octave, with the individual voices being numbered from the top down. The highest voice is the first voice or voice 1, the second-highest voice is voice 2, etc. There is no provision in this nomenclature for having more than one voice on the same pitch, a dropped voicing is where one or more voices are lowered by an octave relative to the default state. Dropping the first voice is undefined, a drop-1 voicing would still have all voices in the same octave, there is no provision in this nomenclature for indicating the dropping of voices by two or more octaves or for having the same pitch represented in multiple octaves. A drop-2 voicing is where the voice is lowered by an octave. These are the drop-2-and-4 voicings for G7, G D F B, F B D G, D G B F, various drop combinations are possible, given enough voices, such as drop-3, drop-2-and-3, drop-5, drop-2-and-5, drop-3-and-5, etc. Blind octave Consecutive fifths Open chord Partial voicing
32.
Seventh chord
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A seventh chord is a chord consisting of a triad plus a note forming an interval of a seventh above the chords root. When not otherwise specified, a seventh chord usually means a dominant seventh chord, However, a variety of sevenths may be added to a variety of triads, resulting in many different types of seventh chords. In its earliest usage, the seventh was introduced solely as an embellishing or nonchord tone, the seventh destabilized the triad, and allowed the composer to emphasize movement in a given direction. Additionally, the acceptance of equal temperament during the 19th century reduced the dissonance of some earlier forms of sevenths. When the triad type and seventh type are identical, the name is shortened, for instance, a major/major seventh is generally referred to as a major seventh. This rule is not valid for augmented chords, since the chord is not commonly used. Additionally, half-diminished stands for diminished/minor, and dominant stands for major/minor, when the type is not specified at all, the triad is assumed to be major, and the seventh is understood as a minor seventh. For symbols used for seventh chords, see also Popular music symbols#Seventh chords, the most common chords are tertian, constructed using a sequence of major thirds and/or minor thirds. Since there are 3 third intervals in a chord and each can be major or minor, there are 8 possible combinations, however. The augmented augmented seventh chord, defined by a root, a third, an augmented fifth. The reason is that the seventh interval is enharmonically equivalent to one entire octave and is hence perfectly consonant with the chord root. The seven commonly used chords are, Seventh chords can also be constructed using augmented or diminished thirds and these chords are not tertian and can be used in non-tertian harmony. In just intonation, for example, there is the harmonic seventh, a dominant seventh chord, or major-minor seventh chord is a chord composed of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. It can be viewed as a major triad with an additional minor seventh. It is denoted using popular music symbols by adding a superscript 7 after the letter designating the chord root, the dominant seventh is found almost as often as the dominant triad. The chord can be represented by the integer notation, of all the seventh chords, perhaps the most important is the dominant seventh. It was the first seventh chord to appear regularly in classical music, the name comes from the fact that the flat seventh occurs naturally in the chord built upon the dominant of a given major diatonic scale. Take for example the C major scale, The note G is the dominant degree of C major—its fifth note
33.
Root (chord)
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C chord is referred to in Classical music or popular music without a reference to what type of chord it is, it is assumed a C major triad, which contains the notes C, E and G. The root needs not be the note, the lowest note of the chord, the concept of root is linked to that of the inversion of chords. In this concept, chords can be inverted while still retaining their root, in tertian harmonic theory, that is in a theory where chords can be considered stacks of third intervals, the root of a chord is the note on which the subsequent thirds are stacked. For instance, the root of a such as C Major is C. Regardless of whether a chord is in position or in an inversion. Four-note seventh chords have four possible positions, five-note ninth chords know five positions, etc. but the root position always is that of the stack of thirds, and the root is the lowest note of this stack. With chord types, such as chords with added sixths or chords over pedal points, more than one possible chordal analysis may be possible. For example, in a piece of music, the notes C, E, G, A, sounded as a chord. Deciding which note is the root of this chord could be determined by considering context, and its low note considered as the root, or as an inversion of the same, second, fourth, sixth, etc. in which cases the upper note is the root. Johannes Lippius, in his Disputatio musica tertia and Synopsis musicae novae, is the first to use the triad, he also uses the term root. Thomas Campion, A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Conterpoint, London, c1618, notes that chords are in first inversions, the bass is not. a true base. Campion’s true base is the root of the chord, full recognition of the relationship between the triad and its inversions is generally credited to Jean-Philippe Rameau’s Traité d’harmonie. The concept of root has some basis in the properties of harmonic sounds. When two notes or more notes from the series are played at the same time, people sometimes perceive the fundamental note of the series. This property has been used in building for the production of low notes by resultant tones. Andreas Werckmeister’s Harmonologia describes the major triad in root position and in first inversion in terms of the harmonic series, but this description cannot be extended to the minor triad
34.
