1.
Maldon, Essex
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Maldon is a town on the Blackwater estuary in Essex, England. It is the seat of the Maldon District and starting point of the Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation and it is most renowned for Maldon Sea Salt which is produced in the area. The place-name Maldon is first attested in 913 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, maldons name comes from Mael meaning monument or cross and dun meaning hill, so translates as monument on the hill. East Saxons settled the area in the 5th century and the area to the south is known as the Dengie Peninsula after the Dæningas. It became a significant Saxon port with a hythe or quayside, evidence of imported pottery from this period has been found in archaeological digs. From 958 there was a royal mint issuing coins for the late Anglo-Saxon and it was one of the only two towns in Essex, and King Edward the Elder is thought to have lived here while combating the Danish settlers who had overrun North Essex and parts of East Anglia. A Viking raid was beaten off in 924, but in another raid in 991 the defenders were defeated in the Battle of Maldon and it became the subject of the celebrated Old English poem The Battle of Maldon. The battle is commemorated by a window in St Marys Church, according to the Domesday Book there were 54 households and an estimated 180 townsmen in 1086. The town still had the mint and supplied a warhorse and warship for the service in return for its privileges of self-government. The town was awarded a charter by Henry II in 1171, stating the rights of the town as well as defining its borders, the towns All Saints Church, unique in England in having a triangular tower, dates from around this period. While the precise building date is unknown, the church existed by 1180, a Charter of Richard I of December 1189 confirms certain grants to Beeleigh Abbey, including the Church of Blessed Peter in Maldon and the Church of All Saints in the same town. St Marys Church, on the Hythe Quay has a grade 1 listed Norman nave from 1130, there were strong urban traditions, with two members elected to the Commons and three guilds which hosted lavish religious plays until they were suppressed by Puritans in 1576. Then, until 1630, professional actors were invited to perform plays, from 1570 to about 1800 a rival tradition of inviting prominent clergy to visit the town also existed. In 1629 a series of riots took place, led by the wife of a local butcher. The Plume Library is to be found at St Peters Church, only the original tower survives, the rest of the building having been rebuilt by Thomas Plume to house his library and what was Maldon Grammar School. Maldon was chosen as one of the sites of a planned French invasion of Britain in 1744. However, the French invasion fleet was wrecked in storms, in the church of All Saints is a memorial window to George Washington, whose great-great grandfather, Lawrence Washington, is buried here. Unveiled by an American diplomat on 5 July 1928, the window displays Saint Nicholas with the Mayflower, Saint George, at the top are the arms of the Washington family, and the arms of the USA, England, Scotland and Wales
2.
Harwich
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Harwich /ˈhærɪtʃ/ is a town in Essex, England and one of the Haven ports, located on the coast with the North Sea to the east. It is in the Tendring district, nearby places include Felixstowe to the northeast, Ipswich to the northwest, Colchester to the southwest and Clacton-on-Sea to the south. It is the northernmost coastal town within Essex, the town became a naval base in 1657 and was heavily fortified, with Harwich Redoubt, Beacon Hill Battery, and Bath Side Battery. Harwich today is contiguous with Dovercourt and the two, along with Parkeston, are referred to collectively as Harwich. The towns name means settlement, from Old English here-wic. The town received its charter in 1238, although there is evidence of earlier settlement – for example, a record of a chapel in 1177, because of its strategic position, Harwich was the target for the invasion of Britain by William of Orange on 11 November 1688. However, unfavourable winds forced his fleet to sail into the English Channel instead, due to the involvement of the Schomberg family in the invasion, Charles Louis Schomberg was made Marquess of Harwich. Writer Daniel Defoe devotes a few pages to the town in A tour thro the Whole Island of Great Britain, visiting in 1722, he noted its formidable fort and harbour of a vast extent. The town, he recounts, was known for an unusual spring rising on Beacon Hill. The locals also claimed that the spring is said to turn wood into iron. Harwich Dockyard was established as a Royal Navy Dockyard in 1652 and it ceased to operate as a Royal Dockyard in 1713. The Royal Navy is no longer present in Harwich but Harwich International Port at nearby Parkeston continues to offer regular services to the Hook of Holland in the Netherlands. Many operations of the container port at Felixstowe and of Trinity House. The port is famous for the phrase Harwich for the Continent, seen on road signs, at least three pairs of lighthouses have been built over recent centuries as leading lights, to help guide vessels into Harwich. The earliest pair were wooden structures, the High Light stood on top of the old Town Gate, in 1818 these were replaced by stone structures, designed by John Rennie Senior, which can still be seen today. They were owned by General Rebow of Wivenhoe Park, who was able to charge 1d per ton on all cargo entering the port, for upkeep of the lights. They were in turn replaced by the pair of cast iron lights at nearby Dovercourt, these too remain in situ, the extant medieval structures are largely private homes. The house featured in the image of Kings Head St to the left is unique in the town and is an example of a sailmakers house, thought to have been built circa 1600
3.
Thames sailing barge
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A Thames sailing barge was a type of commercial sailing boat common on the River Thames in London in the 19th century. The flat-bottomed barges were perfectly adapted to the Thames Estuary, with its shallow waters, the barges also traded much further afield, to the north of England, the South Coast and even to continental European ports. Cargoes varied enormously, bricks, mud, hay, rubbish, sand, coal and grain, due to the efficiency of a Thames barges gear, a crew of only two sufficed for most voyages, although by todays standards it would have been hard physical work at times. The vast majority of barges were wooden hulled, between 80–90 ft long with a beam of around 20 feet, the hull form was as distinctive as their rig, being flat-bottomed with a degree of flare to the sides and plumb ends. The stern was a transom, shaped like a section through a champagne glass, on which was hung a large rudder. The hull was mainly a hold with two living areas in the bow and stern, and access was through two large hatchways, the smaller before the main mast and a much larger aperture behind. They were usually rigged on two masts. Most had a topsail above the huge mainsail and a large foresail, the mizzen was a much smaller mast on which was set a single sail whose main purpose was to aid steering when tacking. The rig also allowed a large sail area on the upper part of the mast, to catch wind when moored ships. Sail areas varied from 3000-5000 sq ft depending on the size of the barge, the typical, rusty-red colour of the flax sails was due to the dressing used to waterproof them. No auxiliary power was used originally but many barges were fitted with engines in later years, a barge with no topsail - or top mast sailing stumpy-rigged - enabled the barge to pass under Londons bridges, get in close to shore for offloading goods and get far up river. In good conditions, sailing barges could attain speeds over 12 knots, the unusual spritsl rig allowed any combination of sails to be set, even the topsail on its own could be effective in some conditions. The flat-bottomed hull made these craft extremely versatile and economical and they could float in as little as 3 feet of water and could dry out in the tidal waters without heeling over. This allowed them to visit the narrow tributaries and creeks of the Thames to load cargoes, or to dry out on the sand banks. The main mast could be lowered to clear bridges, furthermore, unlike most sailing craft, these barges could sail completely unballasted — a major saving in labour and time. Their heyday came at the turn of the 20th century when over 2000 were on the registry and that century saw a steady decline in their numbers. The last Thames barge to trade entirely under sail was the Everard-built Cambria in 1970, Roberts sailed the Cambria for more than twenty years, and gained a reputation for hard sailing and fast passages in other Everard barges. Cambrias last mate was Dick Durham from Leigh-on-Sea, Essex, with whom Bob carried the last freight under sail alone,100 tons of cattle cake from Tilbury Docks to Ipswich in October 1970, Dick wrote Bob Roberts biography, The Last Sailorman
4.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
5.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
6.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
7.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
8.
