1.
Postgraduate education
–
In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
Postgraduate education
–
The enrollment of some students in the
University of Bologna.
2.
Russell Square
–
Russell Square is a large garden square in Bloomsbury, in the London Borough of Camden, built predominantly by James Burton. It is near the University of Londons main buildings and the British Museum, to the north is Woburn Place and to the south-east is Southampton Row. Russell Square tube station is nearby to the north-east and it is named after the surname of the Earls and Dukes of Bedford, the freehold remains with the Bedford Estate, though the square is managed by Camden Council. The square is named after the surname of the Earls and Dukes of Bedford, Russell Square was formed when new streets were laid out by the 5th Duke on the site of the gardens of his former home Bedford House, their London house. William Russell, 1st Baron Russell of Thornhaugh is interred at St. Andrews Church Thornhaugh in Cambridgeshire, the street lamps around this area carry the Bedford Arms. The square contained large terraced houses aimed mainly at upper class families. A number of the houses survive, especially on the southern and western sides. Thomas Lawrence had a studio at number 65, on the eastern side the Hotel Russell, built in 1898 to a design by Charles Fitzroy Doll, dominates, alongside the Imperial Hotel, London, built in 1966. Other past residents include the famous 19th century architectural partnership of father and son, since 2004, the two buildings on the southern side, at numbers 46 and 47, have been occupied by the Huron University USA in London. In 1998, the London Mathematical Society moved from rooms in Burlington House to De Morgan House, at 57–58 Russell Square, a near neighbour, at 52-53 Russell Square, is the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, which moved there in 2009. In 2002, the square was re-landscaped in a style based on the original early 19th-century layout by Humphry Repton, in addition, the café in the square was redeveloped and a new ornamental fountain installed. Although it is managed by the London Borough of Camden, the freehold of the remains with the Bedford Estate. On 7 July 2005, two terrorist bombings occurred near the square, the square was also the site of a mass stabbing in 2016. The Cabmens Shelter Fund was established in London in 1875 to run shelters for the drivers of hansom cabs, the Russell Square shelter is one of thirteen such shelters that still exist. All are now Grade II listed buildings, to commemorate the victims, many flowers were laid at a spot on Russell Square just south of the café. The location is now marked by a plaque and a young oak tree. In the early chapters of Thackerays Vanity Fair, set c,1812, Russell Square is evoked as the residence of the John Sedley, Esquire, of Russell Square, and the Stock Exchange. 21 Russell Square is the street address in the novel The Murderer Lives at Number 21 by the Belgian writer Stanislas-André Steeman
Russell Square
–
Russell Square.
Russell Square
–
Hotel Russell, at 1–8 Russell Square.
Russell Square
–
'London Social Centre', a
squatting action by
anarchists in Russell Square.
Russell Square
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Russell Square cabmen's shelter
3.
Bloomsbury
–
Bloomsbury is an area of the London Borough of Camden, between Euston Road and Holborn. It was developed by the Russell family in the 17th and 18th centuries into a residential area. It is notable for its garden squares, literary connections, and numerous cultural, educational, Bloomsbury Square was laid out in 1660 by Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton. Much of the district was planned and built by James Burton and it is also home to the University of Law and New College of the Humanities. London Contemporary Dance School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and are located in the area. Bloomsbury is in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. The western half of the district comprises Bloomsbury ward, which three councillors to Camden Borough Council. The earliest record of what would become Bloomsbury is in the 1086 Domesday Book, but it is not until 1201 that the name Bloomsbury is first noted, when William de Blemond, a Norman landowner, acquired the land. The name Bloomsbury is a development from Blemondisberi – the bury, or manor, at the end of the 14th century, Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks of the London Charterhouse, who kept the area mostly rural. In the 16th century with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Henry VIII took the back into the possession of the Crown and granted it to Thomas Wriothesley. In the early 1660s, the Earl of Southampton constructed what eventually became Bloomsbury Square, the Yorkshire Grey public house on the corner of Grays Inn Road and Theobalds Road dates from 1676. The area was laid out mainly in the 18th century, largely by landowners such as Wriothesley Russell, 3rd Duke of Bedford, who built Bloomsbury Market, William de Blemond in the 13th century, a Norman, was the first landowner. Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks who governed it until Henry VIII granted it to the Earl of Southampton, the Russell family became landowners in the 18th century. The area lay within the parishes of St Giles in the Fields and St Georges, Bloomsbury and it is now controlled by the London Borough of Camden and part of the district is contained within the Bloomsbury ward. The district is situated in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. Bloomsbury merges gradually with Holborn in the south, with St Pancras and Kings Cross in the north-east, the road runs from Euston and Somers Town in the north to Holborn in the south. East of Southampton Row/Woburn Place are the Grade II listed Brunswick Centre, a residential and shopping centre, the area west of Southampton Row/Woburn Place is notable for its concentration of academic establishments, museums, and formal squares. Bloomsbury contains some of Londons finest parks and buildings, and is known for its formal squares
Bloomsbury
–
Bedford Square, one of Bloomsbury's garden squares
Bloomsbury
–
Queen Square, Bloomsbury in 1787. The fields to the north reach as far as
Hampstead.
Bloomsbury
–
Tavistock Square
Bloomsbury
–
Some members of the Bloomsbury Group: Left to right:
Lady Ottoline Morrell, Mrs.
Aldous Huxley,
Lytton Strachey,
Duncan Grant and
Vanessa Bell.
4.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
5.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
6.
Law school
–
A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
Law school
–
A typical juris doctor diploma, here from
Suffolk University Law School
Law school
–
West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, in
Kolkata is one of the autonomous law schools in India
Law school
–
Founded in 1817,
Harvard Law School is the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States.
7.
School of Oriental and African Studies
–
SOAS University of London, is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS was ranked within the top 30 universities in the United Kingdom by The Guardian University Guide 2017, the School is organised into faculties of humanities, languages and social sciences. It is home to the SOAS School of Law, SOAS offers around 350 undergraduate bachelors degree combinations, over 100 one-year masters degrees and PhD programmes in nearly every department. SOAS has produced several heads of states, government ministers, diplomats, Supreme Court judges, the School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by King George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, the School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britains political, commercial and military presence in Asia and Africa. The school immediately became integral in training British administrators, colonial officials, Africa was added to the schools name in 1938. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction, with the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities all over the provinces. The School was, on the Governments advice, transferred to Christs College, Cambridge. In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, in 1942, the War Office joined with the schools Japanese department to help alleviate the shortage in Japanese linguists. State scholarships were offered to select grammar and public school boys to train as military translators, lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as the Dulwich boys. The courses were directed by army cryptographer, Col. John Tiltman, the SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Vesey-Fitzgerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956. Over his twenty-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds, a college of the University of London, the Schools fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UKs national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past thirty years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris which is considered the French equivalent of SOAS
School of Oriental and African Studies
–
Arms of SOAS
School of Oriental and African Studies
–
SOAS, University of London
School of Oriental and African Studies
–
A student from
Northern Rhodesia at SOAS in 1946
School of Oriental and African Studies
–
The main entrance to the Russell Square campus
8.
University of London
–
The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
University of London
University of London
–
University of London
Coat of Arms The file above's purpose is being discussed and/or is being considered for
deletion. Consult image description page for details.
University of London
University of London
9.
LL.B.
–
The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
LL.B.
–
Sir William Blackstone
LL.B.
–
University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
10.
LL.M.
–
The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
LL.M.
–
University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
11.
PhD
–
A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
PhD
–
A Doctor of Philosophy of the
University of Oxford in full
academic dress
12.
