1.
Semi-automatic pistol
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One cartridge is fired each time the trigger of a semi-automatic pistol is pulled, the pistols disconnector ensures this behavior. Additional terms sometimes used as synonyms for a semi-automatic pistol are automatic pistol, self-loading pistol, autopistol, a semi-automatic pistol harnesses the energy of one shot to reload the chamber for the next. After a round is fired, the spent casing is ejected, most pistols use recoil operation to do this, but some pistols use blowback or gas operation. Most types of semi-automatic pistols rely on a magazine to store ammunition before it is fired. Typically, the first round is loaded into the chamber by pulling back. This is called racking the slide or racking the gun, after the trigger is pulled and the round is fired, the recoil operation of the handgun automatically extracts and ejects the shell casing and reloads the chamber. This mode of operation allows for faster reloading and storing a larger number of cartridges than a revolver. Each pull of the trigger on a DAO semi-automatic pistol requires the amount of pressure. The Kel-Tec P-32 is an example of a DAO action, DAO semi-automatic pistols are most generally recommended only in the smaller, self-defense, concealable pistols, rather than in target or hunting pistols. A notable exception is Glock-brand pistols which optimize preset triggers, and this allows for significantly shorter trigger pulls than DAO. The trigger spring can be replaced with a one and paired with a low-strength sear connector resulting in lightened trigger pulls to improve a shooters accuracy. Standard modern semi-automatic pistols are double action, also sometimes known as double-action/single-action. In this design, the hammer or striker may be either thumb-cocked or activated by pulling the trigger when firing the first shot, the hammer or striker is recocked automatically during each firing cycle. In double-action pistols, the first pull of the trigger requires roughly twice as much pressure as subsequent firings, the Beretta 92F/FS, a full-sized, service, semi-automatic pistol is an example of this style of action. A common mode of carry for DA semi-automatic pistols is with the full, a round chambered. In contrast, a single-action semi-automatic pistol must be cocked by first operating the slide or bolt, or, if a round is already chambered, the famed Colt M1911 is an example of this style of action. All SA semi-automatic pistols exhibit this feature, and automatically cock the hammer when the slide is first racked to chamber a round, a round can also be manually inserted in the chamber with the slide locked back. Then the safety can be applied, the normal mode of carrying an SA semi-automatic pistol is condition 1, popularly known as cocked and locked
2.
SIG Pro
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The SIG Sauer Pro is a series of semi-automatic pistols developed by SIG Sauer in Exeter, NH, USA. It was the first polymer-frame handgun from SIG Sauer and one of the first pistols to feature a built-in universal accessory rail, the SIG Sauer Pro was marketed as a lightweight and compact alternative to the legacy SIG Sauer handguns in an increasingly competitive and budget-oriented law enforcement market. It was originally developed as a.40 S&W–caliber service pistol and introduced in June 1998 with the SP2340 model, about one year later, a 9×19mm Parabellum variant, the SP2009, was introduced and entered production in response to demand for the type. All SIG Sauer handguns created since 1990 have been designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer in New Hampshire, some are exported to SIG Sauer of Eckernförde, Germany. The SIG Pro is a recoil operated, locked breech semi-automatic pistol. It uses a traditional Browning cam-operated locking system, the barrel locks into the slide via enlarged ejection port. The frame is made from polymer, with detachable grip panels, grip panels can be easily replaced and are available in several different sizes and shapes. The overall design is different from earlier SIG Sauer pistols such as P220 or P226, as there is no separate disassembly lever on the frame. The standard SIG Pro does not have a safety but it does incorporate a decocking lever, trigger-bar disconnect, automatic firing pin lock. The Sig Pro comes standard as a double-action/single action pistol with 10 lb and 4.5 lb trigger pulls, double-action only conversion kits are also available from SIG. SP2340, The original pistol introduced in 1998 and it has a rounded trigger guard and is chambered for.40 S&W and.357 SIG. SP2009, 9×19mm Parabellum version announced in 1999, SPC2009, A shorter version of the SP2009 with a 3.58 barrel length and only available in 9 mm. It is equipped with the SIG accessory rail system and the guard is rounded. This is the basis for the SPC2022 SP2009-9-BMS, A variant of the standard SP2009 with a manual safety. These were offered for a time to the U. S. civilian market. SP2022, A modified version of the SP 2009/2340 and it entered service with the French Police, Customs, Penitentiary administration and Gendarmerie in 2002 for a planned service life of 20 years, hence the name. 460,000 rounds have been used for testing it before adoption by a sampling of future users and it is available in 9×19mm.40 S&W and.357 SIG. The pistol is fitted with an integral Picatinny rail instead of the rail of the other models
3.
Cartridge (firearms)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
4.
.40 S&W
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The.40 S&W is a rimless pistol cartridge developed jointly by major American firearms manufacturers Smith & Wesson and Winchester. It uses 0. 40-inch diameter bullets ranging in weight from 105 to 200 grains, the semi-automatic pistol offered two advantages over the revolver, 1) increased ammunition capacity and 2) increased ease of reloading during a firefight. The FBI was satisfied with the performance of its.38 Special +P158 gr L. S. W. C. H. P, cartridge based on decades of dependable performance. Ammunition for the new semi-automatic pistol had to deliver terminal performance equal or superior to the.38 Special FBI Load, during tests of the 9×19mm and. During this collaboration with the FBI, S&W realized that downsizing the 10mm full power to meet the FBI medium velocity specification meant less powder, S&W then teamed with Winchester to produce a new cartridge, the.40 S&W. It uses a small pistol primer whereas the 10mm cartridge uses a large pistol primer, the.40 S&W cartridge debuted January 17,1990, along with the new Smith & Wesson Model 4006 pistol, although it was several months before the pistols were available for purchase. Beat Smith & Wesson to the shelves in 1990, with pistols chambered in.40 S&W which were announced a week before the 4006. Glocks rapid introduction was aided by its engineering of a pistol chambered in 10mm Auto, since the.40 S&W uses the same bore diameter and case head as the 10mm Auto, it was merely a matter of adapting the 10mm design to the shorter 9×19mm Parabellum frames. The new guns and ammunition were an immediate success, the.40 S&W case length and overall cartridge length are shortened, but other dimensions except case web and wall thickness remain identical to the 10mm Auto. Both cartridges headspace on the mouth of the case, thus in a semi-auto they are not interchangeable. Fired from a 10mm semi-auto, the.40 Smith & Wesson cartridge will headspace on the extractor, if the cartridge is not held by the extractor, the chances for a ruptured primer are great. Smith & Wesson does make a double-action revolver that can fire either at will using moon clips, a single-action revolver in the. 38–40 chambering can also be modified to fire the.40 or the 10mm if it has an extra cylinder. Some.40 caliber handguns can be converted to 9mm with a purpose made barrel, magazine change. The.40 S&W has 1.25 ml cartridge case capacity. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 millimetres,6 grooves, ∅ lands =9.91, mm, ∅ grooves =10.17 mm, land width =3.05 mm and the primer type is small pistol. Guidelines, the.40 S&W case can handle up to 225 megapascals piezo pressure, in C. I. P. -regulated countries every pistol/cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the.40 S&W is set at 241.32 megapascals piezo pressure, the.40 S&W cartridge has been popular with law enforcement agencies in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Marshall & Sanow contend that with good jacketed hollow point bullets, apart from the imperfect relationship between ordnance gelatin ballistics and actual stopping power, critics pointed to the reduced power of the round compared with the 10mm Auto it was based on
5.