Spritsail
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The spritsail is a form of three or four-sided, fore-aft sail and its rig. Unlike the gaff where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, this rig supports the leech of the sail by means of a diagonal spar or spars named a sprit. The forward end of the spar is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail. It is said to be the ancestor from which the common gaff rig evolved in 16th-century Holland, historically, spritsails were the first fore-and-aft rigs, appearing in Greco-Roman navigation in the 2nd century BC. The spritsail was best known from its use in the Thames sailing barge, the sprit is free to move laterally, nearly as far to each side as the shrouds. This enables the vessel to reach and run, the instability caused by allowing such a weighty spar to extend too far away from the vessels centreline, however, had to be borne in mind when designing hull and rigging. The peak of the sail is attached to the head of the sprit. The spritsail rig was used without a boom. Such loose-footed sails can also be found on the Norfolk wherry, in this last example, the ability to furl the foot of the sail cleared the deck of the sheet while the sail could still be controlled by the vangs. This made gunnery much more readily possible, from the deck, the sail can very readily be set or reduced by very small increments so as to control the power obtained from it. Meanwhile, the boom does not project outboard so that the vessel can reach through a gap between moored vessels. Also, the head of the sail or a similarly controlled topsail can readily be set so as to use of the air above the wind-shadow of moored ships, warehouses. This fine control of the sail without need for the crew to leave the deck, is achieved by brailing up, rather than lowering the mainsail, it is gathered up against its own luff and head by means of lines called brails. This technique is a way of stowing the mainsail but more importantly. However, it means that the sail is stowed aloft and unreachable from the deck and it also means that the sail cannot easily be covered when it is stowed, and thus protected from the elements. But in any case, the crews of working vessels did not trouble with such dainty ways, in keeping with the general philosophy of working boats, all sails would therefore be traditionally treated with red oxide and other substances. A good crew could sail under a low bridge without losing steerage way. In the photograph, the windlass can be seen below the tack of the foresail and the tackle at the foot of the forestay, in striking the gear, the foresail tack tackle had to be cast off
9.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
10.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
11.
Topsail
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A topsail is a sail set above another sail, on square-rigged vessels further sails may be set above topsails. On a square rigged vessel, a topsail is a sail rigged above the course sail. A full rigged ship has either single or double topsails on all masts, the single or lower topsail being the second sail above the deck, the bottom edge of the topsail, like that of other square sails, is slightly concave. Although topsails of a kind were used at least as early as Roman times, they first came into use in Europe some time in the 15th century. It was quite common for a ship to sail with topsails and jibs alone, the larger topsails were difficult and dangerous to handle in strong winds. Sometime in the 1680s, reef-bands were introduced to tie up part of the sail, with topsails eventually getting four of these, and reefing the sails became a regular occupation of sailors. In the mid 19th century, topsails of merchant vessels were split into upper and lower topsails that could be managed separately. Competing versions of the double topsail were invented by Robert Bennet Forbes, although Forbes strove to defend his rig, the Howe rig dominated. In the Forbes rig, both topsail yards are fixed vertically, in the Howe rig, the upper topsail yard slides on the topmast so it can be lowered in a few seconds to close reef the upper topsail. Howe had the foot of the upper topsail closely attached to the lower topsail yard, in 1865 the British clipper Ariel introduced a gap there. Forbes first tried his rig in the topsail schooner Midas in 1844. The clipper Climax built in 1853 under the supervision of Howes was the first ship with Howe rig, gaff topsails, like gaff rigs in general, may still be seen at Tall Ships gatherings. The gaff rig has been superseded by the Bermuda rig. On a gaff-rigged sailing boat, topsails may take a few different forms, a gaff-rigged vessel might have a gaff topsail above any or all of its gaff sails. A yard topsail is similar, but set on a yard, early 19th-century topsail yards were set almost horizontally, but gradually increased in angle until they became almost vertical extension of the topmast. A jack-yard topsail instead has its lower edge extended out beyond the end of the gaff with a short yard, a jack-yard topsail may also have the aforementioned vertical yard, although this makes for a very large topsail. A cornish topsail is a triangular sail having its luff extended well above the masthead by being laced to a yard hoisted by a halyard rove through a sheave fitted diagonally in the mast. The heel of the yard fits immediately about the gaff and is kept in place by a called a timminoggy. A square topsail is a sail, carried above the foresail only
12.
Mainsail
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A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel. On a square rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest sail on the main mast. On a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest and often the only sail rigged aft of the main mast, a sail rigged in this position without a boom is generally called a trysail, and is used in extremely heavy weather. Traditional fore-and-aft rigs used a four-sided gaff rigged mainsail, sometimes setting a gaff topsail above it, the modern Bermuda rig uses a triangular mainsail as the only sail aft of the mast, closely coordinated with a jib for sailing upwind. A large overlapping jib or genoa is larger than the mainsail. In downwind conditions a spinnaker replaces the jib, some mainsails are full-batten mainsails, meaning the batten extends all the way from the mast to the leeach of a sail. A partial batten extends from the mast partway to the leech, battens enable the mainsail to project farther away from the mast. However, there is some cost associated with the battens themselves, batten pockets need to be sewn into the sail, and batten cars may be needed to allow the sail to be raised and lowered. A mainsail may be fixed to the boom via slugs, cars, or a bolt-rope, or may be loose-footed, meaning it is attached at the tack. Before Nathanael Greene Herreshoffs invention of tracks and slides in the 1880s. Traditional mainsails were held against the mast by hoops that went the way around the mast. This meant a traditional mainsail could be raised no higher than the first point a rope or wire was required to keep the mast upright
13.
Foresail
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A foresail is one of a few different types of sail set on the foremost mast of a sailing vessel, A fore and aft sail set on the foremast of a schooner or similar vessel. The lowest square-sail on the foremast of a full rigged ship or other vessel which is square-rigged, sails set forward of the mainmast, such as jibs and staysails, are sometimes referred to as foresails, although headsails is a more common term. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC, the foresail became fairly common on Roman war galleys, where it seems to be used rather for steering than as a driver. Its size was reduced and the now strongly raked foremast made it appear like a bowsprit sail. While most of the evidence is iconographic, the existence of foresails can also archaeologically be deduced from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, but still large enough to require full running rigging. In late antiquity, the foremast lost most of its tilt, the dromon, the lateen-rigged and oared bireme of the Byzantine navy, almost certainly had two sails, a larger foresail and one midships. The length of its foremast has been estimated at about 12 m, multiple-masted sailing ships were reintroduced into the Mediterranean by the Late Middle Ages. Large vessels were coming more and more use and the need for additional sails to control these ships adequately grew with the increase in tonnage. Unlike in antiquity, the foresail was adopted on medieval two-masters after the mizzen, to balance out the sail plan the next obvious step was to add a mast fore of the main-mast, which first appears on an Catalonian vessel from 1409. Sail plan In-Arch. net, The Development of the Square-Rigged Ship from the Carrack to the Full-Rigger
14.