International students
–
International students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. The definition of international student varies in each country in accordance to their own education system. New Zealand citizens do not require a visa to study in Australia, much of the increase in international students in the U. S. during 2013–2014 was fueled by undergraduate students from China, the reports authors found. The number of students in tertiary education is also rapidly increasing as higher education becomes an increasingly global venture. During 2014-15,974,926 international students came to study in the U. S, Chinese students have always been the largest demographic amongst international students. UNESCO also predicted that the number of international students might rise to approximately 7 million by the year 2020, the main destinations preferred by international students are the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Canada and Australia. Overall, the number of international students more than doubled to over 2 million between 2000 and 2007, however the sharpest percentage increases of international students have occurred in New Zealand, Korea, the Netherlands, Greece, Spain, Italy and Ireland. In recent years, some Asian and Middle East countries have started to more international students. These regions have entered the market with declared ambitions to become regional education centers by attracting as many as several hundred international students to their countries. More recently however they have had to compete with the rapidly growing Asian higher education market, International student mobility in the first decade of the 21st century has been transformed by two major external events, 9/11 and the recession of 2008. 9/11 forced US to tighten requirements for students and Australia. In 2009, international students represented 21. 5% and 15. 3% of higher education enrollment in Australia, according to OECD, almost one out of five international students is regionally mobile. This segment of regionally mobile students who seek global education at local cost is defined as glocal students, many glocal students consider pursing transnational or cross-border education which allows them to earn a foreign credential while staying in their home country. The number of Chinese students increased, overall, the total number of international students with a US Visa to study at colleges and universities increased by 3 per cent to a record high of nearly 691,000 in the 2009/2010 academic year. The 30 per cent increase in Chinese student enrolment was the main contributor to this years growth, japan, Canada and New Zealand are perceived as evolving destinations for international students. Japan has around 180000 overseas students studying at its institutions, Canada has seen a large increase in the number of Indian students, where the number of Indian students rose 280% in 2010 compared to 2008. Organizations such as Learnhub are taking advantage of this trend of Indian international students by providing recruitment services that bring Indian students abroad. Recent changes to Canadas immigration regulations that came into effect on January 1,2015 have placed international graduates from Canadian universities at a disadvantage
International students
–
International students
13.
David Lammy
–
David Lindon Lammy FRSA MP is a British Labour Party politician, who has been the Member of Parliament for Tottenham since 2000. Lammy was born in Tottenham, North London, to Guyanese parents David and he and his four siblings were brought up by his mother, after his father walked out on the family when he was 12. Lammy never saw him again, but has spoken about the impact that this had on his life. Lammy advocates positive parenting, often speaking publicly about the importance of fathers and he chairs the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Fatherhood and has written frequently on the issue. Lammy grew up in Tottenham, next to the Broadwater Farm estate, growing up, Lammy worked in KFC and as a security guard to help the family get by. He studied at the School of Law, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Lammy went on to become the first black Briton to study at Harvard University when he won a place to study an LL. M. at Harvard Law School. He was called to the bar of England and Wales in 1994 at Lincolns Inn that he had joined as a student member, in 2000 he was elected for Labour on the London-wide list to the London Assembly. During the London election campaign the sitting member for his constituency of Tottenham, Bernie Grant, died. He was elected to the seat in a by-election held on 22 June 2000, upon his election Lammy became the Baby of the House. In 2002 he became Parliamentary under-Secretary in the Department of Health and he was responsible for the introduction of the 4-hour target on A&E waiting times, leading to a significant decrease in waiting times. In 2003 Lammy was appointed as a Minister in the Department for Constitutional Affairs, as a member of the Government, he voted in favour of the authorization for Britain to invade Iraq in 2003. After the 2005 general election Lammy was appointed Minister for Culture at the Department of Culture, Media, in June 2007 Lammy was appointed as a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills. He also established the Aimhigher scheme to get young people from poor backgrounds into university. In October 2008 he was promoted to Minister of State and was appointed to the Privy Council, Lammy continued in the new department in his previous role as the Minister for Higher Education. After Labour lost the 2010 general election a Labour Party leadership contest was announced, during the contest Lammy nominated Diane Abbott, explaining that he felt it was important to have a diverse field of candidates, but declared his support for David Miliband. After the election of Ed Miliband, Lammy pledged his support for Miliband. He explained this decision by asserting a need to speak on a range of issues that would arise in his constituency due to the large cuts in the public services that his constituents rely on. Deciding instead to become a back-bench opposition MP, Lammy has opposed the Coalition Governments comprehensive spending review
David Lammy
–
The Right Honourable David Lammy
MP FRSA
David Lammy
–
Lammy with Tottenham Labour Party members and others before joining the
TUC Anti-Cuts March in March 2011
14.
President of Ghana
–
The President of the Republic of Ghana is the elected head of state and head of government of Ghana, as well as Commander-in-Chief of the Ghana Armed Forces. The current President of Ghana is Nana Akufo-Addo, who won the 2016 presidential election against the incumbent, John Dramani Mahama, Akufo-Addo was sworn into office on 7 January 2017. The President of Ghana must be sworn in by the Chief Justice before the citizens of Ghana at the Independence Square in Accra. I further that should I at any time break this oath of office, I shall submit myself to the laws of the Republic of Ghana, after the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, these following insignia are handed over to the president. These devices are used to display the rank of office and are used on special occasions. Presidents Sword and the Presidential Seat, a carved wooden seat overlaid with gold. Chapter 8 of the Constitution of Ghana states the duties and the powers of the President, the President is required to, uphold the Constitution exercise executive authority preserve the safety and homeland of Ghana. The President may execute or cause to be executed treaties, agreements or conventions in the name of the Republic of Ghana, the President shall cease to hold office on the date the Parliament of Ghana decides that he/she be removed from office. Convention Peoples Party Peoples National Party National Democratic Congress New Patriotic Party Military The President of Ghanas official residence was Osu Castle in Accra. In 2007, The opposition MPs in Ghana stormed out of a debate on whether to take out a $50m loan to build a new presidential palace. MPs from President John Kufuors New Patriotic Party voted unanimously in favour of taking the loan from India and they argued that the President should not be based in Osu Castle, where slaves used to be kept. The opposition National Democratic Congress said the money would be spent elsewhere. The new presidential palace was expected to be completed by August 2008 but was completed in November 2008. At the inauguration of the new palace, President John Kufuor revealed to the press that the new name of the palace would be Golden Jubilee House. The name was chosen in reference to the 50th anniversary of Ghanas Independence, part of the office space has been given to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs when it had to be relocated because of a fire that guttered its offices. The NDC government refused to move to the venue after it assumed office in 2009 noting that some of the work in the residency is not completed, the name has been changed to Flagstaff House. On 7 February 2013, the office of the Presidency was finally moved to the flagstaff house, dassault Falcon 900 EX of the President of Ghana In the autumn of 2012 a jet aircraft was acquired in the Golden Jubilee House. According to the Chief of the Golden Jubilee House Property Agency acquisition of a Embraer 190 jet aircraft for the President costed 105 million cedis, the jet aircraft planned location is in the Ghanaian Presidential Retreats Peduase Lodge
President of Ghana
–
Presidential Standard of Ghana
President of Ghana
–
Presidential Seal of Ghana
President of Ghana
–
Incumbent
John Dramani Mahama since 24 July 2012
President of Ghana
15.