.357 SIG
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The.357 SIG pistol cartridge is the product of Swiss-German firearms manufacturer SIG Sauer, in cooperation with American ammunition manufacturer Federal Cartridge. The cartridge is used by a number of law enforcement agencies and has a reputation of accuracy. Performance is similar to the 9×23mm Winchester, then Remington introduced the unsuccessful.22 Remington Jet, which necked a.357 Magnum case down to a.22 caliber bullet, and the.221 Remington Fireball, a shortened version of their.222 Remington. The.357 SIG has 1.27 ml cartridge case capacity.357 SIG maximum C. I. P, americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2=18 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 mm,6 grooves, Ø lands=8.71 mm, Ø grooves=9.02 mm, land width=2.69 mm, several sources have published contradicting information regarding.357 SIG headspacing. This is due to the cartridge having been designed as a.357 round. 2008 revised documents, the.357 SIG headspaces on the case mouth, some US sources are conflict with this standard. However, the cartridge and chamber drawing in the ANSI/SAAMI American National Standards also clearly shows the cartridge headspacing on the cartridge mouth, likewise, US reloading supplier Lyman has published that the.357 SIG headspaces on the case mouth. Rulings the.357 SIG case can handle up to 305 MPa piezo pressure, regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the.357 SIG is set at 275.80 MPa, most.40 S&W pistols can be converted to.357 SIG by replacing the barrel, but sometimes the recoil spring must be changed as well. Pistols with especially strong recoil springs can accept either cartridge with a barrel change, magazines will freely interchange between the two cartridges in most pistols.357 SIG barrel kits have allowed this cartridge to gain in popularity among handgun owners. However, the.357 SIG is loaded to higher pressures than the.40 S&W, the table below shows common performance parameters for several.357 SIG loads. Bullet weights ranging from 115 to 150 grains have been offered, key, Expansion – expanded bullet diameter. Penetration – penetration depth. PC – permanent cavity volume. TSC – temporary stretch cavity volume. Because of its high velocity for a handgun round, the.357 SIG has an unusually flat trajectory. However, it not quite reach the performance of the.357 Magnum with bullets heavier than 125 grains. Offsetting this general slight disadvantage in performance is that semi-automatic pistols tend to carry more ammunition than revolvers. Proponents of the hydrostatic shock theory contend that the energy available in the.357 SIG is sufficient for imparting hydrostatic shock with well-designed bullets, users have commented, Were really impressed with the stopping power of the.357 SIG round. The bottleneck shape of the.357 SIG cartridge makes feeding problems almost non-existent and this is because the bullet is channeled through the larger chamber before being seated entirely as the slide goes into full battery
6.
Action (firearms)
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In firearms terminology, an action is the mechanism that handles the ammunition or the method by which that mechanism works. Breech-loading weapons have actions, actions are not present on muzzleloaders. The mechanism that fires a muzzle-loader is called the lock, actions can be categorized in several ways, including single action versus double action, break action versus bolt action, and others. The term action can also short, long, and magnum if it is in reference to the length of the rifle’s receiver. The short action rifle usually can accommodate a cartridge length of 2.8 in or smaller, the long action rifle can accommodate a cartridge of 3.34 in, and the magnum action rifle can accommodate cartridges of 3.6 in, or longer in length. Manual operation is a term describing any type of firearm action that is loaded one shot at a time by the user rather than automatically. For example, break action is a form of operation using a simple hinge mechanism that is manually unlatched by the operator. These are actions wherein the breechblock lowers or drops into the receiver to open the breech, there are two principal types of dropping block, the tilting block and the falling block. In a tilting or pivoting block action, the breechblock is hinged on a pin mounted at the rear, when the lever is operated, the block tilts down and forward, exposing the chamber. The best-known pivoting block designs are the Peabody, the Peabody–Martini, the original Peabody rifles, manufactured by the Providence Tool Company, used a manually cocked side-hammer. The 1871 Martini–Henry which replaced the trapdoor Snider–Enfield was the standard British Army rifle of the later Victorian era, charles H. Ballards self-cocking tilting-block action was produced by the Marlin Firearms Company from 1875, and earned a superlative reputation among long-range Creedmoor target shooters. Surviving Marlin Ballards are today highly prized by collectors, especially those mounted in the elaborate Swiss-style Schützen stocks of the day. A falling-block action is a firearm action in which a solid metal breechblock slides vertically in grooves cut into the breech of the weapon. Examples of firearms using the falling block action are the Sharps rifle, in a rolling block action the breechblock takes the form of a part-cylinder, with a pivot pin through its axis. The operator rotates or rolls the block to open and close the breech, it is a simple, rugged, a break action is a type of firearm where the barrel are hinged and can be broken open to expose the breech. The earliest metallic-cartridge breechloaders designed for military issue began as conversions of muzzle-loading rifle-muskets. The upper rear portion of the barrel was filed or milled away, an internal angled firing pin allowed the re-use of the rifles existing side-hammer. The Allin action made by Springfield Arsenal in the US hinged forward, france countered in 1866 with its superior Chassepot rifle, also a paper-cartridge bolt action
7.
Recoil operation
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Recoil operation is an operating mechanism used to implement locked-breech, autoloading firearms. Recoil operated firearms use the energy of recoil to cycle the action, the same forces that cause the ejecta of a firearm to move down the barrel also cause all or a portion of the firearm to move in the opposite direction. The moving and the masses are coupled by a spring that absorbs the recoil energy as it is compressed by the movement. Since there is a minimum required to operate a recoil-operated firearms action. Therefore, recoil-operated firearms work best with a cartridge that yields an approximately equal to that for which the mechanism was optimized. For example, the M1911 design with factory springs is optimized for a 230-grain bullet at factory velocity, changes in caliber or drastic changes in bullet weight and/or velocity require modifications to spring weight or slide mass to compensate. Recoil-operated designs are categorized by how the parts move under recoil. Long recoil operation is primarily in shotguns, particularly ones based on John Brownings Auto-5 action. In a long recoil action the barrel and bolt remain locked together during recoil, following this rearward movement, the bolt locks to the rear and the barrel is forced forward by its spring. The bolt is held in position until the barrel returns completely forward during which time the spent cartridge has been extracted and ejected, the bolt is released and forced closed by its recoil spring, chambering a fresh round. The long recoil system was invented in the late 19th century, bolt is locked to barrel, both are fully forward. Recoil of firing forces bolt and barrel fully to the rear, bolt is held to rear, while barrel unlocks and returns to battery under spring force. Bolt returns under spring force, loads new round, barrel locks in place as it returns to battery. The short recoil action dominates the world of centerfire semi-automatic pistols, short recoil operation differs from long recoil operation in that the barrel and bolt recoil together only a short distance before they unlock and separate. The barrel stops quickly, and the bolt continues rearward, compressing the spring and performing the automated extraction. During the last portion of its travel, the bolt locks into the barrel. The method of locking and unlocking the barrel differentiates the wide array of short recoil designs. Most common are the John Browning tilting barrel designs based on either the swinging link and locking lugs as used in the M1911 pistol or the linkless cam design used in the Hi Power and CZ75
8.