Flax
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Flax, Linum usitatissimum, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is a food and fiber crop cultivated in regions of the world. The textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, the oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word flax may refer to the fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is only as a cultivated plant, and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne. Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant. Cultivated flax plants grow to 1.2 m tall, with slender stems, the leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40 mm long, and 3 mm broad. The flowers are pale blue, 15–25 mm in diameter. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm in diameter, containing several brown seeds shaped like an apple pip. Flax was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region, evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed size by 9,000 years ago from Tell Ramad in Syria. Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland, in China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated also by at least 5,000 years ago. Flax was extensively cultivated in ancient Egypt, where the walls had paintings of flowering flax. Egyptian priests only wore linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity, phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean, and the Romans used it for their sails. Eventually, Flanders became the center of the linen industry in the European Middle Ages. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, Flax is grown for its oil, used as a nutritional supplement, and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as a plant in gardens. Flax fibers are used to make linen, the Latin species name usitatissimum means most useful. Flax fibers are taken from the stem of the plant, and are two to three times as strong as those of cotton, additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight
15.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
16.
Leeboard
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A leeboard is a lifting foil used by a sailboat, much like a centerboard, but located on the leeward side of the boat. The leeward side is used so that the leeboard is not lifted from the water when the boat heels, or leans under the force of the wind. Leeboards existed in China from at least the eighth century on warships that held the ships, so even when wind and wave arise in fury, they are neither driven sideways. Leeboards used to stabilize the junk and to improve its capability to sail upwind, are documented from a book by Li Chuan, the innovation was transmitted to Portuguese and Dutch ships around 1570. The Portuguese experimented with caulking their vessels in the Chinese manner, leeboards have been used by relatively large inshore sailing vessels used for transport since 1570, such as Dutch barges and Thames barges. For these boats, leeboards provided the advantages of shallow draught for working close inshore and they were also easier to build than a large centerboard would have been. Leeboards are no common in commercially built boats, because many people consider them inelegant. They are far more common in boats, especially the Puddle Duck Racer and stitch. Leeboards simplify construction of the hull, as they are attached to the outside and do not require holes in the hull, use of leeboards, while it adds complexity to the process of tacking, leaves the floor of the boat unobstructed. However, some small sailboat designers claim to have created seaworthy vessels with only a single, on a traditional two-leeboard design, the boards are designed so that the windward board can be retracted, to reduce drag. Unlike centerboards, which are symmetric along the axis, leeboards are often asymmetric. Some fast racing scows use bilgeboards, which are mounted between the centerline of the hull and the sides, so they can use a pair of foils for maximum lift
17.
Barge
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A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Some barges are not self-propelled and must be towed or pushed by towboats, Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around 1480, bark small ship is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca. The more precise meaning three-masted ship arose in the 17th century, both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek, βάρις, translit. Egyptian boat, from Coptic, ⲃⲁⲁⲣⲉ bāri small boat, hieroglyphic Egyptian, by extension, the term embark literally means to board the kind of boat called a barque. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying I wouldnt touch that with a barge pole. On the British canal system, the barge is used to describe a boat wider than a narrowboat. In the United States, deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman or the mate, the captain and pilot steer the towboat, which pushes one or more barges held together with rigging, collectively called the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the river system or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line-haul boats, poles are used on barges to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These are often called pike poles, barges are used today for low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for heavy or bulky items, a typical American barge measures 195 by 35 feet. The most common European barge measures 76.5 by 11.4 metres, as an example, on June 26,2006, a 565-short-ton catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled onsite, of the reactors 700-mile journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery. Canal barges are made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Many barges, primarily Dutch barges, which were designed for carrying cargo along the canals of Europe, are no longer large enough to compete in this industry with larger newer vessels. Many of these barges have been renovated and are now used as hotel barges carrying holidaymakers along the same canals on which they once carried grain or coal. This holds true today, for areas of the world
18.
Large goods vehicle
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A heavy goods vehicle, also large goods vehicle or medium goods vehicle, is the European Union term for any truck with a gross combination mass of over 3,500 kilograms. Sub-category N2 is used for vehicles between 3,500 kilograms and 12,000 kilograms and N3 for all vehicles over 12,000 kilograms as defined in Directive 2001/116/EC. The term medium goods vehicle is used within parts of the UK government to refer to vehicles of between 3.5 and 7.5 tonnes which according to the EU are also large goods vehicles. Commercial carrier vehicles of up to 3,500 kilograms are referred to as Light commercial vehicles, confusingly though, parts of the UK government refer to these as Light Goods Vehicles, with the term LGV appearing on tax discs for these smaller vehicles. Tax discs use the term HGV for vehicles over 3.5 tonnes and it is necessary to have an appropriate European driving licence to drive a large goods vehicle in the European Union. This licence can be obtained at 18 years of age and is the replacement for the HGV Class 3 in the UK, Category C allows the holder to drive any large goods vehicle with a trailer having a maximum authorised mass of up to 750 kilograms. This is effectively the new HGV Class 2 in the UK, Category C+E, allows the holder to drive any large goods vehicle with a trailer having a maximum authorised mass of over 750 kilograms. This licence could only be obtained after 6 months experience with a Class 2 truck and this is the new Class 1 licence. Drivers who passed a Category B test before 1 January 1997, will have received Categories C1 and C1+E through the Implied Rights issued by the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. All UK LGV licence holders must undergo a medical examination and eye test on application, at age 45. On reaching 65 years of age, an examination must be performed on an annual basis. In Canadas province of Ontario, drivers holding a Class A licence can drive tractor-trailers where the weight of the towed vehicle exceeds 4.6 tonnes. Drivers holding a Class B, C or D licence can drive trucks weighing 11 tonnes, hGVs and their drivers are covered by strict regulations in many jurisdictions, for example to improve safety, limit weight to that which will not excessively wear the transport infrastructure. The heavy weight of these leads to severe consequences for other road users in crashes
19.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
20.
Calais
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Calais is a town and major ferry port in northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the prefecture is its third-largest city of Arras. The population of the area at the 2010 census was 126,395. Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the English Channel, which is only 34 km wide here, the White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais. Calais is a port for ferries between France and England, and since 1994, the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail. Due to its position, Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and it was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production. The town came to be called the brightest jewel in the English crown owing to its importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, lace. Calais was a possession of England until its capture by France in 1558. In 1805 it was an area for Napoleons troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom. The town was razed to the ground during World War II. During World War II, the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England, the old part of the town, Calais proper, is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours. The modern part of the town, St-Pierre, lies to the south, south east of the Place is the church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais. It is arguably the only built in the English perpendicular style in all of France. In this church former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife Yvonne Vendroux, south of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel-de-ville, and the belfry from the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually, although the early history of habitation in the area is limited, the Romans called the settlement Caletum. Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1,000 sailing boats, five legions, as the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais, the haven behind it developed into fen, as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat. Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224, in 1189, Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade. Angered, the English king demanded reprisals against the citizens for holding out for so long
21.