John Atta Mills
–
John Evans Fiifi Atta Mills was a Ghanaian politician and legal scholar who served as President of Ghana from 2009 to 2012. He was inaugurated on 7 January 2009, having defeated the party candidate Nana Akufo-Addo in the 2008 election. He is the first Ghanaian head of state to die in office, Mills was born on 21 July 1944 in Tarkwa, in the Western Region of Ghana. A member of the Fante ethnic group, he hailed from the town of Ekumfi Otuam in the Mfantsiman East constituency of the Central Region of Ghana and he had his primary and middle school education at Huni Valley Methodist Primary School and Komenda Methodist Middle School respectively. Even during his career in politics, he was called by the nickname The Prof. His political supporters also called him Asomdweehene meaning King of Peace in the Akan language, Mills first formal teaching assignment was as a lecturer at the Faculty of Law at the University of Ghana. He spent close to twenty-five years teaching at Legon and other institutions of higher learning, in 1971, he was selected for the Fulbright Scholar programme at Stanford Law School in the US. He returned to his homeland, Ghana, at the end of the educational exchange fellowship to work at his alma mater. He became a professor at Temple University, with two stints from 1978 to 1979, and 1986 to 1987. He was also a lecturer at Leiden University in the Netherlands from 1985 to 1986. During this period, he authored several publications relating to taxation during the 1970s and 1980s, by 1992, he had become an Associate Professor of Law at the University of Ghana. For the inaugural election in 1992, the National Convention Party had formed an alliance with the National Democratic Congress. Former Provisional National Defence Council Chairman, and leader of Ghana, Flight-Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings chose the NCP leader, Kow Nkensen Arkaah, having been elected in the 1992 election, Arkaah served between 1992–1996. In his capacity as Vice-President, he served as the Chairman of the Police Council of Ghana, in 2000, Mills became the NDCs candidate for the 2000 presidential election after Rawlings had served his constitutionally mandated terms as president. The main rival for Mills own bid for the presidency was John Agyekum Kufuor, in the heat of the 2000 presidential campaign, Mills was roundly criticized for statements that if elected he would consult with Rawlings daily. In the first round, held on 7 December 2000, Mills gained 44. 8% of the vote, Kufuor won the first round with 48. 4%, thus forcing a second round. On 28 December 2000, Kufuor defeated Mills with 56. 9% of the vote and was sworn in as president on 7 January 2001, in December 2002, Mills was elected by his party to be its flag bearer and lead them into the 2004 election. He was, however, defeated again by incumbent president John Agyekum Kufuor, in the 2008 election, John Agyekum Kufuor was no longer eligible to run as president, having served two terms
John Atta Mills
–
John Evans Atta Mills
John Atta Mills
–
Signature
John Atta Mills
–
President Mills featured on a billboard with US President
Barack Obama
John Atta Mills
–
President Mills on a meeting with the Minister of Development of Brazil, Miguel Jorge
16.
Sri Lanka
–
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
–
Avukana Buddha statue, a 12 metres (39 ft) standing Buddha statue belongs to the reign of
Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century
Sri Lanka
–
Flag
Sri Lanka
–
Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication.
Sri Lanka
–
The
Sigiriya rock fortress
17.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
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Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
18.
Sudan
–
Sudan, also known as North Sudan since South Sudans independence and officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northern Africa. It is the third largest country in Africa, the River Nile divides the country into eastern and western halves. Before the Sudanese Civil War, South Sudan was part of Sudan, Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished along the Nile. During the pre-dynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, by virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 15th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa and also the third largest country in the Arab world and its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a representative democratic federal republic. The politics of Sudan are regulated by an organization called the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law, the countrys place name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, or the lands of the Blacks, during the fifth millennium BC migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the centuries become the Kingdom of Kush at 1700 BC. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and it was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all the way to the Sinai, pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sennacheribs successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa, Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an Assyrian colony, however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his successor Ashurbanipal sent an army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani. During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroë, in ancient Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia
Sudan
–
The large mud brick temple, known as the shrek or Western Deffufa, in the ancient city of
Kerma
Sudan
–
Flag
Sudan
–
Nubian pyramids in
Meroë.
Sudan
–
Ruins of
Old Dongola.
19.
United Nations Human Rights Council
–
The United Nations Human Rights Council is a United Nations System inter-governmental body responsible for promoting and protecting human rights around the world. Its 47 seats are filled by member states elected for three-year terms, the UNHRC is the successor to the UN Commission on Human Rights, and is a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly. The council works closely with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the UNHRC addresses human rights-related situations in all UN member states. The United States boycotted the Council during the George W. Bush administration, beginning in 2009 however, with the United States taking a leading role in the organization, American commentators began to argue that the UNHRC was becoming increasingly relevant. The UN General Assembly elects the members who occupy the UNHRCs 47 seats, the General Assembly takes into account the candidate States’ contribution to the promotion and protection of human rights, as well as their voluntary pledges and commitments in this regard. The term of each seat is three years, and no member may occupy a seat for more than two consecutive terms, the resolution establishing the UNHRC states that members elected to the Council shall uphold the highest standards in the promotion and protection of human rights. On 18 June 2007, one year after holding its first meeting, the UNHRC adopted its Institution-building package, among the elements was the Universal Periodic Review. The Universal Periodic Review assesses the human rights situations in all 193 UN Member States, a further element is a Complaint procedure, which allows individuals and organizations to bring complaints about human rights violations to the attention of the Council. The members of the General Assembly elect the members who occupy the UNHRCs 47 seats, the term of each seat is three years, and no member may occupy a seat for more than two consecutive terms. The previous CHR had a membership of 53 elected by the Economic and Social Council through a majority of those present, the suspension process requires a two-thirds majority vote by the General Assembly. The UNHRC holds regular sessions three times a year, in March, June, and September, the UNHRC can decide at any time to hold a special session to address human rights violations and emergencies, at the request of one-third of the member states. To date there have been 20 Special Sessions, Members of the UNHRC are elected to staggered three-year terms. Current Previous The first election of members was held on 9 May 2006 and their terms of office began on 19 June 2006. On 19 May, it was announced that Mexico would serve as the Councils chair during its first year of existence. 2010 Group The replacement for the 2007 Group was duly elected by the General Assembly on 17 May 2007, known as the 2010 Group, in this election, Angola and Egypt were elected to the council, whereas Belarus was rejected. 2011 Group, The replacement for the 2008 Group was duly elected by the General Assembly on 21 May 2008, known as the 2011 Group, the year when their terms expire. 2012 Group, The replacement for the 2009 Group was duly elected by the General Assembly on 12 May 2009, known as the 2012 Group, the year when their terms expire. 2013 Group, The replacement for the 2010 Group was duly elected by the General Assembly on 13 May 2010, known as the 2013 Group, the year when their terms expire
United Nations Human Rights Council
–
The Human Rights and Alliance of Civilizations Room, used by the United Nations Human Rights Council, in the
Palace of Nations (
Geneva).
United Nations Human Rights Council
–
Human Rights Council
United Nations Human Rights Council
–
Helen Berhane, Church in Chains
20.
Bachelor of Laws
–
The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
Bachelor of Laws
–
Sir William Blackstone
Bachelor of Laws
–
University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
21.