Magazine (firearms)
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A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm. Magazines can be removable or integral to the firearm, the magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded into the chamber by the action of the firearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although this is technically inaccurate, magazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those of bolt-action express rifles that hold only a few rounds to drum magazines for self-loading rifles that can hold one hundred rounds or more. Various jurisdictions ban what they define as high-capacity magazines, with the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911 pistol, the magazine was settled on by the military and firearms experts. The defining difference between clips and magazines is the presence of a mechanism in a magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower. Use of the clip to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement. The first mass-produced repeater was the Volcanic Rifle which used a bullet with the base filled with powder and primer fed into the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store ammunition, the anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity. The Henry repeating rifle is a lever-action, breech-loading, tubular magazine fed rifle, designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, it was one of the first firearms to use self-contained metallic cartridges. The Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company and it was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War and favored for its greater firepower than the standard issue carbine. Many later found their way West and was famed both for its use at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and being the basis for the iconic Winchester rifle which are made to this day. The Henry and Winchester rifles would go on to see service with a number of militaries including Turkey, switzerland and Italy adopted similar designs. The first magazine-fed firearm to achieve success was the Spencer repeating rifle. The Spencer used a magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel. The Spencer was successful, but the rimfire ammunition did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and it could also injure the user. The new bolt-action rifles began to favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally a single-shot action that added a magazine in its 1884 update
9.
Iron sights
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Iron sights are typically composed of two component sights, formed by metal blades, a rear sight mounted perpendicular to the line of sight and a front sight that is a post, bead, or ring. Open sights use a notch of some sort as the rear sight, civilian, hunting, and police firearms usually feature open sights, while many military battle rifles employ aperture sights. The earliest and simplest iron sights are fixed and cannot be easily adjusted, many iron sights are designed to be adjustable, so that the sights can be adjusted for elevation or windage. On many firearms it is the sight that is adjustable. For precision applications such as hunting or sniping, the sights are usually replaced by a telescopic sight. Iron sights may still be fitted alongside other sighting devices for back-up usage, iron sights provide horizontal and vertical reference points that allow the shooter to train the weapon. Rear sights are mounted in a dovetail on the barrel or receiver, closer to the eye of the shooter. Front sights are mounted to the barrel by dovetailing, soldering, screwing, or staking close to the muzzle, frequently on a ramp. Some front sight assemblies include a detachable hood intended to reduce glare, with typical blade or post iron sights, the shooter would center the front post in the notch of the rear sight and the tops of both sights should be level. Since the eye is capable of focusing on one plane, and the rear sight, front sight. At 1,000 m, that same misalignment would be magnified 100 times, sights for shotguns used for shooting small, moving targets work quite differently. The rear sight is completely discarded, and the reference point is provided by the correct. A brightly colored round bead is placed at the end of the barrel, often, this bead will be placed along a raised, flat rib, which is usually ventilated to keep it cool and reduce mirage effects from a hot barrel. This method of aiming is not as precise as that of a front sight/rear sight combination, but it is faster. Some shotguns also provide a mid-bead, which is a smaller bead located halfway down the rib, open sights generally are used where the rear sight is at significant distance from the shooters eye. They provide minimum occlusion of the view, but at the expense of precision. Open sights generally use either a square post or a bead on a post for a front sight, to use the sight, the post or bead is positioned both vertically and horizontally in the center of the rear sight notch. For a center hold, the front sight is positioned on the center of the target, for a 6oclock hold, the front sight is positioned just below the target and centered horizontally
10.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
11.
Service pistol
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A service pistol is any handgun issued to military personnel or law enforcement officers. Pistols are not typically issued to front-line infantry, before firearms were commonplace, officers typically carried swords instead. Traditionally, soldiers and officers had carried swords for both protection and use in combat. Training was also a factor—it took a long time to train new recruits in the use of longbows. As a result, swords were retained only by officers and by cavalry, the invention of the revolver in 1836 finally made a service pistol practical, as prior to this pistols had largely been single-shot weapons usually of no particular standardized pattern. Although officers traditionally had been obligated to buy their own weapons, non-commissioned officers, service pistols, on the other hand, were generally issued to officers, NCO, and others who needed to carry personal weapons as part of their duties. Hence, it was common for officers to carry government-issued service pistols in combat. Special operations soldiers often carry a handgun as a weapon to serve in a supplementary capacity to their primary weapon. Soldiers who do not serve in a combat role are often issued a pistol. Service pistols are issued to police and other soldiers acting in a law enforcement capacity as part of their duties. The tradition of issuing pistols to officers as a weapon is being phased out by many nations. The United States Marine Corps, for example, recently began requiring all enlisted personnel and all officers below the rank of Lieutenant Colonel to carry the M4 Carbine as their primary weapon
12.