Boulogne-sur-Mer
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Boulogne-sur-Mer, often called Boulogne, is a city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais, Boulogne lies on the Côte dOpale, a tourist coast on the English Channel, and is the most-visited location in its region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its departments second-largest city after Calais, and the 60th largest in France and it is also the countrys largest fishing port, specialising in herring. Boulogne was the major Roman port for trade and communication with Britain, the citys 12th-century belfry is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, while another popular attraction is the marine conservation centre Nausicaa. The French name Boulogne derives from the Latin Bononia, which was also the Roman name for Bologna in Italy, both places—and Vindobona —are thought to have derived from native Celtic placenames, with bona possibly meaning foundation, citadel, or granary. The French epithet sur-Mer distinguishes the city from Boulogne-Billancourt on the edge of Paris, in turn, the Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt originates from a church there dedicated to Notre-Dame de Boulogne, Our Lady of Boulogne. Boulogne-sur-Mer is in Northern France, at the edge of the Channel, Boulogne is a relatively important city of the North, exercising an influence on the Boulonnais territory. The coast consists of important tourist natural sites, like the capes Gris Nez and Blanc Nez, the hinterland is mainly rural and agricultural. Boulogne is close to the A16 motorway, metropolitan bus services are operated by Marinéo. The company Flixbus propose a bus line connecting Paris to Boulogne, there are coach services to Calais and Dunkerque. The city has railway stations, which the most important is Boulogne-Ville station, boulogne-Tintelleries station is used for regional transit. It is located near the university and the city centre, the former Boulogne-Maritime and Boulogne-Aéroglisseurs stations served as a boat connection for the railway. Boulogne currently has no cross channel ferry services since the closure of the route to Dover by LD Lines in 2010. The city is divided into parts, City centre, groups historic and administrative buildings. Fortified town, old-town where are a lot of monuments and also the city hall. It is surrounded by 13th-century ramparts very appreciated today by walkers, gambetta-Sainte-Beuve, tourist area situated in the northwest of the city, on the edge of the beach and the recreational harbour. Capécure, economic and industrial area, situated in the west of the city, saint-Pierre, former neighborhood of the fishermen, destroyed during the World War II and reconstructed after. Chemin Vert, zone borned in the 1950s, knowing today poverty and it is the neighborhood of Franck Ribéry
22.
Colchester
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Colchester /ˈkoʊltʃɛstər/ is an historic large town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in the county of Essex. As the oldest recorded Roman town in Britain, Colchester is claimed to be the oldest town in Britain and it was for a time the capital of Roman Britain, and is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. Colchester is some 50 miles northeast of London and is connected to the capital by the A12 road and it is seen as a popular town for commuters, and is less than 30 miles away from Stansted Airport and 20 miles from the passenger ferry port of Harwich. Colchester is home to Colchester Castle and Colchester United Football Club and it has a Conservative Member of Parliament, Will Quince, who was elected in the 2015 General Election. The River Colne runs through the town and it is a widely held belief that the name Colchester is derived from the Latin words Colonia and Castra, meaning fortifications. The earliest forms of the name Colchester are Colenceaster and Colneceastre from the 10th century, in this way of interpreting the name, the River Colne which runs through the town takes its name from Colonia as well. Cologne also gained its name from a similar etymology, ekwall went as far as to say it has often been held that Colchester contains as first element colonia. This derivation is ruled out of court by the fact that Colne is the name of old villages situated a good many miles from Colchester. The identification of Colonia with Colchester is doubtful, from these deposits beneath the town have been found Palaeolithic flint tools, including at least six Acheulian handaxes. Further flint tools made by hunter gatherers living in the Colne Valley during the Mesolithic have been discovered and this included a pit found at Culver Street containing a ritually placed Neolithic grooved ware pot, as well as find spots containing later Deverel-Rimbury bucket urns. Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a centre of power for Cunobelin – known to Shakespeare as Cymbeline – king of the Catuvellauni, who minted coins there. Its Celtic name, Camulodunon, variously represented as CA, CAM, CAMV, CAMVL and CAMVLODVNO on the coins of Cunobelinus, during the 30s AD Camulodunon controlled a large swathe of Southern and Eastern Britain, with Cunobelin called King of the Britons by Roman writers. Camulodunon is considered one of possible sites around Britain for the legendary Camelot of King Arthur. Soon after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD43, a Roman legionary fortress was established, later, when the Roman frontier moved outwards and the twentieth legion had moved to the west, Camulodunum became a colonia named in a second-century inscription as Colonia Victricensis. This contained a large and elaborate Temple to the Divine Claudius, Colchester is home to two of the five Roman theatres found in Britain, the one at Gosbecks being the largest in Britain, able to seat 5,000. Camulodunum served as a provincial Roman capital of Britain, but was attacked and destroyed during Boudicas rebellion in AD61, sometime after the destruction, London became the capital of the province of Britannia. Colchesters town walls c.3,000 yd. long were built c. 65–80 A. D. when the Roman town was rebuilt after the Boudicca rebellion. In 2004, Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered the remains of a Roman Circus underneath the Garrison in Colchester, the Roman town of Camulodunum, officially known as Colonia Victricensis, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD
23.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
24.
Dunkirk evacuation
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The operation was decided upon when large numbers of Belgian, Canadian, British, and French troops were cut off and surrounded by the German army during the Battle of France. In his We shall fight on the speech on 4 June. After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, France and the British Commonwealth, the British Expeditionary Force was sent to aid in the defence of France. After the Phoney War, Germany invaded Belgium and the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, by 21 May, the German forces had trapped the BEF, the remains of the Belgian forces, and three French armies in an area along the northern coast of France. On 22 May 1940, an order was issued by the German High Command. This gave the trapped Allied forces time to construct defensive works and pull back large numbers of troops toward Dunkirk, to fight the Battle of Dunkirk. On the first day of the evacuation, only 7,669 men were evacuated, but by the end of the eighth day, the BEF lost 68,000 soldiers during the French campaign and had to abandon nearly all of their tanks, vehicles, and other equipment. In his speech to the House of Commons on 4 June, wars are not won by evacuations. By May 1940 the force consisted of ten divisions in three corps under the command of General John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, working with the BEF were the Belgian Army and the French First, Seventh, and Ninth Armies. During the 1930s, the French had constructed the Maginot Line and this line had been designed to deter a German invasion across the Franco-German border and funnel an attack into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of the French Army. Thus, any war would take place outside of French territory avoiding a repeat of the First World War. He believed that any enemy force emerging from the forest would be vulnerable to a pincer attack, the French commander-in-chief, Maurice Gamelin, also believed the area to be of a limited threat, noting that it never favoured large operations. With this in mind, the area was lightly defended. The initial plan for the German invasion of France called for an encirclement attack through the Netherlands and Belgium, avoiding the Maginot Line. Erich von Manstein, then Chief of Staff of the German Army Group A, prepared the outline of a different plan and submitted it to the OKH via his superior, Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt. Mansteins plan suggested that Panzer divisions should attack through the Ardennes, then establish bridgeheads on the Meuse River, the Germans would thus cut off the Allied armies in Belgium and Flanders. This part of the later became known as the Sichelschnitt. Adolf Hitler approved a version of Mansteins ideas, today known as the Manstein Plan
25.