Law Society of England and Wales
–
The Law Society of England and Wales is the professional association that represents and governs the lawyers profession for the jurisdiction of England and Wales. It provides services and support to practising and training lawyers as well as serving as a board for law reform. Members of the Society are often consulted when important issues are being debated in Parliament or by the executive, the Society was formed in 1825. The Hall of The Law Society is in Chancery Lane, London, but it also has offices in Cardiff to deal with the Wales jurisdiction and Assembly, a president is elected annually to serve for one year. The current president is Robert Bourns, barristers in England and Wales have a similar professional body, the General Council of the Bar, commonly known as the Bar Council. London was dropped from the title in 1825 to reflect the fact that the Law Institution had national aspirations, the Society was founded on 2 June 1825, when a committee of management was appointed. A new Charter in 1845 defined the Society as an independent, private body servicing the affairs of the profession like other professional, literary, by further Royal Charter in 1903 the name of the Society was changed to simply The Law Society. The Society first admitted women members in 1922, although merged, the AWS will operate separately from the Law Society. In 1834, the Society first initiated proceedings against dishonest practitioners, by 1907, the Society possessed a statutory disciplinary committee, and was empowered to investigate solicitors accounts and to issue annual practising certificates. In 1983, the Society established the Office for the Supervision of Solicitors to deal with complaints about solicitors, Complaints regarding the conduct of solicitors are now dealt with by the Solicitors Regulation Authority. However complaints regarding poor service are the remit of the Legal Ombudsman, the Solicitors Act 1860 enabled the Society to create a three-tier examination system. In 1903, the Society established its own Law Society School of Law, by 1922 The Law Society required a compulsory academic year for all clerks. Following the recommendations of the Clementi Review The Law Society split its representative, the regulatory body for solicitors is the Solicitors Regulation Authority. It is a Board of The Law Society although it regulates and enforces regulation completely independently of the Law Society, Law Society Gazette Solicitors Regulation Authority Legal Complaints Service Law Society of Scotland Law Society of Northern Ireland Lexcel Official website
Law Society of England and Wales
–
The coat of arms of the Law Society.
Law Society of England and Wales
–
The Law Society
22.
Common Professional Examination
–
The course thus allows non-law students to convert to law after university, it is also commonly known as a law conversion course. Most CPE courses award a diploma and are often titled Graduate Diploma in Law. Common post-nominal abbreviations include LL. Dip, PgDL or Dip. Law, the CPE is one or two years long, and successful candidates may proceed to either the Legal Practice Course for solicitors or the Bar Professional Training Course for barristers. It is regulated by the Law Society of England and Wales with admissions handled through the Central Applications Board, the GDL tends to be offered through private institutions or universities. The largest course providers are The University of Law, City Law School, Kaplan Law School, the CPE/GDEHKL is offered by the University of Hong Kongs School of Professional and Continuing Education in Hong Kong jointly with Manchester Metropolitan University. Graduates of the GDEHKL who continue on to take the additional MMU LLB year after the CPE/GDEHKL will have passed all necessary law subjects required for PCLL eligibility, Legal education Lawyer Trainee solicitor Pupillage Central Application Board Chambers Student Guide, What is the GDL. Table of GDL providers and their fees Information and guidance on qualifying as a solicitor
Common Professional Examination
23.
Barristers
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
Barristers
–
A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh
Barristers
–
Illustration of an early 20th-century English barrister
Barristers
–
Margaret Battye, 1930s Australian court dress
Barristers
–
Gray's Inn,
London
24.
Hong Kong
–
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour —between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
Hong Kong
–
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in WWI and WWII.
Hong Kong
–
Flag
Hong Kong
–
Stamp with portrait of
Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
Hong Kong
–
Development of
Hong Kong Island in 1986
25.
Singapore
–
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
Singapore
–
Raffles Square around 1900.
Singapore
–
Flag
Singapore
–
Victorious Japanese troops marching through Singapore City after the British capitulation at the
Battle of Singapore in 1942.
Singapore
–
A cheering crowd welcome the return of British forces, 1945
26.
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Flag
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The prime ministers of five members at the 1944
Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. (L-R)
Mackenzie King (Canada);
Jan Smuts (South Africa);
Winston Churchill (United Kingdom);
Peter Fraser (New Zealand);
John Curtin (Australia)
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Queen
Elizabeth II,
Head of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Marlborough House, London, the headquarters of the
Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth's principal intergovernmental institution
27.
Common law
–
Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
Common law
–
The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 395 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.
Common law
–
Legal systems of the world. Common law is red.
Common law
–
Sir William Blackstone as illustrated in his
Commentaries on the Laws of England.
28.
Master of Laws
–
The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
Master of Laws
–
University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
29.
Human rights
–
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
Human rights
–
The
Cyrus Cylinder, created by king
Cyrus the Great, is sometimes argued to be the world's first charter of human rights.
Human rights
–
The Bill of Rights (1688 or 1689)
Human rights
–
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the
National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789.
Human rights
–
The
UN General Assembly
30.
Commercial law
–
It is often considered to be a branch of civil law and deals with issues of both private law and public law. It can also be understood to regulate corporate contracts, hiring practices, many countries have adopted civil codes that contain comprehensive statements of their commercial law. In the United States, commercial law is the province of both the United States Congress, under its power to regulate commerce, and the states. Various regulatory schemes control how commerce is conducted, particularly vis-a-vis employees, privacy laws, safety laws, and food and drug laws are some examples. Outline of commercial law Consulate of the Sea Hundreds of Answers to Basic Business Law Questions Topical listing of US commercial law from Cornells Legal Information Institute
Commercial law
31.
Environmental law
–
The core environmental law regimes address environmental pollution. Other areas, such as environmental impact assessment, may not fit neatly into either category, early examples of legal enactments designed to consciously preserve the environment, for its own sake or human enjoyment, are found throughout history. In the common law, the protection was found in the law of nuisance. Thus smells emanating from pig stys, strict liability against dumping rubbish, private enforcement, however, was limited and found to be woefully inadequate to deal with major environmental threats, particularly threats to common resources. During the Great Stink of 1858, the dumping of sewerage into the River Thames began to smell so ghastly in the heat that Parliament had to be evacuated. In 19 days, Parliament passed a further Act to build the London sewerage system, London also suffered from terrible air pollution, and this culminated in the Great Smog of 1952, which in turn triggered its on legislative response, the Clean Air Act 1956. The basic regulatory structure was to set limits on emissions for households, notwithstanding early analogues, the concept of environmental law as a separate and distinct body of law is a twentieth-century development. Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere, a specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings. Air quality laws are designed specifically to protect human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing air pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels, Water quality laws govern the release of pollutants into water resources, including surface water, ground water, and stored drinking water. Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with reference to human health, regulatory areas include sewage treatment and disposal, industrial and agricultural waste water management, and control of surface runoff from construction sites and urban environments. Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of all manner of waste, including solid waste, hazardous waste. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing waste types and mandating transport, treatment, storage, Environmental cleanup laws govern the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, sediment, surface water, or ground water. Chemical safety laws govern the use of chemicals in human activities, as contrasted with media-oriented environmental laws, chemical control laws seek to manage the pollutants themselves. Regulatory efforts include banning specific chemical constituents in consumer products, Environmental impact assessment is the assessment of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or concrete projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, Water resources laws govern the ownership and use of water resources, including surface water and ground water. Regulatory areas may include water conservation, use restrictions, and ownership regimes, mineral resource laws cover several basic topics, including the ownership of the mineral resource and who can work them. Mining is also affected by regulations regarding the health and safety of miners
Environmental law
–
Industrial air pollution now regulated by
air quality law.
Environmental law
–
A typical stormwater outfall, subject to
water quality law.
Environmental law
–
A municipal landfill, operated pursuant to
waste management law.
32.