SIG Sauer P220
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The SIG Sauer P220 is a semi-automatic pistol. Designed in 1975 by the newly formed partnership of SIG and J. P. Sauer & Sohn, it is manufactured by SIG Sauer GMBH in Eckernförde, Germany, and by SIG Sauer, Inc. in Exeter, NH, USA. For development of the P220, SIG partnered with J. P. Sauer & Sohn of Germany, thus, in 1975, Switzerland became the first nation to officially adopt the P220 as the Pistole 75 chambered in 9 mm Parabellum. Other nations to adopt it for use include Japan and Denmark only to special forces. It was succeeded by the SIG Sauer P226, upon completion of their military service, commissioned officers of the Swiss armed forces can obtain ownership of their P220 service pistols by paying an administrative fee of thirty Swiss francs. In the United States this handgun was sold in a form as the Browning BDA from 1977 to 1980. The P220 was developed in 1975 by SIG and J. P. Sauer & Sohn, a new locking system which is known as the SIG Sauer system was introduced as well as a number of other innovations. This nomenclature is found on the Browning BDA version of the P220 sold from 1975, the SIG P210 is a licensed copy of the French Model 1935 which is the Petter Browning design. SIG licensed this design in 1947, the SIG Sauer design went further by having no grooves in the slide or barrel. Instead an enlargement of the chamber locks directly on the port of the slide. The double action/single action trigger design of the P220 is also a SIG Sauer innovation similar to the J. P. Sauer & Sohn 38H pistol, further design refinements include a hammer decocker level and positive firing pin block safety. The SIG Sauer System is a refinement of the Petter-Browning system, the slide of the P220 series is a heavy-gauge sheet metal stamping with a welded-on nose section incorporating an internal barrel bushing. The breech block portion is an insert attached to the slide by means of a roll pin visible from either side. The frame is of forged alloy with a hard-anodized coating, the SIG P220 series incorporates a hammer-drop lever to the rear of the trigger on the left side, which first appeared on the Sauer 38H before World War I. After chambering a round, the hammer will be cocked, so for safe carriage the hammer drop is actuated with the thumb, the P220 also features an automatic firing pin block safety which is activated by the trigger mechanism, similar to the one used in the Walther P38. The pistol may now be holstered, and can be fired without actuating any other controls, the first shot will be fired in double-action mode, unless the user chooses to manually cock the hammer. Double-action trigger pressure is measured at approximately 12–14 pounds, with subsequent shots being fired in single-action mode with a lighter trigger pressure of approximately 6 pounds, there is no separate safety lever to manipulate, the hammer drop is the only manual safety device. SIG Sauer refers to their safety systems as a Four Point System, the four types of safety are, the de-cocker, which allows the shooter to lower the hammer safely, while there is a round in the chamber
13.
SIG Sauer P226
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The SIG Sauer P226 is a full-sized, service-type pistol made by SIG Sauer. It is chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum.40 S&W.357 SIG and it is essentially the same basic design of the SIG Sauer P220, but developed to use higher capacity, double stack magazines in place of the single stack magazines of the P220. The P226 itself has spawned further sub-variants, the P228 and P229 are both versions of the double stack P226 design. The SIG Sauer P226 and its variants are in service with law enforcement. Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft is a Swiss company, now known as Swiss Arms, in 1975, SIG entered into an agreement with German gun manufacturer J. P. Sauer & Sohn to develop and market a new handgun which became the P220. The P220 was the first SIG Sauer handgun sold in the USA and it was marketed initially by Browning as the Browning BDA. The SIG Sauer P220 is a refinement of the Petter-Browning design used in the SIG P210, the locked breech design is very different and was pioneered by SIG Sauer. See also The first SIG Sauer Handgun, only the Beretta 92SBF and the SIG P226 satisfactorily completed the trials. According to a GAO report, Beretta was awarded the M9 contract for the 92F due to a total package price. The P226 cost less per pistol than the 92F, but SIGs package price with magazines, the Navy SEALs, however, later chose to adopt the P226 as the P226 MK25 with special corrosion protection. For the U. S. military XM9 trials, the P226 was imported by Saco Defense, interarms took over importing when the pistol was introduced for civilian sales. SIG Sauer eventually founded SIGARMS, Inc, (Now SIG Sauer in the United States to handle importation of their products. In 2000, SIG Holding AG sold J. P. Sauer & Sohn GmbH to two German businessmen. The brand name SIG Sauer remained at J. P. Sauer & Sohn GmbH The P226, like the members of the SIG Classic family. On firing, the slide and barrel are locked together for a few millimetres of rearward movement, by this time the bullet has left the barrel and the pressure has dropped to safe levels, whereupon the slide completes the rearward stroke, ejecting the spent cartridge. The slide of the pre-1996 P226 was a gauge, mill finished sheet metal stamping with a welded on nose section incorporating an internal barrel bushing. The breech block portion was an insert attached to the slide by means of brazing. Since 1996, production has shifted to CNC machining and the slide is now milled from a piece of stainless steel
14.
Royal Malaysia Police
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The Royal Malaysia Police, is a uniformed federal police force in Malaysia. The force is a centralised organisation and its headquarters are located at Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur. The police force is led by an Inspector-General of Police who, the constitution, control, employment, recruitment, funding, discipline, duties and powers of the police force are specified and governed by the Police Act 1967. Rakan Cop is a community outreach programme launched on 9 August 2005, a police force has been in existence in Malaysia since the days of the Malacca Sultanate. Malaccas canonical law created what was essentially a police force in Malaysia in the century, through the institution of the Temenggung and Hulubalang. His tasks were to arrest criminals, build jails and implement sentences, apart from the Temenggung, there were a number of Penghulu or village chiefs who had the duty of detroy their respective villages. Their main tasks included tax collection, law enforcement and preserving village security and these Malacca police systems ended when, on 10 August 1511, a Portuguese fleet led by Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca for the Portuguese crown. Police duties were largely performed by the Portuguese soldiers. During the sixteenth century, Malaysia became a society and the Portuguese government introduced the Kapitan administration. The Dutch retained the Kapitan system, but when the number of Europeans in Malaysia made change necessary. The Burgher Guard was controlled by the Dutch, but their subordinates were made up of the local citizens, village leaders continued to assume the duties of policemen under Dutch rule, as they had since before the Portuguese arrived. Following the assimilation of Malacca into the British Empire in 1795, most of the officers were of British origin. Later, this organisation was developed in the Straits Settlements and other Malay states, at that time, independent police forces were established for each respective state. Only after World War II was a police organisation formed. This organisation was formed in Malaya and led by a British colonial, longworthy, who had to stabilise the police forces after the anarchy of Japanese occupation. One of the problems faced by the police at this time was the rebellion of the communist party. Almost a year after Independence Day, on 24 July 1958, in 1963, the Royal Federation of Malayan Police, the North Borneo Armed Constabulary and the Sarawak Constabulary were merged to form the Royal Malaysia Police. The Singapore Police Force became a component unit of the RMP until Singapores independence in 1965, the flag and insignia of the Royal Malaysia Police has a blue coloured background which symbolises the Malaysian masses
15.
National Gendarmerie
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The National Gendarmerie is one of two national police forces of France. It is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense and its area of responsibility includes smaller towns and rural areas, while the Police Nationale—a civilian force—is in charge of cities and large towns. Due to its status, the Gendarmerie also fulfills a range of military. The Gendarmes also have a cybercrime division and it has a strength of more than 100,000 personnel as of 2014. The Gendarmerie is heir to the Maréchaussée, the oldest police force in France and it has influenced the culture and traditions of gendarmerie forces all around the world—and especially in the former French colonial empire. The Gendarmerie is the descendant of the Marshalcy of the ancien regime, more commonly known by its French title. During the Middle Ages, there were two Grand Officers of the Kingdom of France with police responsibilities, The Marshal of France, the marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years War, and some historians trace it back to the early twelfth century. Another organisation, the Constabulary, was under the command of the Constable of France, the constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. In 1415 the Maréchaussée fought in the Battle of Agincourt and their commander and his existence was rediscovered in 1934. Gallois de Fougières was then recorded as the first known gendarme to have died in the line of duty. Under King Francis I, the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary, the resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. Unlike the former constabulary the new Maréchaussée was not a fully militarized force, in 1720, the Maréchaussée was officially attached to the Household of the King, together with the gendarmerie of the time, which was not a police force at all, but a royal bodyguard. English visitors to France saw their armed and uniformed patrols as royal soldiers with an oppressive role, despite their connection with the king, they were therefore perceived as a force favouring the reforms of the French National Assembly. As a result, the Maréchaussée Royale was not disbanded but simply renamed as the gendarmerie nationale and its personnel remained unchanged, and the functions of the force remained much as before. However, from this point, the gendarmerie, unlike the Maréchaussée became a military force. During the revolutionary period, the force responsible for policing was the National Guard. Although the Maréchaussée had been the police force of the ancien regime. In 1791 the newly named gendarmerie nationale was grouped into 28 divisions, in turn, two companies of gendarmes under the command of captains were based in each department
16.