Little Ships of Dunkirk
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Because of the shallow waters, British destroyers were unable to approach the beaches, and soldiers were having to wade out to the warships, many of them waiting hours shoulder deep in water. Attention was directed to the boats, private yachts and launches moored on the River Thames and along the south. The boats were checked to make sure they were seaworthy, fueled and they were manned by Naval Officers, Ratings and experienced volunteers. Very few owners manned their own vessels, apart from fishermen, when they reached France, some of the boats acted as shuttles between the beaches and the destroyers, ferrying soldiers to the warships. Others carried hundreds of soldiers back to Ramsgate, protected by the Royal Air Force from the attacks of the Luftwaffe. This was the largest number evacuated by a passenger vessel in the operation. On 2 June, she was attacked by six German aircraft, a bomb dropped by one of them penetrated two of her decks and blew a hole below the water line, but she managed to limp back to port. Medway Queen, the steamer made the most round trips – seven – rescuing 7,000 men. Restored and rededicated in 2013, she can now be visited at the Gillingham Pier in Kent, sundowner, owned by Charles Lightoller, former second officer of the Titanic, was requisitioned by the Admiralty on 30 May. Lightoller insisted that, if anyone was going to take her to Dunkirk, it would be him and his eldest son, the men transported 130 soldiers back to Ramsgate, reportedly packed together like sardines, almost capsizing when they reached the shore. She is a ship at the Ramsgate Maritime Museum. Bluebird of Chelsea, the yacht made two trips to Kent, carrying hundreds of men. Tamzine, a boat less than 15 feet in length. In 1989 she was involved in a collision with Bowbelle on the River Thames with the loss of 51 lives, see also individual stations for more information in many cases. Abdy Beauclerk, a Watson-class lifeboat from Aldeburgh Lifeboat Station No.1 Station, cecil and Lilian Philpott, a Watson-class lifeboat from Newhaven, Sussex. She evacuated 51 soldiers but was high and dry on the beach for 4 hours until the next day when she resumed the evacuation. Charles Cooper Henderson, a Beach-class lifeboat from Dungeness, Kent, the lifeboat was taken to Dunkirk with a crew of naval ratings. She got back to Dungeness but had sustained some damage, Charles Dibdin, a Beach-class lifeboat from Walmer, Kent
26.
Beaufort scale
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The Beaufort scale /ˈboʊfərt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale, the scale was devised in 1805 by Irish-born Francis Beaufort, a Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. Beaufort succeeded in standardizing the scale, in 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923, director of the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors. The measure was slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists, the Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added. However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to only to special cases. Nowadays, the scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services defined the Beaufort Scale only up to Force 12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale. Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the relationship, v =0.836 B3/2 m/s Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface. For example, B =9.5 is related to 24.5 m/s which is equal to the limit of 10 Beaufort. Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale, however, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–Simpson Scale. Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, the wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent, e. g. 12–19 km/h is not equivalent to 8–12 mph, and both are not equivalent to 7–10 knots. The reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale and it was based on visual and subjective observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in different units were never made equivalent. The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met Éireann, Met Éireann issues a Small Craft Warning if winds of Beaufort force 6 are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. This scale is widely used in the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above, China also switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006, and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong Kong and Macau however keep using force 12 as the maximum, a set of red warning flags and red warning lights is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning
27.
Flare
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A flare, also sometimes called a fusee, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a brilliant light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for signalling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian, flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, the earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signalling purposes was the signal bomb used by the Song Dynasty Chinese as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in mid-air, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance, another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600, the Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih or Illustrated Military Encyclopedia written in 1791 depicts a signal gun in an illustration. Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition, flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects, many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, for example, the US Environmental Protection Agency have studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use, US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. In the civilian world, flares are used as signals. Flares are commonly found in survival kits. Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are recognized as a maritime distress signal. RMS Titanic however used rocket-launched distress shells to attract assistance, emitting white stars to a great height, another type of flare is the fusee, which burns for 10–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night, in this usage they are called highway flares, road flares. They are commonly found in emergency kits. Fusees are also known as flares and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use
28.
Brightlingsea
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Brightlingsea is a coastal town and an electoral ward in the Tendring district of Essex, England. It is situated between Colchester and Clacton-on-Sea, at the mouth of the River Colne, on Brightlingsea Creek, at the 2011 Census, it had a population of 8,076. Its traditional industries included fishery and shipbuilding, with the decline of these industries, the town is largely a dormitory town for Colchester. Brightlingsea is a limb of Sandwich, one of the Cinque Ports, the town retains an active ceremonial connection with the Cinque Ports, electing a Deputy from a guild of Freemen. Brightlingsea was for many years twinned with French oyster fishery port Marennes, Charente-Maritime, in the mid-1990s, the port of Brightlingsea was used for the export of live animals for slaughter, leading to a protest campaign dubbed The Battle of Brightlingsea. In the centre of the town is Jacobs Hall, reputedly the oldest timber-framed building in England, also in the town centre is Victoria Place, where many local businesses are based. To the west, on the creek is Western Promenade and it has lines of beach huts, a skate park, swimming pool, boating lake, and paddling pool. It is a destination for tourists and Londoners. Batemans Tower, a landmark by the sea, has recently been renovated by the Colne Yacht Club with help from a Lottery Fund grant. Brightlingsea sits on a promontory surrounded by the River Colne and its marshes and creeks. In 1995, an Early Neolithic pot, dated 4,000 to 3,100 BC, was found in a D-shaped enclosure with a ditch on a farm near Brightlingsea, other early remains in the area date from the Bronze Age, Roman and Saxon periods. In the Domesday Book of 1087, the population of Brightlingsea was given as 24 villagers,26 smallholders and 5 slaves, the lord of the manor had been King Harold Godwinson, but the title had passed to King William I. The medieval town grew up two centres, firstly around the parish church and secondly close to the shore where a port had developed. Trade was in oysters, fish, copperas and locally made bricks, the Cinque Ports were a confederation of the five most important ports on the coast of the English Channel. They had obligations to provide ships and men to fight for the king in time of war but were compensated by exemptions from taxation. All of the Cinque Ports acquired Limbs or subsidiary ports that would ease the burden of their wartime obligations, Brightlingsea became a Limb of the Head Port of Sandwich, and is the only community outside Kent and Sussex which has any connection with the Confederation of the Cinque Ports. In 1867 the yacht Mignonette was built by Aldhous Successors in Brightlingsea, the Marionette foundered on its way to Australia in 1884. In desperation, three of the four shipwrecked crew killed and ate the sickest member, the subsequent trial, R. v. Dudley and Stephens, established the common law principle that necessity is not a valid defence against a charge of murder
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Foulness