Comparative law
–
Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law of different countries. It includes the description and analysis of legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism. The origins of comparative law can be traced back to 18th century Europe, although, prior to that. Montesquieu is generally regarded as a founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, De lesprit des lois, he political. Should be adapted in such a manner to the people for whom they are framed that it should be a chance if those of one nation suit another. They should be in relation to the nature and principle of government, whether they form it, as may be said of politic laws, or whether they support it. The modern founding figure of comparative and anthropological jurisprudence was Sir Henry Maine and this work placed comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential. The first university course on the subject was established at the University of Oxford in 1869, Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in Germany, Rudolf Schlesinger. Schlesinger eventually became professor of law at Cornell Law School helping to spread the discipline throughout the US. Comparative law is a discipline that involves the study of legal systems, including their constitutive elements and how they differ. Studies of these areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal analysis. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries, despite the differences between comparative law and these other legal fields, comparative law helps inform all of these areas of normativity. For example, comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the United Nations System, Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application, Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of legal transplants, i. e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of legal transplants was coined by Alan Watson, one of the renowned legal scholars specializing in comparative law. Also, the usefulness of comparative law for sociology of law and law, the comparative study of the various legal systems may show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice
Comparative law
–
Sir
Henry James Sumner Maine, British jurist and first professor of comparative law at
Oxford.
33.
Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
–
The Institute of Advanced Legal Studies is a member institute of the School of Advanced Study, University of London. The unique mission of the Institute is to be the point of legal research for the United Kingdom. Since 1976, the Institute’s home has been Charles Clore House, located in the heart of Bloomsbury, on 11 June 1948, the Institute was officially opened by the Lord Chancellor, William Jowitt, 1st Earl Jowitt. The first director was Professor Sir David Hughes Parry, a distinguished Professor of English Law at the London School of Economics, the Librarian, K. Howard Drake also acted as administrative secretary for the Institute. The library held 11,000 books in its first year, an internal telephone system connected all the rooms with a hand book lift installed to move books from floor to floor. By 1949, the Institute was running out of space and were given permission to extend into the basement, here it remained until 1976 when the Institute moved into No.17 Russell Square, part of the newly built Charles Clore House designed by Sir Denys Lasdun. At the official opening on 1st April 1976, the then Chancellor of the University of London, Queen Elizabeth, in 1994, the IALS became a member of the School of Advanced Study. The Institute is also home to the British Institute of International, the IALS library holds a collection of over 300,000 legal texts, complemented by over 3,000 current serial titles, reports, and legislative materials. It has been described as the jewel in the Institute’s crown, the library covers five floors of Charles Clore House with the library entrance on the fourth floor. The library catalogue forms part of a catalogue with its fellow School of Advanced Study institutes. The Institute library is considered one of the world’s leading comparative research libraries, jurisdictions covered include countries in, North America, Latin America, Europe and the Commonwealth. The library is particularly strong in Public International Law and it has a large collection of United States Federal resources and holdings of State primary resources, focused on California, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Louisiana. Since the late 1990s, IALS has participated in award-winning collaborative and these include FLAG, FIT, and Eagle-I, which builds upon the original Jisc funded Intute, Law project. The IALS library has partnered with libraries and organisations in promotions. The library concentrates on printed and digital resources, often as lead developer for web-based initiatives, the Institute actively promotes research by its own academic staff and students in conjunction with its role as a national legal research centre. Research centres at the Institute contribute to research via externally funded projects or study, with the Sir William Dale Centre. High-impact areas of research conducted by the Institute include legislative drafting, human rights, international financial regulation, through its association with the School of Advanced Study, the Institute offers a number of fellowships for legal research to both national and international legal academics and practitioners. Fellows give lectures in their field of expertise during their tenure, students studying at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, in addition to postgraduate law students registered for LL. M. and M. A. degrees
Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
–
Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
–
Charles Clore House at 17
Russell Square, London, the present home of the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
–
Colleges and
institutions
34.
The Guardian
–
The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
The Guardian
–
The Guardian front page on 6 June 2014
The Guardian
–
The Guardian senior news writer Esther Addley interviewing Ecuadorian Foreign Minister
Ricardo Patiño for this article relating to
Julian Assange (August 2014)
The Guardian
–
The Guardian's HQ in
London
The Guardian
–
The Guardian' s Newsroom visitor centre and archive (No 60), with an old sign with the name The Manchester Guardian
35.
London Universities Mooting Shield
–
The London Universities Mooting Shield, mostly known as LUMS, is an annual mooting league competition featuring teams of undergraduate students from University Law Faculties across London. The competition is run by students, for students, and an emphasis is placed on personal development. LUMS was founded by the student Masters of Moots from the four original participating universities, John Harrison, Daniel Jackson, Richard Padley, the LUMS Executive Committee, which runs the day-to-day operations of the competition such as arranging rounds and judges, is always composed of past competitors. This ensures the student focus and the link to participating institutions, London South Bank University, the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London and University of Greenwich have taken part in previous years. LUMS is based on a format, which ensures that each team competes against every other at least once. Rounds are hosted by the universities, certain of the competition sponsors and legal venues such as the Royal Courts of Justice. At the end of the rounds, the top two teams based on points go on to the Grand Final, meaning that the team coming top of the league does not always win the overall competition. Each team consists of up to four participants, of whom two act as counsel at each round. Team members therefore alternate between each round in order to distribute their workload and promote teamwork. The Grand Final requires all four members of team to address a complex moot problem based on topical events. The winning team receives the Shield, which lends its name to the competition, prizes are also presented to the participant who has shown the best standard of advocacy throughout the competition’s league rounds, and to the team which has embraced the spirit of the competition. A further prize, selected by the Master/Mistress of the Shield committee member, is awarded to a participant who has shown outstanding effort and teamwork
London Universities Mooting Shield
–
Crest of the London Universities Mooting Shield
36.
Amal Clooney
–
Amal Clooney is a barrister at Doughty Street Chambers, specializing in international law and human rights. Her clients include Julian Assange, the founder of WikiLeaks, in his fight against extradition and she has also represented the former prime minister of Ukraine, Yulia Tymoshenko, and Egyptian-Canadian journalist Mohamed Fahmy. She is married to the American actor George Clooney, Amal Alamuddin was born in Beirut, Lebanon. However, during the 1980s Lebanese Civil War, the Alamuddin family left Lebanon and settled in Gerrards Cross and she was two years old at the time. She has three siblings—one sister, Tala, and two half-brothers, Samer and Ziad, from her fathers first marriage, Clooney attended Dr Challoners High School, a girls grammar school located in Amersham, Buckinghamshire. She then studied at St. Hughs College, Oxford, where she received an Exhibition, in 2000, Clooney graduated with a BA degree in Jurisprudence from St. Hughs College, Oxford. The following year, in 2001, she entered New York University School of Law to study for the LLM degree and she received the Jack J. Katz Memorial Award for excellence in entertainment law. For one semester while at NYU, she worked in the office of Sonia Sotomayor, Clooney is qualified to practice as a lawyer in the United States and the United Kingdom. She was admitted to the Bar in New York in 2002 and she has also practised at international courts in The Hague including the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court. Clooney worked at Sullivan & Cromwell in New York City for three years as part of the Criminal Defense and Investigations Group, where her clients included Enron, in 2004, she completed a judicial clerkship at the International Court of Justice. She clerked under Judge Vladen S. Vereshchetin from Russia, Judge Nabil Elaraby from Egypt and she was subsequently based in The Hague working in the Office of the Prosecutor at the UN Special Tribunal for Lebanon and at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Clooney returned to Britain in 2010, where she became a barrister in London at Doughty Street Chambers, for the spring 2015 and 2016 academic semesters, Clooney was a visiting faculty member and a senior fellow with Columbia Law Schools Human Rights Institute. She was a co-professor with Sarah H. Cleveland in Clevelands course on human rights, as of 2011, Clooney was assisting the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the arbitration between Merck Sharp and Dohme and the Republic of Ecuador. Starting in 2014, Clooney represented Canadian Al Jazeera English journalist Mohamed Fahmy who and he was eventually sentenced to three years in prison and lost a retrial in August 2015 before finally being pardoned by Egyptian president Abdel Fattah al-Sisi. In August 2014, Clooney declined a UN commission In October 2014, in May 2015, Greece decided to stop legal proceedings to recover the sculptures and dismissed her as their brief. In January 2015, Clooney began work on the recognition of the Armenian Genocide and she is representing Armenia on behalf of Doughty Street Chambers along with Geoffrey Robertson QC. She is representing Armenia in the case against Doğu Perinçek, whose 2007 conviction for genocide denial and racial discrimination was overturned in Perinçek v. Switzerland, a minor internet frenzy resulted from her bon mot prior to the 28 January 2015 hearing. In response to a journalist pestering her over what designer gown she would be wearing in court, arroyo was a sitting Pampanga congresswoman at the time
Amal Clooney
–
Clooney in May 2014
37.