Diminished seventh chord
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The diminished seventh chord is commonly used in the harmony of both Western classical music and also in jazz and popular music of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Classical composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries imaginatively exploited the chords dramatic, a diminished seventh chord is a four note chord that comprises a diminished triad plus the interval of a diminished seventh above the root. Thus it is, or enharmonically, of any scale, for example, C diminished-seventh would be. It occurs as a seventh chord in harmonic minor and can be represented by the integer notation. Because of this it can also be viewed as four notes all stacked in intervals of a minor third, the diminished seventh contains two diminished fifths, which often resolve inwards. The most common form of the seventh chord is that rooted on the leading tone, for example, in the key of C. So its other constituents are the second, fourth, and flatted sixth scale degrees and these notes occur naturally in the harmonic minor scale. But this chord appears in major keys, especially after the time of Bach. Because these chords have no leading tone in relation to the chords to which they resolve and they are therefore referred to commonly as non-dominant diminished seventh chords or common tone diminished seventh chords. The chord, plays no role in. jazz, the passing chord is used widely in Brazilian music such as choro, samba and bossa nova. The diminished seventh chord normally possesses a dominant function, and this is most straightforwardly shown when the root of a dominant seventh chord is omitted, the remaining third, fifth and seventh of that chord form a diminished triad, to which a diminished seventh can be added. The diminished scale may be conceived of as two interlocking diminished seventh chords, which may be rearranged into the alpha chord, the sharpened subdominant with added diminished seventh chord is another common use of the chord. In the key of C, this is F♯dim7, which may be used for a strikingly fearful effect and it is also a common chord in jazz and ragtime music. It may be used as a dominant substitute, the diminished chord may also resolve through lowering two of the bottom three voices producing a supertonic seventh chord that may lead to a conventional dominant cadence. Music theorists have struggled over the centuries to explain the meaning, currently, two approaches are generally used. The less complex method treats the leading tone as the root of the chord, and the chord members as the third, fifth, and seventh of the chord. The other method is to analyze the chord as a dominant ninth. A viio7 chord in the minor key occurs naturally in the minor scale and is equivalent to the dominant 7♭9 chord without its root
35.
Vladimir Vysotsky
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Vladimir Semyonovich Vysotsky was a Russian singer-songwriter, poet, and actor whose career had an immense and enduring effect on Soviet and Russian culture. He became widely known for his singing style and for his lyrics. He was also a prominent stage and screen actor, Vladimir Vysotsky was born in Moscow at the 3rd Meshchanskaya St. maternity hospital. His father, Semyon Volfovich, was a colonel in the Soviet army, Vladimirs mother, Nina Maksimovna, was Russian, and worked as a German language translator. Vysotskys family lived in a Moscow communal flat in harsh conditions, when Vladimir was 10 months old, Nina had to return to her office in the Transcript bureau of the Soviet Ministry of Geodesy and Cartography so as to help her husband earn their familys living. Vladimirs theatrical inclinations became obvious at an age, and were supported by his paternal grandmother Dora Bronshteyn. The boy used to recite poems, standing on a chair and flinging hair backwards, like a real poet and his sense of humor was extraordinary, but often baffling for people around him. A three-year-old could jeer his father in a bathroom with unexpected poetic improvisation or appall unwanted guests with some street folk song, Vysotsky remembered those first three years of his life in the autobiographical Ballad of Childhood, one of his best-known songs. As the World War II broke out, Semyon Vysotsky, a reserve officer, joined the Soviet army. In 1943, both returned to their Moscow apartment at 1st Meschanskaya St.126, in September 1945, Vladimir joined the 1st class of the 273rd Moscow Rostokino region School. In December 1946, Vysotskys parents divorced and we decided that our son would stay with me. Vladimir came to stay with me in January 1947, and my wife, Yevgenia. They had much in common and liked each other, which made me really happy, in 1949 along with his stepmother Vladimir returned to Moscow. There he joined the 5th class of the Moscow 128th School and settled at Bolshoy Karetny,15, with auntie Zhenya, in 1953 Vladimir Vysotsky, now much interested in theater and cinema, joined the Drama courses led by Vladimir Bogomolov. No one in my family has had anything to do with arts, but my mother admired theater and from the earliest age. Each and every Saturday Ive been taken up with her to watch one play or the other, and all of this, it probably stayed with me, he later reminisced. The same year he received his first ever guitar, a present from Nina Maksimovna, a close friend, bard. In 1955 Vladimir re-settled into his mothers new home at 1st Meshchanskaya,76, in June of the same year he graduated from school with five As
36.