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Foulness is an island on the east coast of Essex in England, which is separated from the mainland by narrow creeks. In the 2001 census, the resident population was 212, living in the settlements of Churchend and Courtsend. The population reduced to 151 at the 2011 Census, the island has a general store and post office. The George and Dragon pub in Churchend closed in 2007, while the closed in May 2010. Foulness Island is predominantly farmland and is protected from the sea by a sea wall, the islands unusual name is derived from the Old English for wild birds and promontory, and it is an internationally important site for migrating and breeding birds, including avocets. During the North Sea flood of 1953, almost the entire island was flooded, prior to 1922, when the military road was built, the only access was across the Maplin Sands via the Broomway, a tidal path said to predate the Romans, or by boat. Although public rights of way exist, the island is run by QinetiQ on behalf of the Ministry of Defence, the islands visitor centre is opened to the public on the first Sunday in summer months, but permission must be sought to visit. Until 2007, members of the public could visit the pub by telephoning ahead, if they had not done so. Foulness is part of the ward called Foulness and Great Wakering. The population of this ward at the 2011 census was 5,738, the island covers 9.195 square miles bounded by its sea walls. Before 1847, tithes were payable in kind, but under the terms of the General Tithe Act of 1836, the commutation commission, who were responsible for setting the level of payments, produced a details schedule and map in 1847, which provides a detailed land usage survey. At the time, the island included 425 acres of saltings, the 5,885 acres inside the wall comprised 4,554 acres of arable land, with pasture covering another 783 acres. 338 acres were described as water, which was made up of ponds and drainage ditches, while buildings, roads. The arable land was used to grow crops, namely wheat, oats and barley. Cheap imports of wheat from America caused widespread depression among agricultural communities in the 1870s, Great Burwood Farm had 47 acres of its 389 acres in use as pasture in 1858, which had dropped to just 12 acres in 1899. Land prices in the same period dropped dramatically, as the farm was bought for £11,165 in 1858 and sold for only £1,800 in 1899, by the 1970s, the smaller farms had amalgamated into five large farming businesses. The surface of the island, along much of South East England, has been sinking relative to normal tide levels since the end of the last Ice Age. There is no evidence for sea defences in the period of Roman occupation, although the area was flooded in AD31 by an exceptional tide, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also records an exceptional tide on 11 November 1099 which flooded the land, but these were rare occurrences
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
National Historic Ships
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As well as providing formal advice to funding bodies, it also gives direct assistance to vessel owners, for example through its small grants scheme and its directory of relevant skills and services. Substantially intact Inclusion on the Register is with the owners consent, the records include details of designer, builder, dimensions, construction, propulsion, service history and current location, as well as images of many of the vessels. The National Register of Historic Vessels contains a sub-group of some 200 vessels that comprise The National Historic Fleet, the National Archive of Historic Vessels includes details of vessels no longer on the NRHV because they have been scrapped, lost, or moved abroad. It also includes vessels that do not meet all the criteria for inclusion on the NRHV but are nevertheless of historic interest, there are currently over 1,000 vessels on the National Register of Historic Vessels and over 400 vessels on the National Archive of Historic Vessels. The registers provide an assessment of the significance of historic vessels. The database can also be a research tool, although confidential information about ownership etc. is always kept secure. Over 57% of historic vessels recorded on the National Register of Historic Vessels are either owned or commercially operated. Museums and charitable trusts account for 14% of the total, fully searchable versions of the databases are available on National Historic Ships website. Barcelona Charter List of museum ships National Historic Ships website
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Albion (wherry)
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Built in 1898, she served as a trading vessel and then as a lighter until being acquired by the Norfolk Wherry Trust for restoration and preservation in 1949. Since 1981 she has been moored at the Norfolk Wherry Trust wherry base at Womack Water near Ludham and she is listed on the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom as part of the National Historic Fleet. Albions construction is unique amongst Norfolk Wherries as she is carvel built whereas all others are clinker built and she is steered from a small aft well by rudder and tiller. Albions registered tonnage is 22.78 and her length overall is 65 ft with a 58 ft hull and her beam is 15 ft and she draws 4 ft 6 in. Her mast is 42 feet tall and her sail area is 1,200 square feet. Albion was built by William Billy Brighton at his shipyard on Lake Lothing between Oulton Broad and Lowestoft for W. D. and A. E. Walker and she cost £455 to build and was launched in October 1898 in a livery of green with a brown oxide top. Her crew consisted a man and a boy, Albion was nearly lost in January 1929 when she sank near Great Yarmouth Bridge but was raised 3 days later. She had a mishap in 1931 when she lost her mast but had it replaced with that of the wherry Sirius. Albion was allocated the United Kingdom Official Number 148735, although designed to carry 36 long tons of cargo, she is recorded as carrying 41 long tons of cargo on one occasion. In normal service, Albion made 3 to 5 knots, with 7 to 8 knots being considered her normal maximum and it is rumoured that she achieved 9 to 10 knots in a race on Breydon Water when her mast snapped. She continued to ply as a trading wherry, however, after sinking a further two times, it was recognised that this was economically unsustainable and in 1961 the Trust decided that Albion would never carry dirty cargo again. In 2010, Albion was awarded the position by National Historic Ships in their annual Flagship competition. An award of £250 was made to the Norfolk Wherry Trust in recognition of this, Albion flew a pennant during the 2010 season denoting this achievement. Norfolk Broads wherries The Norfolk Wherry Trust – Home of the Albion Albion on the Register of Historic Vessels
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SB Cambria
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SB Cambria is a preserved spritsail barge used for sail training. She is owned and operated by the Cambria Trust, a charity under English law. Cambria is a sister to the spritsail SB Hibernia which was lost off the coast of Norfolk on the evening of 9/10 November 1937, william built Cambria for £1895, whilst her sister barge cost £1905. She was also faster than Hibernia and it came second in the coasting class in the Thames. Brusher Milton was her first skipper and he recounted one event, when she arrived in Dover, an hour ahead of a steamer which she had overtaken on her way up the Channel from the Solent. We were doing nine knots, quoted on the steamer, and she was the last Thames sailing barge, to trade entirely under sail, and was owned by Captain A. W. Roberts. Roberts sailed the Cambria for more than twenty years, and gained a reputation for hard sailing and fast passages in other Everard barges. Cambrias last mate was Dick Durham from Leigh-on-Sea, Essex, with whom Bob carried the last freight under sail alone,100 tons of cattle cake from Tilbury Dock to Ipswich in October 1970, Dick wrote Bob Roberts biography, The Last Sailorman. Bob Roberts sold Cambria to the Maritime Trust in 1971, for display at St Katharine Docks in London, but she was not looked after very well and in 1987, the Maritime Trust was disbanded. It was agreed that the barge was moved to the Dolphin Sailing Barge Museum at Sittingbourne, on 6 September 2007, Cambria came to Standard Quay in Faversham for restoration and rebuilding after the Barge Museum was damaged in a fire. Her funded restoration cost a £1.4 million with help from the National Lottery and she was re-launched into the Faversham Creek on 23 March 2011. She then underwent sea trials and then re-fitting to prepare her for use in supporting local schools and she won the coasting class in the 2011 Thames sailing barge match. In 2012, the 82nd Thames Sailing Barge Match took place, Cambria won again and Edith May came fifth, behind Thalatta, Lady of the Lea and Pudge. Prizes were presented by Richard Horlock and special guest Griff Rhys Jones, in 2013 another Thames Barge Match took place. Cambria came 1st in the Coasting class, Thames Barge Cambria Trust site Cambria under restoration photo site The Barge Blog archive about Cambria Documentary about the Cambria narrated by Captain Bob Roberts
34.
Cutty Sark
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Cutty Sark is a British clipper ship. She continued as a ship until purchased in 1922 by retired sea captain Wilfred Dowman. After his death, Cutty Sark was transferred to the Thames Nautical Training College, by 1954, she had ceased to be useful as a cadet ship and was transferred to permanent dry dock at Greenwich, London, for public display. Cutty Sark is listed by National Historic Ships as part of the National Historic Fleet, the ship has been damaged by fire twice in recent years, first on 21 May 2007 while undergoing conservation. She was restored and was reopened to the public on 25 April 2012, on 19 October 2014 she was damaged in a smaller fire. Cutty Sark was ordered by shipping magnate John Willis, who operated a company founded by his father. The company had a fleet of clippers and regularly took part in the tea trade from China to Britain. In 1868 the brand new Aberdeen built clipper Thermopylae set a time of 61 days port to port on her maiden voyage from London to Melbourne. It is uncertain how the shape for Cutty Sark was chosen. Willis chose Hercules Linton to design and build the ship but Willis already possessed another ship, The Tweed, which he considered to have exceptional performance. The Tweed was a designed by Oliver Lang based on the lines of an old French frigate. She and a ship were purchased by Willis, who promptly sold the second ship plus engines from The Tweed for more than he paid for both. The Tweed was then lengthened and operated as a fast sailing vessel, Willis also commissioned two all-iron clippers with designs based upon The Tweed, Halloween and Blackadder. Linton was taken to view The Tweed in dry dock, Willis considered that The Tweeds bow shape was responsible for its notable performance, and this form seems to have been adopted for Cutty Sark. Linton, however, felt that the stern was too barrel shaped, the broader stern increased the buoyancy of the ships stern, making it lift more in heavy seas so it was less likely that waves would break over the stern, and over the helmsman at the wheel. The square bilge was carried forward through the centre of the ship, in the matter of masts Cutty Sark also followed the design of The Tweed, with similar good rake and with the foremast on both ships being placed further aft than was usual. A contract for Cutty Sarks construction was signed on 1 February 1869 with the firm of Scott & Linton and their shipyard was at Dumbarton on the River Leven on a site previously occupied by shipbuilders William Denny & Brothers. The contract required the ship to be completed six months at a contracted price of £17 per ton
35.