Barrister
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
Barrister
–
A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh
Barrister
–
Illustration of an early 20th-century English barrister
Barrister
–
Margaret Battye, 1930s Australian court dress
Barrister
–
Gray's Inn,
London
38.
George Clooney
–
George Timothy Clooney is an American actor, filmmaker, and activist. He has received three Golden Globe Awards for his work as an actor and two Academy Awards, one for acting in Syriana and the other for co-producing Argo, in 1999, he took the lead role in Three Kings, a well-received war satire set during the Gulf War. In 2001, Clooneys fame widened with the release of his biggest commercial success, the heist comedy remake Oceans Eleven, in 2013, he received the Academy Award for Best Picture for producing the political thriller Argo. He is the person who has been nominated for Academy Awards in six different categories. In 2009, Clooney was included in Times annual Time 100 as one of the Most Influential People in the World and he is also noted for his political activism, and has served as one of the United Nations Messengers of Peace since January 31,2008. He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, Clooney was born in Lexington, Kentucky. His mother, Nina Bruce, was a beauty queen and city councilwoman and his father, Nick Clooney, is a former anchorman and game show host who hosted AMC for five years in the late 1990s. Clooney has Irish, German, and English ancestry and his maternal great-great-great-great-grandmother, Mary Ann Sparrow, was the half-sister of Nancy Lincoln, mother of President Abraham Lincoln. Clooney has a sister named Adelia. His aunt was the cabaret singer and actress Rosemary Clooney. Through Rosemary, his cousins include actors Miguel Ferrer, Rafael Ferrer, and Gabriel Ferrer, Clooney was raised a strict Roman Catholic, but said in 2006 that he does not know if he believes in Heaven, or even God. He has said, Yes, we were Catholic, big time, whole family and he began his education at the Blessed Sacrament School in Fort Mitchell, Kentucky. He attended St. Michaels School in Columbus, Ohio, then Western Row Elementary School in Mason, Ohio, from 1968 to 1974, and St. Susanna School in Mason, the Clooneys moved back to Kentucky when George was midway through the seventh grade. In middle school, Clooney developed Bells palsy, a condition that partially paralyzes the face, the malady went away within a year. In an interview with Larry King, he stated that yes and it takes about nine months to go away. It was the first year of school, which was a bad time for having half your face paralyzed. After his parents moved to Augusta, Kentucky, Clooney attended Augusta High School and he has stated that he earned all As and a B in school, and was an enthusiastic baseball and basketball player. He tried out to professional baseball with the Cincinnati Reds in 1977
George Clooney
–
Clooney at a ceremony for
John Wells in January 2012
George Clooney
–
George Clooney cast his hands and shoes in the
Grauman's Chinese Theatre in 2007.
George Clooney
–
George Clooney at the premiere of
The Men Who Stare at Goats in the
2009 Toronto International Film Festival
George Clooney
–
Clooney in
Abéché, Chad, in January 2008 with the UN
39.
David W. Kennedy
–
David W. Kennedy is an American academic and legal scholar known for his work on, and criticism of, international law. David Kennedy obtained his A. B. from Brown in 1976, in 1979 he completed a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University. He then attended Harvard Law School to be awarded his J. D. in 1980, Kennedy returned to the Tufts and the Fletcher school to complete his doctoral studies, obtaining a PhD in international law and organizations, law and economic development in 1984. In 1981 Kennedy took up a position as lecturer in Law at Harvard, over the next 25 years Kennedy held a succession of academic appointments at Harvard, progressing through the academic ranks as assistant professor, professor, and faculty director. He is considered a figure in international law. He has worked for the United Nations, the European Commission, Kennedy is also a member of Council on Foreign Relations, a position held since 2003. He is one of the leaders of New Stream or New Approaches to International Law movement which draws from Critical Legal Studies and his book Dark Sides of Virtue, Reassessing International Humanitarianism offers a critique of the international human rights movement and puts forward an alternative vision of global governance
David W. Kennedy
–
David Kennedy
40.
Shirani Bandaranayake
–
Upatissa Atapattu Bandaranayake Wasala Mudiyanse Ralahamilage Shirani Anshumala Bandaranayake served as the 43rd Chief Justice of Sri Lanka. Although a qualified lawyer, she has never practiced law and she was first appointed to the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka in 1996, becoming Sri Lankas first female Supreme Court Judge. Bandaranayake was appointed justice in May 2011 following the mandatory retirement of Asoka de Silva. Bandaranayake was controversially impeached by Parliament and then removed from office by President Mahinda Rajapaksa in January 2013 and this paved the way for Bandaranayake to resume duties on 28 January 2015. She retired from the position just after one day of her reappointment on 29 January 2015 claiming support for a free, Bandaranayake was born in April 1958 in Kurunegala. She is the daughter of Flora and Wilson Bandaranayake and her mother was an English trained teacher whereas her father was a Provincial Director of Education. Bandaranayake has a sister, Renuka, who is a graduate from Moratuwa university now living in Perth. She then studied at Anuradhapura Central College where she passed her GCE Advanced Levels in 1976 and she then entered the University of Colombos Faculty of Law, graduating in December 1980 with an upper second Bachelor of Laws honours degree. She obtained a Master of Philosophy degree from the University of Colombo in October 1983, in the same year she was awarded the Commonwealth Open Scholarship and the Chevening Scholarship in 1989. She qualified as an attorney at law in September 1983 and she was also awarded the Fulbright-Hays Fellowship in 1996 and the British Council Assert Award in 1993 and 1994. Bandaranayake is married to a corporate executive Pradeep Kariyawasam. Bandaranayake became a lecturer at the University of Colombos Faculty of Law in 1981. She held several positions in the department before being appointed Head of the Department of Law in 1987 and she served as acting dean of the faculty several times before being appointed dean in 1992. In 1993 she became Associate Professor of Law on merit and she acted as vice-chancellor on a number of occasions. After her admission to the bar, Bandaranayake worked as an attorney-at-law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka and she was the first female justice of the Supreme Court. Bandaranayake had never served as a judge and she had never practiced law and her appointment to the Supreme Court led to protests from lawyers and judges. She soon became the most senior Supreme Court Judge, Bandaranayake served as acting chief justice on 11 occasions. In 2011 President Mahinda Rajapaksa appointed Bandaranayake as Chief Justice, succeeding Asoka de Silva who retired on 17 May 2011 and she took her oaths before President Rajapaksa on 18 May 2011
Shirani Bandaranayake
–
The Honourable Justice Shirani Bandaranayake
Shirani Bandaranayake
–
Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake, her husband
Pradeep Kariyawasam and son.