Bulat Okudzhava
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Bulat Shalvovich Okudzhava was a Soviet poet, writer, musician, novelist, and singer-songwriter of Georgian-Armenian ancestry. He was one of the founders of the Soviet genre called author song, or guitar song, and his songs are a mixture of Russian poetic and folksong traditions and the French chansonnier style represented by such contemporaries of Okudzhava as Georges Brassens. Bulat Okudzhava was born in Moscow on May 9,1924 into a family of communists who had come from Tbilisi, the son of a Georgian father, Shalva Okudzhava, and an Armenian mother, Ashkhen Nalbandyan, Bulat Okudzhava spoke and wrote only in Russian. Okudzavas mother was the niece of a well-known Armenian poet, Vahan Terian and his father served as a political commissar during the Civil War and as a high-ranking Communist Party member under the protection of Sergo Ordzhonikidze later on. His uncle Vladimir Okudzhava was an anarchist and a terrorist who left The Russian Empire after an attempt to assassinate the Kutaisi governor. He was listed among the passengers of the sealed train that delivered Vladimir Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev. Shalva Okudzhava was arrested in 1937 during the Great Purge, accused of trotskyism and wrecking and executed shortly after and his wife was also arrested in 1939 «for anti-Soviet deeds» and sent to a labor camp of Gulag. Bulat returned to Tbilisi to live with his relatives and his mother was released in 1946, but arrested for the second time in 1949, spending another 5 years in labor camps. She was fully released in 1954 and rehabilitated in 1956, along with her husband. In 1941, at the age of 17, one year before his scheduled graduation, he volunteered for the Red Army infantry. After his discharge from the service in 1944, he returned to Tbilisi where he passed his school graduation exams and enrolled at Tbilisi State University. After graduating, he worked as a teacher, first in a school in the village of Shamordino in Kaluga district. It was then, in the middle of the 1950s, that he began to compose songs and to perform them and his songs were praised by his friends, and amateur recordings were made. These unofficial recordings were widely copied as magnitizdat, and spread across the USSR and Poland, in 1969, his lyrics appeared in the classic Soviet film White Sun of the Desert. Vladimir Nabokov, for example, cited his Sentimental March in the novel Ada or Ardor, Okudzhava, however, regarded himself primarily as a poet and claimed that his musical recordings were insignificant. During the 1980s, he published a great deal of prose. By the 1980s, recordings of Okudzhava performing his songs finally began to be released in the Soviet Union. In 1991, he was awarded the USSR State Prize and he supported the reform movement in the USSR and in October 1993, signed the Letter of Forty-Two
37.