RRS Discovery
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RRS Discovery was the last traditional wooden three-masted ship to be built in Britain. Designed for Antarctic research, it was launched as a Royal Research Ship in 1901 and it is now the centrepiece of visitor attraction in its home, Dundee. In charge of her design was W. E. Smith, one of the naval architects at the Admiralty, while the ships engine, boilers. The main compass was mounted amidships and there were to be no steel or iron fittings within 30 feet of this point. For the same reason the boiler and engines were mounted towards the stern of the ship, the yard was previously owned by Alexander Stephen and Sons and had built the Terra Nova in 1884. 1m in modern currency. At her economical cruising speed of 6 knots she only carried enough coal for 7700 miles of steaming, at 8 knots she could steam only 5100 miles. She was rigged as a barque and the total sail area was 12,296 square feet. Following the practice of the most modern sailing ships of the time, the ship was rigged to carry several large staysails and the funnel was hinged at the base so it could be laid on the deck when the large mizzen staysail was rigged once at sea. At the time of her launch Discovery was widely held to be the strongest wooden ship ever built, the hull frames, placed much closer together than was normal, were made of solid sections of oak up to 11 inches thick. The outer hull was formed from two layers - one 6 inches thick and an outer skin some 5 inches thick, a third lining was laid inside the frames, forming a double bottom and skin around almost the entire hull. This meant that in places the hull was over 2 feet thick, providing not only formidable strength, the construction meant that it was impossible to install portholes so the crew relied on mushroom vents on the deck to allow air and light into the interior. The outer hull is made of English Elm and Greenheart, oak beams run across the hull forming three decks - the lower deck beams are 11 inches square in cross-section and are placed less than three feet apart along the ships length. Seven transverse bulkheads, also of wood, provide additional strength, to prevent damage from ice floes or crushing the two-blade propeller could be hoisted out of the way and the rudder could be easily detached and stored aboard. Iron-shod bows were severely raked so that when ramming the ice they would ride up over the margin, the coal bunkers on each side contained a steel tank, each of which could hold 60 tons of fresh water. On the long trip to and from New Zealand these tanks could hold additional coal. The metal tanks also contributed to the strength of the hull around the boiler. She was launched into the Firth of Tay on 21 March 1901 by Lady Markham, the British National Antarctic Expedition departed the UK less than five months after the Discovery was launched and only a week after the ship left Dundee
36.
Earl of Pembroke (tall ship)
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Earl of Pembroke is a wooden, three masted barque, currently used for maritime festivals, charters, charity fund raising, corporate entertaining and film work. The current rig has been designed and built to resemble the famous HMS Endeavour on board of which Captain Cook discovered Australia and it is known that the Endeavour used to be called Earl of Pembroke in the days when she worked as a coal trader in the West Country. Earl of Pembroke as we know her today has been built with festivals and her three masted rig and the interrupted decks create a beautiful and unforgettable silhouette of a classic sailing ship. There is no superstructure or wheelhouse to interrupt the lines, what goes with it she only needs minimal work to get a perfect, period correct aerial or side shot. With a little bit more effort she can be made to look like an old Spanish Galleon or steam-sailing ship from the age of the Arctic expeditions. She is a truly magnificent vessel built as a real, working wooden sailing boat and maintained in that way to preserve her natural character and she was built in Pukavik, Sweden as Orion in 1945. The ship was used to haul timber in the Baltic Sea until 1974 and she was brought over to the UK in 1980 and the full restoration began in 1985. As part of the restoration, the rig was changed from the original Schooner to her current Barque type, as soon as the work to bring her back from the dead was completed and the new rig was up Earl of Pembroke quickly become producers favourite vessel. Both small and big screen movie makers proved very interested in the versatility and it is not surprising that she also proved very popular amongst the organisers of many maritime festivals around the UK and Europe. In, Ships and Shipyards, Sailors and Fishermen, Introduction to Maritime Ethnology by Olof Hasslöf, Henning Henningsen and Arne Emil Christensen Jr. Copenhagen,1972
37.
Edith May
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Edith May is a wooden Thames sailing barge, built in Harwich, Essex in 1906. She was then used to carry various cargoes until 1952, when an engine was fitted and she was then used in various Thames Sailing Barge matches. She was a ship for a time, and was restored in 2010 to offer charter trips on the River Medway. The Thames sailing barge Edith May was built for her owners, William Barrett of 153 Mornington Road, Leytonstone, Essex. She was then sold to Alfred Sully, who managed the barge from just after the First World War and they owned many Thames sailing barges at that time, with Edith May the smallest barge. The barge continued in the ownership of Sully’s throughout her life, carrying cereal products, wheat. Her largest cargo was 133 tons of wheat, but more typically she would carry around 120 tons, in 1952 an auxiliary engine was fitted. In 1953, she won the Thames Barge Sailing match under the skippership of Chubb Horlock and it was believed to be the Coronation Match of that year. In September 1957, she was converted into a barge at Colchester. Then Vernon Harvey bought the barge from trade and she was re-rigged with the gear from the famous racing barge, Veronica when her career ended in 1963. Regarded as a day racing Queen, the Edith May dominated the Sailing Barge Matches of the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s. After 1961, she was re-rigged by Jack Spitty for the owner, in January 1961, she operated as a motor barge, skippered by Bob Childs, a local bargeman. Bob in his retirement, wrote the book Rochester Barges, in 1966, Jack Spitty became the Skipper in several matches. Anglia Television produced a programme about Jack Spitty and his barge Edith May as part of the Bygones series, in 1971, Jack Spitty also won the Blackwater Sailing barge race. She was sold and moved to Liverpool during the 1980s before returning to Maldon in 1987. Sea Breezes Publications August 2011, to operate as a charter barge. She sat in St Katharine Docks, London, for years and was not maintained very well. Then on 7 October 1999 she was bought by Geoff Gransden who moved her to Lower Halstow on the River Medway, in September 2009, a sail maker began measuring up for new sails. On 21 November 2009, she was open to the public for an exhibition of local artists and she then opened to the public every weekend after that date
38.
Excelsior (smack)
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Excelsior is an authentically restored fishing smack of the Lowestoft fishing fleet and a member of the National Historic Fleet. She was built by John Chambers of Lowestoft in 1921 and worked until 1936 before being converted into a motor coaster, in 2011 Excelsior celebrated her 90th birthday. During her time as a motor coaster she was known as Svinor and she measures 23 metres long with a beam of 5.9 metres and is ketch rigged and is the last traditional sailing trawler able to tow a full-sized traditional trawl net. Excelsior was restored in 1989 and operates as a training vessel based out of Lowestoft, able to accommodate up to 17 people. Mincarlo - last surviving Lowestoft Sidewinder fishing trawler
39.