Shirani Bandaranayake
–
Carrington
41.
Chief Justice of Sri Lanka
–
The Chief Justice of Sri Lanka is the head of the judicial system of Sri Lanka and is the chief judge of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. The Chief Justice is one of ten Supreme Court justices, the nine are the Puisne Justices of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. The post was created in 1801, the Chief Justice is appointed by the President of Sri Lanka with the nomination of the Constitutional Council. The Chief Justice, The Justices of the Supreme Court and The Justices of the Court of Appeal are addressed as Your Lordship, the first Chief Justice was Codrington Edmund Carrington. The 45th and current Chief Justice is His Lordship Justice Priyasath Dep, the office of Chief Justice traces its origins back with the founding the Royal Charter of Justice of 1801 by the British. The charter required the Chief Justice and Puisne Justice to have not less than Five Years experience as Barristers, the post was first held by Codrington Edmund Carrington. 2013-2015 The Chief Justice Mohan Peiris PC was appointed on 15 January 2013 following the controversial Impeachment of Shirani Bandaranayake, Peiris was elevated by President Mahinda Rajapaksa with the approval of the Parliamentary Council. Peiris is considered to be an ally of President Rajapaksa and his appointment was seen by critics as further consolidation of power by the president, prior to his appointment he was Chairman of Seylan Bank, Senior Legal Officer to the Cabinet and held the post of Attorney General. Peiris was officially inaugurated as Chief Justice at a ceremony in the Supreme Court on 23 January 2013, the current Chief Justice is The Honourable Priyasath Dep the 45th Chief Justice. Appointment The appointment and removal of Judges of the Supreme Court is outlined in Chapter XV Article 107. of the Sri Lankan Constitution. It states that the Chief Justice and every other Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President of the Republic by warrant under his hand, Judges of the Supreme Court shall hold office until the age of retirement of sixty-five years. Describes appointments of an acting Chief Justice or Judge of the Supreme Court, removal of office Judges of the Supreme Court shall hold office during good behaviour. Removal of a judge shall only proceed with an address of the Parliament supported by a majority of the number of Members of Parliament. Reasons for such removal should be on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity, the Chief Justice serves as Chairman of the Judicial Service Commission which consist two Judges of the Supreme Court appointed by the President of the Republic. Other duties of the Chief Justice include nominating judges, as may be necessary, every Judge shall be transferable by the Chief Justice. Data based on, A. Ranjit B
Chief Justice of Sri Lanka
–
Carrington
Chief Justice of Sri Lanka
–
Sri Lanka
42.
Sierra Leone
–
Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has an area of 71,740 km2. Sierra Leone is divided into four regions, the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area. Freetown, located in the Western Area, is the capital, largest city and its economic, Bo is the second largest city, and is located in the Southern Province, about 160 miles from Freetown. Kenema, located in the Eastern Province, is the third largest city and is about 185 miles from Freetown, Koidu Town, located in the Eastern Province, is the fourth largest city, and is about 275 miles from Freetown. Makeni, located in the Northern Province, is the fifth largest of Sierra Leone five major cities, Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991 during the presidency of Joseph Saidu Momoh, since independent to present, Sierra Leone politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone Peoples party and the All Peoples congress. The current president of SIerra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, a member of the APC party, the previous Sierra Leone president was Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, a member of the SLPP party, who was elected president in 1996 and won reelection for his final term in 2002. From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and this proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the countrys infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leones president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS. More recently, the 2014 Ebola outbreak overburdened the weak healthcare infrastructure and it created a humanitarian crisis situation and a negative spiral of weaker economic growth. The country has a low life expectancy at 57.8 years. About sixteen ethnic groups inhabit Sierra Leone, each with its own language, the two largest and most influential are the Temne and the Mende people. The Temne are predominantly found in the north of the country, the Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other. Sierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country, though with an influential Christian minority, Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully, religious violence is extremely rare in the country. In politics, the majority of Sierra Leoneans vote for a candidate without regard to whether the candidate is a Muslim or a Christian
Sierra Leone
–
Fragments of
prehistoric pottery from
Kamabai Rock Shelter
Sierra Leone
–
Flag
Sierra Leone
–
An 1835 illustration of liberated Africans arriving in Sierra Leone.
Sierra Leone
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The colony of Freetown in 1856
43.
Islamic Law
–
Sharia, Sharia law, or Islamic law is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran. In Arabic, the term refers to Gods divine law and is contrasted with fiqh. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists, traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia, the Quran, sunnah, qiyas, and ijma. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two branches of law, ʿibādāt and muʿāmalāt, which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories, mandatory, recommended, permitted, abhorred, thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists, ottoman rulers achieved additional control over the legal system by promulgating their own legal code and turning muftis into state employees. Non-Muslim communities had legal autonomy, except in cases of interconfessional disputes, in the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education in the Muslim world were brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including reinstatement of hudud corporal punishments, in some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world, attempts to impose it on non-Muslims have caused intercommunal violence in Nigeria and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some Muslim-minority countries in Asia, Africa and Europe recognize the use of sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations, there are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and womens rights. The word sharīʿah is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality, for example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean our religion in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply justice, and they will consider any law that promotes justice, Muslims of different perspectives agree in their respect for the abstract notion of sharia, but they differ in how they understand the practical implications of the term. Classical sharia, the body of rules and principles elaborated by Islamic jurists during the first centuries of Islam, historical sharia, the body of rules and interpretations developed throughout Islamic history, ranging from personal beliefs to state legislation and varying across an ideological spectrum. Classical sharia has often served as a point of reference for these variants, Contemporary sharia, the full spectrum of rules and interpretations that are developed and practiced at present
Islamic Law
–
Official from the
Taliban beating a woman in
Afghanistan for violating local interpretation of sharia.
Islamic Law
–
Syariah Court in
Malacca,
Malaysia.
Islamic Law
–
Anti-democracy, pro-Sharia public demonstration in 2014 in
Maldives.
44.
SOAS, University of London
–
SOAS University of London, is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS was ranked within the top 30 universities in the United Kingdom by The Guardian University Guide 2017, the School is organised into faculties of humanities, languages and social sciences. It is home to the SOAS School of Law, SOAS offers around 350 undergraduate bachelors degree combinations, over 100 one-year masters degrees and PhD programmes in nearly every department. SOAS has produced several heads of states, government ministers, diplomats, Supreme Court judges, the School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by King George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, the School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britains political, commercial and military presence in Asia and Africa. The school immediately became integral in training British administrators, colonial officials, Africa was added to the schools name in 1938. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction, with the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities all over the provinces. The School was, on the Governments advice, transferred to Christs College, Cambridge. In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, in 1942, the War Office joined with the schools Japanese department to help alleviate the shortage in Japanese linguists. State scholarships were offered to select grammar and public school boys to train as military translators, lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as the Dulwich boys. The courses were directed by army cryptographer, Col. John Tiltman, the SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Vesey-Fitzgerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956. Over his twenty-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds, a college of the University of London, the Schools fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UKs national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past thirty years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris which is considered the French equivalent of SOAS
SOAS, University of London
–
Arms of SOAS
SOAS, University of London
–
SOAS, University of London
SOAS, University of London
–
A student from
Northern Rhodesia at SOAS in 1946
SOAS, University of London
–
The main entrance to the Russell Square campus
45.