Sergey Nikitin (musician)
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Sergey Yakovlevich Nikitin is a prominent Soviet and Russian bard, composer, and biophysicist. He performs both solo and in a duet with his wife, Tatyana Nikitina all over Russia, the former Soviet republics, Sergey Nikitin is also known as a composer and performer of songs for children. Sergey Nikitin graduated from the Physics Department of Moscow State University in 1968, after completing postgraduate studies at the department of Biophysics at Moscow State University, he worked as a researcher in Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry in Moscow. In 1980-1987 he was a researcher at the Institute of Biophysics in Pushchino, Sergey Nikitin wrote music to his first song, En route, in 1962. In 1963, he founded a quartet in the Department of Physics at Moscow State University, together with Sergey Smirnov, Boris Geller, Aleksei Monakhov. In 1968-1977, he appeared at concerts, together with other members of his quintet, including his wife, Tatyana Nikitina, Carmen Santacreu, Vladimir Ulin. In 1987-1995, he was Musical Director at the Oleg Tabakov Studio-Theater in Moscow, Nikitin has two older sisters, and one adult son, Alexander, who sometimes performs in concerts with Sergey and Tatiana. 1980 The movie Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears for which Sergey Nikitin wrote the music received an Oscar in the best foreign film category. In 1997, Sergey Nikitin was awarded the title of the Meritorious Actor of Russia and, together with Tatiana Nikitina, became a laureate of the Tzarsko-Selsky Artistic Prize
38.
Vibrato
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Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music, Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors, the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied. In singing it can occur spontaneously through variations in the larynx, the vibrato of a string instrument and wind instrument is an imitation of that vocal function. In practice, it is difficult for a singer or musical instrument player to achieve a pure vibrato or tremolo, electronic manipulation or generation of signals makes it easier to achieve or demonstrate pure tremolo or vibrato. A Leslie speaker creates vibrato as a byproduct of tremolo production, as a Leslie speaker is moved by the rotating mechanism on which it is mounted, it moves closer to or farther away from any given object not also mounted on the mechanism. e. However, the size of effect is likely to be tiny compared against the tremolo effect since the distance oscillation is very small. The use of vibrato is intended to add warmth to a note and this can add a shimmer to the sound, with a well-made instrument it may also help a solo player to be heard more clearly when playing with a large orchestra. The rate and extent of the variation in pitch during vibrato is controlled by the performer, wind and bowed instruments generally use vibratos with an extent of less than half a semitone either side. Despite his technique, he was unable to play without vibrato, the featured saxophonist in Benny Goodmans Orchestra, George Auld, was brought in to play the part. Many classical musicians, especially singers and string players, have a similar problem, the use of vibrato in classical music is a matter of some dispute. For much of the 20th century it was used almost continuously in the performance of pieces from all eras from the Baroque onwards, especially by singers, a drastic change in approach cannot be understood wholly without regarding the rise of notionally historically informed performance from the 1970s onwards. However, there is no proof that singers performed without vibrato in the baroque era. Vocal music of the renaissance is almost never sung with vibrato as a rule, there are only a few texts from the period on vocal production, but they all condemn excessive use of vibrato. However, it should be understood that vibrato occurs over a range of intensities, slow, fast, wide. Leopold Mozart’s Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, for example, provides an indication of the state of vibrato in string playing at the end of the baroque period. This however, does not give anything more than an indication of Mozarts own personal taste, in this respect he resembles his contemporary, Francesco Geminiani, who advocated using vibrato as frequently as possible on short notes for this purpose. Certain types of vibrato, then, were seen as an ornament, in wind playing too, it seems that vibrato in music up to the 20th century was seen as an ornament to be used selectively. Martin Agricola writing in his Musica instrumentalis deudsch writes of vibrato in this way, occasionally, composers up to the baroque period indicated vibrato with a wavy line in the sheet music
39.