Picatinny rail
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Whereas the earlier Weaver design is based on a low wide dovetail, the Picatinny variation has a more pronounced angular section. The Picatinny locking slot width is 0.206 in, the spacing of slot centers is 0.394 in and the slot depth is 0.118 in. This means that an accessory designed for a Weaver rail will fit onto a Picatinny rail whereas the opposite might not be possible The rail itself dates from work by the A. R. M. S. Company in the early 1980s and Otto Repa in standardizing the Weaver design, specifications for the M16A2E4 rifle and the M4E1 carbine received type classification generic in December 1994. These were the M16A2 and the M4 modified with new upper receivers where rails replaced hand guards, the rail is named after the Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey, USA. The Picatinny Arsenals role with the rail was to test/evaluate it and this was Mil-STD-1913, dated February 3,1995. Because of their uses, Picatinny rails and accessories have replaced iron sights in the design of many firearms. Their usefulness has led to their being used in paintball and airsoft
17.
Suppressor
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Suppressors are typically constructed of a metal cylinder with internal mechanisms to reduce the sound of firing by slowing the escaping propellant gas. In most countries, silencers are regulated by legislation to varying degrees. While some have allowed for sporting use of silencers, other governments have opted to ban them from civilian use, American inventor Hiram Percy Maxim, the son of Maxim gun inventor Hiram Stevens Maxim, is usually credited with inventing and selling the first commercially successful models circa 1902. Maxim gave his device the trademarked name Maxim Silencer, and they were advertised in sporting goods magazines. Former president of the United States Theodore Roosevelt was known to purchase and use Maxim Silencers, suppressors were regularly used by agents of the United States Office of Strategic Services, who favored the newly designed High Standard HDM.22 Long Rifle pistol during World War II. OSS Director William Joseph Wild Bill Donovan demonstrated the pistol for President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House, according to OSS research chief Stanley Lovell, Donovan was waved into the Oval Office, where Roosevelt was dictating a letter. The British SOE Welrod pistol with a suppressor was also used by the American OSS on clandestine operations in Nazi occupied Europe during the Second World War. Both the United States Department of Justice and the ATF refer to suppressors as silencers, additionally, Hiram Percy Maxim marketed them as Maxim Silencers. The earliest use of the suppressor to refer to firearm noise reduction is in US Patent 4530417. When a firearm is discharged, there are three ways sound is produced, part of it can be managed, however, some of it is beyond the ability of the operator or manufacturers to eliminate. While subsonic ammunition can negate the sonic boom, mechanical noise can be mitigated but is impossible to eliminate. For these reasons, it is difficult to completely silence any firearm, some revolvers have technical features that enable suppression and include the Russian Nagant M1895 and OTs-38 revolvers, and the S&W QSPR. Muzzle blast generated by discharge is proportional to the amount of propellent contained within the cartridge. Therefore, the greater the case capacity the larger muzzle blast, a gunshot will almost always be louder than the sound of the action cycling of an auto-loading firearm. Paulson, a renowned firearms specialist, claimed to have encountered an integrally suppressed.22 LR that had such a quiet report, properly evaluating the sound generated by a firearm can only be done using a decibel meter in conjunction with a frequency spectrum analyser during live tests. The suppressor is typically a metal tube manufactured from steel, aluminium, or titanium. This device, typically cylindrical in shape, attaches to the muzzle of a pistol, submachine gun, some can-type suppressors, may be detached by the user and attached to a different firearm. Another type is the integral suppressor, which consists of an expansion chamber or chambers surrounding the barrel
18.
National Police (France)
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The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
19.
Bulgaria
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Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, with a territory of 110,994 square kilometres, Bulgaria is Europes 16th-largest country. Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period and its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Celts, Romans, Goths, Alans and Huns. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State, the following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars. In 1946 it became a one-party socialist state as part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, in December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi-party elections, which subsequently led to Bulgarias transition into a democracy and a market-based economy. Bulgarias population of 7.2 million people is predominantly urbanised, most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are industry, power engineering. The countrys current political structure dates to the adoption of a constitution in 1991. Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with a high degree of political, administrative. Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic, animal bones incised with man-made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans. Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, the latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation. Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins, weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure and this site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies. Thracians, one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians, began appearing in the region during the Iron Age. In the late 6th century BC, the Persians conquered most of present-day Bulgaria, and kept it until 479 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control, by this time, Christianity had already spread in the region. A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century, the first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria. From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region, in 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska
20.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
21.
National Police of Colombia
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The National Police of Colombia is the national police force of Colombia. Although the National Police is not part of the Military Forces of Colombia and they are the largest police force in Colombia. Colombians can communicate with the Police by calling toll free,112 or 123, if it is regarding a kidnapping, the GAULA group can be reached at 165. The Colombian officials selected a French commissioner named Jean Marie Marcelin Gilibert, the institution was formally established by decree 1000 of November 5,1891. The initial mission of the National Police was to preserve public tranquility, protecting people and public, by constitutional law the institution had to enforce and guarantee the rights of the people, the constitution and its laws, and obey their authority. Its function also included the authority to take action to prevent crimes and prosecute, the National Police was intended to recognize no privileges or distinctions among the general population. The only exception was for international treaties established in the Constitution that gave immunity to members of diplomatic missions, after a civil war broke out in 1895 during the presidency of Rafael Núñez, the president went absent and Miguel Antonio Caro took over office temporarily. It was then transferred back to the Ministry of Government, to guarantee the security of Bogotá, the National Police was divided into seven districts to cover the entire city. A mutual fund called Caja de Gratificaciones was set up to pay benefits to service members, by 1899 the National Police had a force of 944 agents divided into eight divisions. When the most intense of the wars broke out, known as the Thousand Days War. Under the Decree 1380 of September 16,1902 the National Police created the Presidential Palace Honor Guard Corps with the name Guardia Civil de la Ciudad de Bogotá. During the presidency of Rafael Reyes, the government authorized by decree 743 of 1904, by authorization of Law 43 the Judicial Commissary of Police was established under the dependency of the General Command of the National Police to investigate crimes within its jurisdiction. When General Jorge Holguín suppressed the National Gendarmerie Corps, the governors were given the authority to organize police services at their own will. The third group functioned as the judicial police, in 1916 the institution was trained by the Spanish Guardia Civil in their doctrine, mainly related to criminology. In 1924 the Criminal Investigation School was founded to update personnel working in this area, in 1929 the Colombian government in agreement with the Argentine government, hired Enrique Medina Artola to train the Colombian Police in dactylography to replace the anthropometric system. In 1934 in an agreement with the Spanish government the National Police was trained in scientific identification until 1948. On July 7,1937 by Decree 1277, the government authorized the creation of the General Santander Academy, in 1939 the Colombian government receives the first cooperation agreement with the United States, through a Federal Bureau of Investigation committee headed by agent Edgar K. Thompson. This generated a period of civil unrest known as La Violencia, the government then decided to restructure the institution once again, with the cooperation and advice from the British
22.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
23.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
24.
Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
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The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders. The Directorate-general is controlled by the Minister for the Budget, Public Accounts and it is normally known simply as la douane, individual officers being referred to as douaniers. The first French customs service was called the General Firm and operated under the monarchy, during the revolutionary period, a military customs service was formed, which provided a customs service but also fought in major wars such as the Franco-Prussian War and the First World War. Throughout the 19th Century armed units of douaniers served as frontier guards, customs personnel were divided into those employed in bureaux and those employed in brigades. The douaniers of the latter units wore blue uniforms with distinctive red trouser stripes and were former soldiers. The military customs service fought in the part of the Second World War but was disbanded in 1940 after the French defeat and was never reconstituted as a military service. Nonetheless small units of men from customs posts in French Indochina fought against the Japanese as guerilla units until the end of the war. The Musée national des douanes located in Bordeaux, France, presents the history of French customs, Service commun des laboratoires, providing scientific support in laboratories France is divided into 39 customs regions, which are grouped into 12 customs inter-regions. In 2010 the aircraft consisted of Reims-Cessna F406 maritime patrol aircraft. Two Reims-Cessna F406s operated out of Martinique and the rest were based in metropolitan France, from 2012 onwards eight Beechcraft King Air 350s replaced the F406s. In 2010 the customs had 3 offshore patrol boats,18 coastal patrol boats,18 surveillance patrol boats and 5 speed boats. Customs Agents are now armed with the 9mm SIG Sauer SP2022 pistols as the issued sidearm. The pistol was ordered to replace the PAMAS-G1 and several other pistols in service
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
27.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
28.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
29.
National Police of Peru
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The Peruvian National Police is the national police force of Peru. Its jurisdiction covers the land, sea, and air territories. Formed from the merge of the Investigative Police, the Civil Guard, and its mission is to preserve domestic order, public order and national security, in order to enforce the law and protect the people of Peru. The PNP is controlled by the Peruvian Interior Ministry, the PNP has a number of divisions, tasked with enforcing specific aspects of the law, among the more well known are DINOES, DINANDRO, DININCRI, and DIRCOTE. Under its law of creation, the National Police has the functions, Maintaining security. Prevent, combat, investigate and report crimes, provide protection to children, adolescents, the elderly and women who are at risk of their freedom. Intervene in the air, sea, river and lake transportation in their actions, monitor and control the borders and enforce the laws on migratory control of nationals and foreigners. Comply with the Judiciary, the Constitutional Court, National Elections Board, the Public Ministry, participate in prison security, as well as the transfer of the accused and sentenced. Ensuring the safety of goods and services, in coordination with relevant state bodies, participate in National Defense, Civil Defense and the economic and social development of the country. Carry out the identification of persons for law enforcement purposes, exercise such other functions as provided for in the Constitution and laws of the Republic of Peru. The first police forces, beginning between 1825 and 1839, emerged as part of the armed forces, at that time, watchmen and guards also carried out police functions within their areas of operation. After the proclamation of Peruvian independence by General San Martín in 1821 and its inspector general was Don José Bernardo de Tagle y Portocarrero, Marqués de Torre Tagle, who later served the Supreme Government under the title Supreme Governor during 1823–24. Under San Martín the presidents of departmental governing bodies were given the function of police judges, as such their task was to oversee public morals and social progress in general. In 1822–23 police functions were organised under “commissars” and section leaders, a secret police force, known as the Civil Brigade, also came into being at that time. Its mission was to identify those conspiring against Independence, whose agents were infiltrating into the structures of the new government. The first constitution of the republic was promulgated in 1823, under the presidency of Don José Bernardo Tagle, three new ministries were created, Government and Foreign Relations, War and the Navy, and Finance. The Milicia Cívica would maintain “public security” within each province, while the Guardia de Policía would maintain “private security”, e. g. dealing with highway robbers, and prosecuting criminals. In a decree issued on 7 January 1825, Simón Bolívar converted the Milicia Cívica into a Guardia Nacional, with the task of ensuring order in each region
30.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
31.
National Republican Guard (Portugal)
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The National Republican Guard or GNR is the national gendarmerie force of Portugal. Members of the GNR are military personnel, subject to law and organisation. The GNR is responsible for the police and highway patrol in the countryside. At national level, GNR also has duties of customs enforcement, coastal control, nature protection, search and rescue operations, since the 2000s, the GNR has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq, East Timor and other theatres. The GNR deploys over 26,000 personnel over 90 percent of Portuguese territory, the GNR are deployed in Bosnia as part of IFOR/SFOR/EUFOR Althea. and 140 GNR were also deployed between 2006 and 2012 in Timor-Leste as part of UNMIT. The National Republican Guard is, for police and operating in peacetime, responsible to the Ministry of Internal Administration and, for military affairs, until 2007, the GNR maintained a traditional organization, whose bases still followed the organizational structure established in the early 20th century. This organization included, territorial units, special units and reserve units, the old organization also included a central structure that reflected the command of a military field division, including a military-type staff. Most of the recommendations regarding GNR were accepted and, in accordance with the Law No, 63/2007, its traditional structure was replaced by a new and considerably different one, that was implemented in early 2009. The GNR is commanded by an officer, with the title of Commandant-General. The old four-brigade structure was replaced by a system of territorial commands, each territorial command usually includes a traffic detachment and a detachment of intervention. The territorial commands of the Azores and Madeira play, essentially, just a monitoring and fiscal actions, respectively, under the functional dependence of the UCC. The current territorial commands correspond essentially to the previous territorial groups of the old territorial brigades, includes the Presidential Squadron, Horse Band, the Guard Marching Band, the State Honors and Security Group. This unit was organized with several subunits of the former Infantry Regiment, serviço de Protecção da Natureza e do Ambiente- SEPNA School of the Guard – commanded by a major-general, is responsible for technical and professional training of military personnel of the GNR. Includes training centers in Figueira da Foz and Portalegre, the National Republican Guard is the direct descendant of the Royal Police Guard created in the beginning of the 19th century. The Royal Guard of the Police of Lisbon was created in 1801 by Prince Regent John on the initiative of the Intendant-General of the Police of the Court and it took as a model the French Gendarmerie. Following the creation of the Lisbons Royal Guard of the Police, in 1868 both of the Guards were put under a unified Commandant-General, installed in the Carmo Barracks in Lisbon, which today still is the Headquarters of the GNR. The Municipal Guard was considered part of the Army, but was dependent on the Ministry of Internal Affairs for all matters regarding public security. At this time, plans were already being done for the transformation of this Guard into a National Republican Guard, in 1993 the National Republican Guard absorbed the independent Fiscal Guard that became the Fiscal Brigade of the GNR
32.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
33.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
34.