University of Dhaka
–
The University of Dhaka, is the oldest university in modern Bangladesh. Established in 1921 during the British Raj, it has made significant contributions to the history of Bangladesh. After the Partition of India, it became the point of progressive. Its students and teachers played a role in the rise of Bengali nationalism. It also enjoyed associations with Satyendra Nath Bose, Vijayaraghavan, today, it is the largest public university in Bangladesh, with a student body of 33,000 and a faculty of 1,800. It was identified by AsiaWeek as one of the top 100 universities in Asia, however, since the 1990s, the university has suffered from intensely politicized, partisan, and violent campus politics promoted by Bangladeshs political parties. Before Dhaka University was established, near its grounds were the buildings of Dhaka College. In 1873 the college was relocated to Bahadur Shah Park, later it shifted to Curzon Hall, which would become the first institute of the university. The establishment of the university was a compensation of the annulment of the 1905 Partition of Bengal, the partition had established East Bengal and Assam as a separate province, with Dhaka as its capital. However, the partition was abolished in 1911 due to opposition from Indian National Congress. To appease the people of East Bengal, Lord Curzon declared that a university as a center of excellence would be established in Dacca, khwaja Salimullah, the Nawab of Dhaka, also played a pioneering role in establishing a university in Dhaka. In 1913, public opinion was invited before the university scheme was given its final shape, the secretary of state approved it in December 1913. The first vice-chancellor of the university, Dr. Philip Joseph Hartog, established in 1921 under the Dacca University Act 1920 of the Indian Legislative Council, it is modelled after British universities. Honorable Chancellor Lord Ronaldshay was the Governor of Bengal between 1917 and 1922 and he designated Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda as a life member. On his recommendation, Lord Ronaldshay designated Sir Ahmad Fazlur Rahman as a provost, the university played a significant role in the Bengali Language Movement, when Bengalis joined together to fight against Urdu being the official language in East Pakistan. Dhaka University was the place where the movement started with the students joining together. Later countless students were massacred in where the Shaheed Minar stands today, after the incident, Bengali was restored as official language. Presidents Order No.11 of 1973 re-constitute and re-organize the University of Dhaka to improve the teaching and research provided thereby, throughout this order the word Dhaka was substituted for the word Dacca by section 2 of the University Laws Act,1987
University of Dhaka
–
Earliest
Bachelor of Arts certificate from the University, 1928
University of Dhaka
–
University of Dhaka
University of Dhaka
–
1904 image of
Dhaka College, which was in existence from 1841 to 1921 before the founding of Dhaka University
University of Dhaka
–
Meeting on the University of Dhaka premises on 21 February 1952
46.
Bangladesh
–
Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
Bangladesh
–
Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the
Pundra Kingdom
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
–
Asia in 323 BC, the
Gangaridai Empire in relation to the
Nanda Empire,
Alexander 's Empire and neighbours
Bangladesh
–
The
Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest
Buddhist vihara in South Asia, built by Emperor
Dharmapala of Bengal
47.
Mohammad Hashim Kamali
–
Mohammad Hashim Kamali is an Afghan Islamic scholar and former professor of law at the International Islamic University of Malaysia. He taught Islamic law and jurisprudence between 1985 and 2004, born in Afghanistan in 1944, he graduated from the University of Kabul and the University of London. Kamali is the author of Islamic Commercial Law, a study of the application of Shariah principles to some financial instruments, options. He takes a more permissive view of these instruments than do most Islamic scholars. Among the scholars who pass the prohibitive judgments with which Kamali disagrees are Muhammad Akram Khan and he studied law at Kabul University and then served as Assistant Professor, and subsequently as Public Prosecutor with the Ministry of Justice, Afghanistan, 1965-1968. He completed his LL. M. in comparative law, and he was then employed by the British Broadcasting Corporation as part of its broadcasting support staff in Reading, UK, 1976-1979. He served as a member and sometime Chairman of the Constitutional Review Commission of Afghanistan and he is currently on the International Advisory Board of eleven academic journals published in Malaysia, USA, Canada, Kuwait, India, Australia and Pakistan. He is currently a Shariah Advisor with the Securities Commission of Malaysia, Member of the CIMB Shariah Board, Professor Kamali has addressed over 120 national and international conferences, published 16 books and over 110 academic articles. He delivered the Prominent Scholars Lecture Series No.20 at the Islamic Research and Training Institute of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,1996, and the Multaqa Sultan Ahmad Shah Lecture in Kuantan 2002. Freedom of Expression in Islam, Freedom, Equality and Justice in Islam, Kamali received the Isma’il al-Faruqi Award for Academic Excellence twice, in 1995 and 1997, and he is listed in a number of leading Who’s Whos in the World
Mohammad Hashim Kamali
–
Kamali
48.
Chibli Mallat
–
Chibli Mallat is an international lawyer, a law professor, and a former candidate for presidency in Lebanon. By 1998, INDICT had received support in the American Congress and in the British Parliament. The campaign laid the ground for a case against Saddam Hussein in Belgium in 2002, Mallat also helped establish the Middle East regional office of Amnesty International in Beirut in 1999 for which his law firm has acted since as legal counsel. The practise continued and was developed internationally upon Mallats return to Beirut from London in 1995, in addition to victims of mass crime, the firms clients include governments, embassies, multi-national companies and business and political leaders. Educated in Lebanon, the United States and Europe, Mallat received his PhD from the law department of London Universitys School of Oriental and African Studies in 1990. He taught at the Islamic University in Lebanon in 1995-96, and was visiting professor at the University of Lyon. He was also Senior Schell Fellow at Yale Law School’s International Human Rights Center, in 2000, he received professorial tenure at Saint Joseph University in Lebanon and was appointed a year later to the first EU Jean Monnet Chair in European Law in the Middle East. In 2004, the EU Commission bestowed its Center of Excellence label to the Chair and he taught in Fall 2012 at Yale Law School as Visiting Professor of Law and Oscar M. Ruebhausen Distinguished Senior Fellow. In Spring 2015, he was a Visiting Professor at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Mallat has been active in human rights and democratic advocacy since his high school days. He visited Iraq in late 2003 and early 2004 to accelerate the recognition of the Iraqi Governing Council as the government of Iraq. In 2005, he declined the Iraqi governments invitation to head the tribunal that eventually tried Saddam Hussein. In 2008-10, Mallat was senior advisor to the Global Justice Project, Iraq, which he initiated with Hiram Chodosh. The large team of scholars, operating as legal think-tank in Baghdad, advised the Iraqi government on legislation, constitutional review, Mallat was invited to sit on the Constitutional Review Committee led by Humam Hamoudi, and completed with the Committee a revision of the Constitution in October 2009. Mallats campaign was initiated in November 2005 to push a fractured, over a period of seven months, Mallats team took its message to several cities and villages of Lebanon, and was supported by unprecedented mobilisation of the Lebanese diaspora, especially in the US. As the primary architect of Lahouds demise, Mallat joined with the leadership of the March 14 coalition to develop his constitutional, with the political deadlock that ensued, Mallat predicted a new bout of immense violence descending on the country. When the war against Israel was triggered by Hizbullah on 12 July 2006 and he denounced the attack of Hizbullah and debated its foreign affairs representative on television in the midst of the bombardments. At Princeton, he completed six books, including two on the campaign, Mallat remains actively engaged for Middle East democracy as scholar and activist. In pursuit of radical nonviolent change, he founded in 2009 Right to Nonviolence, Right to Nonviolence has been active in the Arab Spring, which Mallat prefers to call the Middle East Nonviolent Revolution to englobe Israel and Iran
Chibli Mallat
–
Chibli Mallat during a speech at the
Salzburg Seminar in September 2007