Fingerstyle guitar
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Fingerstyle guitar is the technique of playing the guitar by plucking the strings directly with the fingertips, fingernails, or picks attached to fingers, as opposed to flatpicking. The term is used synonymously with fingerpicking, although fingerpicking can also refer to a specific tradition of folk, blues. Often, the guitarist will play the notes, interspersed with the melodys accompanying chords. Some fingerpicking guitarists also intersperse percussive tapping along with the melody, chords and this enables a single guitarist to provide all of these important song elements. This enables singer-guitarists to accompany themselves, and it enables smaller groups which have only a single guitarist to use one guitarist to provide all of these musical elements. Fingerpicking is a technique on the classical or nylon string guitar. Fingerpicking is less common on electric guitars, except in the metal music virtuoso style of lead guitar playing known as shred guitar. Because individual digits play notes on the rather than the hand working as a single unit. Deep bass notes, harmonic accompaniment, melody, and percussion can all be played simultaneously when playing Fingerstyle, players do not have to carry a plectrum, but fingernails may have to be maintained at the right length and in good condition. It is possible to play multiple non-adjacent strings at exactly the same time and this enables the guitarist to play a very low bass note and a high treble note at the same time. This enables the guitarist to play double stops, such as an octave, a fifth, (an exception to this may be found in the flamenco technique of rasgueado. It is easy to play arpeggios, but the techniques for tremolo and it is possible to play chords without any arpeggiation, because up to five strings can be plucked simultaneously. There is less need for fretting hand damping in playing chords, a greater variation in strokes is possible, allowing greater expressiveness in timbre and dynamics. A wide variety of strums and rasgueados are possible, less energy is generally imparted to strings than with plectrum playing, leading to lower volume when playing acoustically. Playing on heavier gauge strings can damage nails, fingerstyle is more suited to nylon strings or lighter gauge steel strings Nylon string guitars are most frequently played fingerstyle. The term Classical guitar music can refer to any kind of art music played on a nylon string guitar, or more narrowly to music of the classical period, as opposed to baroque or romantic music. The major feature of classical fingerstyle technique is that it enables solo rendition of harmony, the technique is intended to maximise the degree of control over the musical dynamics, texture, volume and timbral characteristics of the guitar. Careful attention is paid to the posture of the player
40.
Alexander Rosenbaum
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Alexander Yakovlevich Rosenbaum PAR is a Soviet and Russian bard from Saint Petersburg. He is best known as an interpreter of the blatnaya pesnya genre, modern singers in this genre, such as Mikhail Shufutinsky often sing Rosenbaums songs. Rosenbaum graduated from the First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Peterburg in 1974 and his musical education consists of piano and choreography courses at a musical school. In 1968, while still a student, Rosenbaum started writing the songs for which he is famous and his early songs were for student plays, but he soon also wrote for rock groups and started performing as a singer-songwriter in 1983, sometimes under the pseudonym Ayarov. Among his most famous songs are the ones about Leningrad, the Soviet-Afghan War, Cossacks, songs such as Gop-Stop and Vals-boston are popular across Russian social groups and generations. Rosenbaum is an accomplished guitarist and accompanies himself on either a six- or twelve-string acoustic guitar, though many of his songs are elaborate in their instrumentation, the stress is placed on the primary melodies of his songs and their messages, as is usually the case in bard music. However many prominent Russian bards shun Rozenbaum and refuse to count him in as a member of their community, bard Song Anthology by Dmitry Sukharev widely acclaimed as Bible of Russian bard movement, listing nearly every author of every song, doesnt even mention his name. His lyrics are quite often heart-wrenching, telling stories of people in pain, suffering implacable fates. He sees himself not so much as a critic, but a patriot who sees the worst sides of his country. He has stated that his wide lyrical scope is due to his being a sort of medium, for example, he wrote many crime-related songs using their jargon, but he never lived the criminal life in reality. Similarly, many of his songs about the Cossacks were written without the benefit of ever having a relative from that community. Rosenbaums most popular and culturally relevant song to-date, and his greatest hit, is Vals-Boston, the title refers to a dance called the American Waltz, or alternatively the Boston. In concert, Rosenbaum performs either alone or with his band, in his solo concerts, his guitar accompaniment tends to be different every time in some way. He is known for the way he stretches or, contrarily, cuts the length of bars in a song, making the song unique. Rosenbaum is strongly opposed to lip synching during his concerts, a practice that has become widespread in Russia after the Soviet era. After all, the little things live, on December 7,2003 Alexander Rosenbaum took office as a member of the Russian parliament for Yedinaya Rossiya and deputy chairman of the State Duma Culture Committee. When asked by a journalist about what he had to sacrifice to be able to run for MP, Rosenbaum answered and he is also a supporter of Yisrael Beiteinu Israeli political party and sang the theme tune for the party in the Israeli legislative election,2009. Rosenbaum expressed support for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014, for this he was banned from entering Ukraine
41.