Richmond Police Department (Virginia)
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The Richmond Police Department is the primary law enforcement agency servicing 204,214 people within 62.5 square miles of jurisdiction within Richmond, Virginia. The RPD is accredited by the Virginia Law Enforcement Professional Standard Commission, administrative Services has the responsibility of management oversight for the major administrative areas of the Police Department. Services, Division of Emergency Communications It overlooks public safety and non-public safety radio communications for Richmond, planning Division It is responsible for the developing, review, and monitoring of all policies and procedures of the RPD. Records and Technology It manages all technical hardware and software services, training Division It is responsible for training all of the RPD employees. They are also active with the training academy, citizens’ Academies It builds a relationship and understanding between the citizens and officers of Richmond. CAPS The Community Assisted Public Safety attempts to change the citizens of Richmonds minds about the way they think of their city and it also tries to ensure that all of Richmonds neighborhoods are clean, safe, and healthy. Crime Prevention It is made up of crime prevention officers and implement crime prevention programs that include Neighborhood Watch, Business Watch, specialists in the program speak to community groups and businesses about crime prevention. Neighborhood Assistance Officer Program It consists of uniformed, unpaid, and they do not have the authority to arrest over any other regular citizen. They are unarmed and drive a RPD vehicle, Police Athletic League School Resource Officers HOPE Unit Volunteers in Policing Executive Protection Unit They are assigned to protect the mayor of Richmond. Finance Their tasks include budget development, grants management, property and evidence, general Counsel They perform internal audits, examine existing and proposed policies, work with the Internal Affairs Division, work as part of senior management, and review policies and practices. Human Resources They are responsible for the recruitment and administrative management of all department employees, Office of Professional Responsibility The disciplinary review office. Internal Affairs They handle internal complaint investigations, firearms discharges, Public Affairs They provide information about the operation and personnel of the RPD. Operations consists of four precincts that covers Richmond, the four precincts are broken out into two areas. The division includes the Narcotics, Asset Forfeiture, Gang, Vice, Chief Deputy Chief Major Captain Lieutenant Sergeant Detective Police Officer Since the establishment of the Richmond Police Department,28 officers have died in the line of duty. List of law enforcement agencies in Virginia Richmond Police Department official weblink Richmond Sheriffs Office official weblink Richmond government official website
35.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
36.
SIG Sauer P210
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The SIG P210 is a locked breech self loading, semi-automatic pistol designed and manufactured in Neuhausen am Rheinfall by SIG. The former SIG P210 model is now the SIG Sauer P210 and it is of all-steel construction chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum and 7. 65×21mm Parabellum. It was used from 1949 to 1975 by the Swiss army and it was also adopted and is still in service with the Military of Denmark, in 1951 by the German Bundespolizei and in shooting sports. The pistols were decommissioned and replaced by the SIG Sauer P220 which was designed as a replacement for the SIG P210 by the newly formed SIG Sauer company in 1975, second-hand P210s are greatly valued by shooting sports competitors. H. in the United States beginning in 2017. The design was derived from Charles Petter Modèle 1935A pistol, in 1937 SIG acquired a license for the Petter Browning system from SACM in order to develop a replacement for the Luger Parabellum 06/29, which had been in service since 1900. Apparently not satisfied with the Petter Browning design or the changes they had made to it, selbstladepistole Neuhausen model 44/16 pistol production began in 1944. Some of the original Petter Browning features had been retained, specifically the self-contained firing, the Neuhausen 44/16 had a magazine capacity of 16 rounds. Development was slowed by the Second World War, after testing various experimental models, the 47/8 model was adopted in Oct 1948 as the Pistole Modell 1949 and for civilian market. Some previous series were tested by Swedish sport shooters and by the Danish army, in 1957, the civil designation was definitively changed to P210 according to the company nomenclature policy. The 47/8 model supported easy change of the barrels between 7.65 and 9mm Parabellum and a kit to convert to.22 caliber. The SIG P210 is a pistol, with a magazine capacity of eight rounds of 9 mm,7.65 mm. It is a development from French-Swiss designer Charles Gabriel Petters Modèle 1935 pistol. It has a manual safety that blocks the trigger and a magazine disconnecter safety that blocks the trigger when the magazine is removed. It has a 120 mm high quality barrel and the pistol is very durable and reliable, the slide and frame are machined from blocks of steel, which makes production rather costly compared to more recent pistol designs manufactured of pressings and welds. This construction feature contributes to the high accuracy for which the SIG P210 is known. It ships with a 50-meter test target typically showing a group of five to ten shots in a cluster under 5 cm in diameter, there are a number of SIG P210 model variations. SIG P210-1, The first version chambered in 9 mm Luger and.30 Luger, with wood grips, fixed sights, the P210-1 was issued to the Swiss armed forces, and it was also sold commercially. SIG P210-2, The most common Swiss army version chambered in 9 mm Luger, with plastic grips, fixed sights, SIG P210-3, The Swiss police version chambered in 9 mm Luger and.30 Luger, with wood grips, fixed sights, and polished blued finish
37.
SIG Sauer P230
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The SIG Sauer P230 is a small, semi-automatic handgun chambered in.32 ACP or.380 Auto. It was designed by SIG Sauer of Ekenforde, Germany and it was imported into the USA by SIGARMS in 1985. In 1996 it was replaced by the model P232, the design and function of the P230 is of the simple fixed barrel, straight blow-back configuration. It has a reputation as a firearm, and competes with the smaller Walther PPK. With its relatively narrow slide and frame it can be carried in a holster or beneath body armor. The P230 was available in blued and all-stainless finishes. The blued version features a steel slide and a matching, anodized aluminum frame. Both versions came with a polymer, wrap-around grip that is contoured to give the shooter a comfortable. The trigger comes from the factory with a 24 newtons single-action pull, pulling back the slide sets the hammer backwards and downwards to its single-action position, making for a very short trigger pull, with minimal take-up. The double-action pull is longer and more stiff and it has no external safeties, though it does have a de-cocking lever positioned just above the right-handed shooters thumb, on the left side of the grip. In order for the round to discharge, the full double-action pull would have to be completed, in addition, the SIG P232 has an automatic firing pin safety. The sights are of the traditional SIG design and configuration, with a dot on the front sight, to aim using the sights, the shooter simply aligns the dot over the rectangle. The magazine release is located behind and below the floor plate. The magazine is released by pushing the lever towards the rear of the grip, at which point the magazine can be removed from the pistol. Due to its dimensions, it is easily carried as a backup weapon or as a concealed carry handgun, holding 8 +1 rounds of.32 ACP or 7 +1 rounds of.380 ACP. A special police model was available, chambered in 9mm Police, actually a 9×18mm casing, which is very similar to 9mm Kurz but slightly more powerful
38.