Glenlee (ship)
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Glenlee is a steel-hulled three-masted barque, built in 1896 for Glasgow owners, trading as a cargo ship. From 1922 she was a training ship in the Spanish Navy. She is now a museum ship at the Riverside Museum on Pointhouse Quay, Glasgow and she has a hull length of 245.5 ft, beam of 37.5 ft and depth of 22.5 ft, the over-all length with the spike bowsprit is 282 ft. She has 1,613 GRT and 1,490 NRT, rigged only with double topgallant sails over double top sails, she was not equipped with royal sails to save costs concerning gear and seamen. As with many baldheaded sailing ships the square sails were a wider than the sails of a standard rigging to gain sail area for a better propulsion. On 13 December 1896, just ten days after she was launched fully rigged and seaworthy, her maiden voyage brought her in ballast to Liverpool and from there with a cargo to Portland. Islamount was renamed the Clarastella in 1919 when she changed hands to the Star of Italy Italian Shipping Company of Milan who registered her in Genoa, the new owner had her repaired and equipped with two auxiliary diesel engines. In 1922 the ship came into the hands of the Officers Military Navy School as Galatea to be used as a training ship. During this period the ship underwent a lot of changes to her hull, a flying bridge was installed on the poop deck, a flying jibboom was attached to the spike bowsprit, and many other changes such as the installation of accommodation facilities for 300 cadets. In April 1931 she became part of the Spanish Republican Navy, at the time of the coup of July 1936 she was at sea and reached Ferrol, a harbour that had been taken by the Nationalist faction. After more than 47 years of service as a sail and later on as a training ship she was first laid up in A Graña, Ferrol. In 1981 the underwater hull was re-plated at the drydock in Ferrol, later Galatea was completely de-rigged down to a hulk and was towed to Seville to be used as a floating museum, but left forgotten. Some sources even reported that the ship was sunk in the harbour by removing her bronze sea cock valve, in any case, the ship was in such poor condition that it was eventually decided to scrap her. In 1990 a British naval architect discovered the ship and in 1993 she was rescued from being scrapped, after making the hull seaworthy the ship was returned to Glasgow months later in tow from Seville. Except for the hull a new ship had to be rebuilt. All the changes made to the ship by the Spanish and previous owners had to be removed, such as all the cabins built for the trainees, Glenlee is now recognised as part of the National Historic Fleet. As a museum ship and tourist attraction, Glenlee offers educational programmes, events including exhibitions and is a venue for the West End Festival and volunteering opportunities. Since June 2011, the ship has been open at Glasgows new Riverside Museum. oktett. net The Tall Ship, Glenlee - Clyde Waterfront Heritage
40.
Hathor (wherry)
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Hathor is one of only six surviving Norfolk pleasure wherries to be found on the Norfolk Broads. Like two of the other surviving wherries, Maud and Solace, she was built by D. S, Hathor has been listed on the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom since 1996, and is part of the National Historic Fleet. Hathor was built in 1905 for Ethel and Helen Colman, daughters of Jeremiah Colman, Hathor remained in the Colman/Boardman family until 1954 when she was sold to Claud Hamilton who owned her for almost 10 years. She was then sold on and used as a houseboat until 1985 when the Wherry Yacht Charter Trust purchased her in a dilapidated state and undertook an extensive two-year restoration. As of 2010, Hathor is in sailing order but is currently laid-up at Wroxham awaiting an out-of-the-water survey, the repair and refit are due to be finished in 2013. Her interior has an Egyptian theme designed by Norwich architect Edward Boardman and she is 60 feet 0 inches long, with a beam of 14 feet 2 inches and a draught of 4 feet 0 inches. She is assessed as 23.01 GT, Hathor has not been fitted with an engine and relies on wind and quanting for propulsion. Wherry Yacht Charter Charitable Trust Boats of the Norfolk Broads
41.
Irene (ketch)
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Irene is a 100-foot ketch built in Bridgwater in 1907, the last ship built in the docks and the only ketch built in the West Country still sailing. It was built by FJ Carver and Son and launched in May 1907, the Blake Museum in Bridgwater opened an exhibit about the ship in 2010. She was first owned by Symons of Bridgwater and named after Irene Symons, for 53 years the ship was a trading vessel for bricks, tiles and other goods, mainly in the Severn estuary and to Ireland. She was owned by the Bridgwater Brick and Tile Company, the ship retired from service in the 1960s and was found derelict by Dr Leslie Morrish, the present owner, in 1965. The ship was restored in Brentford, Middlesex, and the hold was converted into quarters for 15. The ship was a vessel in the Caribbean until she sank due to a fire in 2003 and was restored once more. She ran aground off Arran on the way to the Tall Ships Race in Greenock July 2011, list of ship launches in 1907 Official website Irene, National Historic Ships UK on the National Register of Historic Vessels
42.
Kathleen and May
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The Kathleen and May is the last remaining British built wooden hull three masted top sail schooner. Registered in Bideford, North Devon, but presently based in Liverpool and she was built in 1900 by Ferguson and Baird at their Connahs Quay, Flintshire yard, for local shipping company Coppack Bros. Constructed with a frame of oak, these were covered by 3 inches thick seasoned pitch pine planks, fastened to the frames with treenails. Launched in April 1900 under Captain John Coppack, she was named Lizzie May after the Captain’s daughters, fleming modified her, adding before World War I both a longer lower yard to lengthen the middle sail, and a martingale fitted to the bowsprit. She now plied her trade between Youghal and the ports of the Bristol Channel, as a coal lugger, in 1931 she was sold to Captain Jewell of Appledore, North Devon. On arrival in her new port, she was fitted with an 80 brake horsepower Beardmore diesel engine. After surviving the storms of February 1936, in 1937 she experienced engine trouble in sight of Youghal’s lighthouse, in 1943, her engine was upgraded to a 125 brake horsepower Deutz diesel. After the death of Captain Jewell in 1945, she passed to his son Tommy, in 1947 he had the martingale removed, but continued to ply her on the Irish Sea coal trade, which was now in severe decline. He sold most of his collection of vintage and veteran motor cars to raise the money to buy her, with a crew of one, Paul sailed her around the coast to Appledore, where she was berthed on the mud in the estuary outside the port. The Duke of Edinburgh in a bid to preserve a number of examples of Britains decaying maritime heritage set up the Maritime Trust in London, the Trust moved her to Gloucester Docks, and began restoring her as a typical West Country schooner. But failed to secure a £2 million National Lottery Heritage Fund grant, businessman Steve Clarke from Bideford, Devon then bought her. Towed by sea to Bideford, in February 1999 she was hauled out of the water by two 1,000 tonnes heavy lift mobile cranes, and placed on to the disused Brunswick Wharf at East-the-Water. 70% of the planking was stripped from the frames, enabling most of her internal timbers to later be refitted. While the stern of the ship was stripped down to the keels, once the frames were refitted, the surviving parts of the original frames were steam cleaned at 3000psi, to kill fungal spores. The ship was fitted with a 400 brake horsepower Detroit diesel ex-lifeboat engine, the ship now carries enough fuel to do 2,000 miles under engine power alone. Redecked with new seasoned timbers, she was given a refit, with all masts. On completion, she underwent a rigorous MCA CAT2 inspection, as a result of his efforts in restoring Kathleen and May, Councillor Steve Clarke was awarded the OBE in 2008. Based in Bideford on the River Torridge, since her restoration Kathleen & May now regularly sails across the Bristol Channel and she has returned to Youghal, attended various festivals, and sailed across the Bay of Biscay to Bilbao as the paid guest of the Guggenheim museum
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