October Revolution
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It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on 25 October 1917. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and this immediately initiated the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first self-proclaimed socialist state. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces, Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917. The following day, the Winter Palace, was captured, the long-awaited Constituent Assembly elections were held on 12 November 1917. The Bolsheviks only won 175 seats in the 715-seat legislative body, coming in second behind the Socialist Revolutionary party, the Constituent Assembly was to first meet on 28 November 1917, but its convocation was delayed until 5 January 1918 by the Bolsheviks. On its first and only day in session, the body rejected Soviet decrees on peace and land, as the revolution was not universally recognized, there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. At first, the event was referred to as the October coup or the Uprising of 25th, in Russian, however, переворот has a similar meaning to revolution and also means upheaval or overturn, so coup is not necessarily the correct translation. With time, the term October Revolution came into use and it is also known as the November Revolution having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar. The Great October Socialist Revolution was the name for the October Revolution in the Soviet Union after the 10th anniversary of the Revolution in 1927. The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicolas II of Russia, however, the provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I, which became increasingly unpopular, a nationwide crisis developed in Russia, affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased, gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36% from what it had been in 1914. In the autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, at the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell about 50% from what they had been in 1913, russias national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles, the country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy. In these months alone, more than a million took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution, by October 1917, there had been over 4,000 peasant uprisings against landowners. When the Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants
42.
The Beatles
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The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. They acquired the nickname the Fab Four as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, from 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul, Revolver, Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, The Beatles and Abbey Road, after their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of cancer in November 2001. The Beatles are the band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act, according to the RIAA, the Beatles are also the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazines list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, as of 2016 and they have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 and they were also collectively included in Time magazines compilation of the twentieth centurys 100 most influential people. In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he, in February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, after a month of Harrisons persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennons Quarry Bank friends had left the group, the three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles, allan Williams, the Beatles unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960
43.
Elvis Presley
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Elvis Aaron Presley was an American singer and actor. Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is referred to as the King of Rock and Roll. Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi, and relocated to Memphis and his music career began there in 1954, when he recorded a song with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records. Accompanied by guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, Presley was a popularizer of rockabilly. RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, Presleys first RCA single, Heartbreak Hotel, was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States. He was regarded as the figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances. In November 1956, Presley made his debut in Love Me Tender. In 1958, he was drafted into military service, in 1973, Presley featured in the first globally broadcast concert via satellite, Aloha from Hawaii. Several years of drug abuse severely damaged his health. Presley is one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century and he won three Grammys, also receiving the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36, and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame. Presley was born on January 8,1935, in Tupelo, Mississippi, to Gladys Love and Vernon Elvis Presley, Jesse Garon Presley, his identical twin brother, was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before his own birth. Thus, as a child, Presley became close to both parents and formed an especially close bond with his mother. The family attended an Assembly of God, where he found his musical inspiration. Although he was in conflict with the Pentecostal church in his later years, rev. Rex Humbard officiated at his funeral, as Presley had been an admirer of Humbards ministry. Presleys ancestry was primarily a Western European mix, including Scots-Irish, Scottish, German, gladyss great-great-grandmother, Morning Dove White, was possibly a Cherokee Native American. Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family, Vernon moved from one odd job to the next, evincing little ambition. The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance, the Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak. In 1938, they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of kiting a check written by the landowner, Orville S. Bean and he was jailed for eight months, and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives
44.