SIG Sauer 1911
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The SIG Sauer GSR is a series of pistols with a stainless steel frame and slide based on the M1911 by SIG Sauer. The SIG Granite Series was awarded the 2004 Handgun of the Year Award by the Shooting Industry Academy of Excellence and it is entirely made in the USA, from American parts. Standard models have a 5 barrel and 4. 5-pound single-action trigger, the GSR is reported to have produced range results of a 1.5 group at 25 meters. The GSR comes in compact and carry models and has various options available. SIG offers choice of a stainless steel finish, a Nitron dark finish, or a two-tone Nitron, the TAC OPS and Scorpion versions feature a Picatinny rail, night sights, and a threaded barrel to allow the user to attach a sound suppressor. Media related to SIG GSR at Wikimedia Commons
39.
SIG Sauer Mosquito
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The SIG Sauer Mosquito is a blowback-operated, semi-automatic pistol based on the SIG Sauer P226, but 10% smaller in size and chambered for the.22 LR cartridge. The pistol is manufactured with an aluminum-zinc alloy slide and polymer frame, the controls are similar to those present on full-size models and include a left takedown lever, a left decocking lever, reversible magazine catch and ambidextrous manual safety. In addition, the pistol is provided with a safety lock located at the rear of the magazine well which when enabled prevents cycling of slide, hammer fall. The pistol is available in five different configurations, Standard model, Sport, Threaded barrel, Two-tone, Reversed two-tone, all models have an accessory rail on the frame. The Mosquito is offered in different configurations/ color schemes, Mosquito, Mosquito Multicam, Multicam frame and slide with polymer grips. Along with extra magazines and holsters, optional accessories include a polymer bridge mount that makes it possible to mount a red dot sight or other optical accessory and its accessory rail makes it possible to mount lights and/or lasers. The standard Mosquito model is chambered in.22 LR and has a double-action/single-action trigger, single action trigger pull is 4.4 lbs while Double-action is 12.4 lbs. The polymer frame and small size allow the pistol with magazine to weigh more than 24.6 oz. The overall height is 5.3 inches with a length of 3.9 inches. The Mosquitos frame has a rail, a ten-round capacity magazine. The Mosquito used to be made in America, but is now made under license by German Sport Guns GmbH
40.
SIG Sauer P239
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The SIG Sauer P239 is a semi-automatic pistol designed and manufactured by SIG Sauer, GMBH and SIG Sauer, Exeter, NH. It is offered in three calibers, 9×19mm Parabellum.357 SIG and.40 S&W, with an overall length of 168 mm and height of 132 mm, and weighing approximately 710–770 g empty, the P239 has become popular in the United States as a concealed carry pistol. Normal magazine capacity is 8 rounds or 7 rounds, DA/SA pistols have a de-cocking lever on the left side of the frame in front of the slide-release. This lever lowers the hammer from cocked to de-cocked and engages a firing-pin safety, with the hammer in the down position, the pistol can be fired by just pulling the trigger. The SIG Anti-Snag or SAS version has a stainless steel slide with custom SIG wooden grips. The Generation 2 of the SAS variant features a DA/SA SRT trigger and night sights, the P239 Tactical version of the pistol features a black Nitron finish, a 4-inch threaded barrel, SRT, and night sights. A P239 with a G in the number indicates the gun was issued to law enforcement. SIG released a version of the double-action only pistols called the DAK. The DAK capability is available in 220,226,229 and 239 models, when firing the pistol the first trigger pull is 6.5 lbs. After the pistol fires and the trigger is released forward, the trigger has an intermediate reset point that is halfway to the trigger at rest position. The trigger pull from this intermediate reset point is 8.5 lbs, if the trigger is released all the way forward, this will engage the primary trigger reset and have a trigger pull of 6.5 lbs. To engage the intermediate reset, the trigger must be held to the rear while the slide is cycled, either manually or by the recoil of a round being fired. In 2004, the US Department of Homeland Security Office of Immigration and Customs Enforcement contracted with SIG-Sauer for the purchase of up to 65,000 pistols, the US Navys Naval Criminal Investigative Service has purchased P239 DAKs in.40 caliber to replace their aging 9mm M-11 pistols
41.
SIG Sauer P238
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The SIG Sauer P238 is a compact.380 ACP caliber, single-action pistol announced by SIG Sauer at the 2009 SHOT Show. It is modelled after the classic M1911, similar to the Colt Mustang pistol, with a classic SIG Sauer scalloped slide, grip panels are fluted polymer making this an all-metal frame firearm in competition with plastic-framed pistols in the same class like the Ruger LCP and the Kel-Tec P-3AT. The P238 has a frame and a stainless steel slide. Initially, P238 pistols had standard sights with night sights as an expensive option. However, all currently produced have night sights standard. Starting in 2012, many variants have a thumb safety standard or as an option. When introduced in 2009, the P238 was available in a black finish. Since then, SIG Sauer has produced a number of variants including some short run commemorative editions, among the variants are versions with various finishes, with a stainless steel frame and different grips and embellishments. In July 2009, SIG Sauer issued a recall of all P238s sold within a serial number range. According to SIG Sauer, the recall did not affect any pistols with a number that started with 27Axxxxx. There have been three updates applied to the used by the P238. The third generation magazine has been so far the most reliable, the recoil spring was also updated in late 2010. The new spring is a coil spring with better performance
Bulgaria: Bulgarian Military police
Colombia: Colombian National Police, several thousand SP2009 and 120,890 SP2022[3]
Ecuador: The National Custom Services bought the SP2022 model for his personnel.[citation needed]
France: French law enforcement and internal security agencies (including the National Gendarmerie, National Police and French Customs), over 250,000 of SP 2022 (the largest single order for service handguns since World War II)[4]
Iraq: US-purchased SP 2022's were issued by MNSTC-I (Multi-National Security Transition Command-Iraq) to the Iraqi Army in 2005 [5]
Malaysia: Royal Malaysia Police (some 2,000 batches of SP2022 and SPC2022 pistols chambered in 9mm purchased in year 2007)[6]
Peru: SP 2022, National Police of Peru[7]
Portugal: SP 2022, Republican National Guard and Public Security Police[6][8]
Switzerland: SPC 2009, Swiss Military Police (as the Pistole 03).[6][9] and some state police departments[citation needed]
United States: Richmond police chambered in .357 Sig. To be used as a sidearm for the United States Army.