Bulat Okudjava
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Bulat Shalvovich Okudzhava was a Soviet poet, writer, musician, novelist, and singer-songwriter of Georgian-Armenian ancestry. He was one of the founders of the Soviet genre called author song, or guitar song, and his songs are a mixture of Russian poetic and folksong traditions and the French chansonnier style represented by such contemporaries of Okudzhava as Georges Brassens. Bulat Okudzhava was born in Moscow on May 9,1924 into a family of communists who had come from Tbilisi, the son of a Georgian father, Shalva Okudzhava, and an Armenian mother, Ashkhen Nalbandyan, Bulat Okudzhava spoke and wrote only in Russian. Okudzavas mother was the niece of a well-known Armenian poet, Vahan Terian and his father served as a political commissar during the Civil War and as a high-ranking Communist Party member under the protection of Sergo Ordzhonikidze later on. His uncle Vladimir Okudzhava was an anarchist and a terrorist who left The Russian Empire after an attempt to assassinate the Kutaisi governor. He was listed among the passengers of the sealed train that delivered Vladimir Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev. Shalva Okudzhava was arrested in 1937 during the Great Purge, accused of trotskyism and wrecking and executed shortly after and his wife was also arrested in 1939 «for anti-Soviet deeds» and sent to a labor camp of Gulag. Bulat returned to Tbilisi to live with his relatives and his mother was released in 1946, but arrested for the second time in 1949, spending another 5 years in labor camps. She was fully released in 1954 and rehabilitated in 1956, along with her husband. In 1941, at the age of 17, one year before his scheduled graduation, he volunteered for the Red Army infantry. After his discharge from the service in 1944, he returned to Tbilisi where he passed his school graduation exams and enrolled at Tbilisi State University. After graduating, he worked as a teacher, first in a school in the village of Shamordino in Kaluga district. It was then, in the middle of the 1950s, that he began to compose songs and to perform them and his songs were praised by his friends, and amateur recordings were made. These unofficial recordings were widely copied as magnitizdat, and spread across the USSR and Poland, in 1969, his lyrics appeared in the classic Soviet film White Sun of the Desert. Vladimir Nabokov, for example, cited his Sentimental March in the novel Ada or Ardor, Okudzhava, however, regarded himself primarily as a poet and claimed that his musical recordings were insignificant. During the 1980s, he published a great deal of prose. By the 1980s, recordings of Okudzhava performing his songs finally began to be released in the Soviet Union. In 1991, he was awarded the USSR State Prize and he supported the reform movement in the USSR and in October 1993, signed the Letter of Forty-Two
45.
Soviet ruble
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The Soviet ruble was the currency of the Soviet Union. One ruble was divided into 100 kopeks, many of the ruble designs were created by Ivan Dubasov. In 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Soviet ruble continued to be used in the Post-Soviet states, forming a ruble zone, the word ruble is derived from the Slavic verb рубить, rubit, i. e. to chop. Historically, ruble was a piece of a certain weight chopped off a silver ingot, the word kopek, kopeck, copeck, or kopeyka is a diminutive form of the Russian kopyo — a spear. The Soviet currency had its own name in all Soviet languages, sometimes different from its Russian designation. All banknotes had the name and their nominal printed in the languages of every Soviet Republic. This naming is preserved in modern Russia, for example, Tatar for ruble and kopek are sum, the current names of several currencies of Central Asia are simply the local names of the ruble. Finnish last appeared on 1947 banknotes since the Karelo-Finnish SSR was dissolved in 1956, moldovan has switched to Latin and is once again referred to as Romanian. The first ruble issued for the Socialist government was an issue still based on the previous issue of the ruble prior to the Russian Revolution of 1917. They are all in form and started their issue in 1919. At this time other issues were made by the white Russian government and other governing bodies. Denominations are as follows,1,2,3,5,10,15,25,50,60,100,250,500,1,000,5,000,10,000,25,000,50,000,100,000. Short term treasury certificate were also issued to supplement banknote issue in 1 million,5 million,10 million rubles. These issue was printed in various fashions, as inflation crept up the security features were few and some were printed on one side, as was the case for the German inflationary notes. In 1918, state notes were introduced by the R. S. F. S. R. for 1,3,5,10,25,50,100,250,500,1,000,5,000 and 10,000 rubles. These were followed in 1919 by currency notes for 1,2,3,15,20,60,100,250,500,1000,5000 and 10,000 rubles. In 1921, currency note denominations of 5,50,25,000,50,000,100,000,1,000,000,5,000,000 and 10,000,000 rubles were added. In 1922, the first of several redenominations took place, at a rate of 1 new ruble for 10,000 old rubles, the chervonets was also introduced in 1922
