1.
Brainerd, Minnesota
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Brainerd is a city in Crow Wing County, Minnesota, United States. Its population was 13,592 as of the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Crow Wing County, and is one of the largest cities in Central Minnesota. Brainerd straddles the Mississippi River several miles upstream from its confluence with the Crow Wing River, Brainerd is the principal city of the Brainerd Micropolitan Area, a micropolitan area covering Cass and Crow Wing counties and with a combined population of 91,067 as of the 2010 census. The Brainerd area serves as a major tourist destination for Minnesota, Brainerd is the home to one of five medevac helicopter flight stations in the state for AirCare, operated by North Memorial Medical Center in Robbinsdale, a Level 1 Trauma Center. This station covers the part of Minnesota. The city is known for the Brainerd International Raceway, which hosts races frequently throughout the year and has a national drag racing meet annually in August. The area that is now Brainerd was originally inhabited by the Ojibwe. Brainerd was first seen by European settlers on Christmas Day in 1805, Crow Wing Village, a fur and logging community near Fort Ripley, brought settlers to the area in the mid-19th century. In those early years the relationship between the settlers and the native Americans was complicated, the most famous example of this tenuous relationship was the so-called Blueberry War of 1872. Two Ojibwe were hanged for murdering a missing girl. When a group of native Americans approached the town, troops from nearby Fort Ripley were called to prevent a potential reprisal, as it turned out, however, the Ojibwe only wanted to sell blueberries and the settlers avoided a bloody misunderstanding. Guilt of the two native Americans was never proven, Brainerd was the idea of Northern Pacific railroad president John Gregory Smith, who in 1870 named the township after his wife, Anne Eliza Brainerd Smith, and father-in-law, Lawrence Brainerd. The company built a bridge over the Mississippi seven miles north of Crow Wing Village and used the Brainerd station as a machine and car shop, prompting many to move north, Brainerd was organized as a city on March 6,1873. On January 11,1876, the state legislature revoked Brainerds charter for six years, Brainerd functioned as a township in the interim. In 1881, the railroad, and with it the town, participation in the nationwide railroad strike on July 1,1922, left the majority of Brainerd residents unemployed and embittered many of those involved. On October 27,1933, the First National Bank of Brainerd became briefly famous when it was held up by Baby Face Nelson and his gang. The BNSF Railway continues to employ approximately 70 people in Brainerd at a maintenance-of-way equipment shop responsible for performing repairs and preventive maintenance to track, the towns coating mill was sold by Potlatch to Missota Paper in 2003 and then by Missota Paper to Wausau Paper in 2004. Brainerd itself is now developed into commercial and residential areas
2.
War Shipping Administration
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The War Shipping Administration was a World War II emergency war agency of the US government, tasked to purchase and operate the civilian shipping tonnage the US needed for fighting the war. Both shipbuilding under the Maritime Commission and ship allocation under the WSA to Army, land who continued as head of the Maritime Commission while also heading the WSA. A shortage of vessels further complicated by requirements to take out of service for conversion and armament was of concern at the highest levels. Harry Hopkins reporting directly to the President, differences between the organizations and lack of decisive authority short of the President limited the boards effectiveness. Upon establishment of the WSA the Strategic Shipping Board continued in existence in a diminished role under the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On February 7,1942, the WSA was established by President Franklin Delano Roosevelts Executive Order No.9054, February 7,1942 as the U. S. had entered the war. The WSA was administratively split off from the United States Maritime Commission, established in 1936 and those included the production of Liberty ships and Victory ships among other types. The U. S. fleet expanded to some 3,500 dry cargo vessels, on a practical level The Maritime Commission and the WSA worked closely together under the administration of Vice Admiral Emory S. Land at the head of each and it became apparent immediately when this Nation entered the war that a special agency to deal with the operational problems peculiar to war was necessary to supplement the Maritime Commission. Thus WSA became the Governments ship operating agency and the Maritime Commission its shipbuilding agency, under that authority cargo hulls were allocated to either commerce, Army or Navy. Many of the Armys ships and Naval transports were allocated by WSA, WSA, through its agents, directly operated ships in support of the services and civilian requirements. After the war, WSA vessels were used to home the huge number of armed personnel overseas, as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Over 3,500,000 men were brought home from overseas areas by December 1,1945, on September 1,1946, the WSA functions were returned to the Maritime Commission. Combined Shipping Adjustment Board United States Merchant Marine Victory ship Ships for Victory, A History of Shipbuilding under the U. S. Maritime Commission in World War II, ISBN 0-8018-6752-5 LCCN2001018657 United States Government Manual,1945 War Shipping Administration section American Merchant Marine at War
3.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
4.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
5.
5"/38 caliber gun
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The Mark 12 5/38 caliber gun was a US naval gun. The gun was installed into Single Purpose and Dual Purpose mounts used primarily by the US Navy, the 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5/51 low-angle gun and 5/25 anti-aircraft gun. The increased barrel length provided greatly improved performance in both anti-aircraft and anti-surface roles compared to the 5/25 gun, however, except for the barrel length and the use of semi-fixed ammunition, the 5/38 gun was derived from the 5/25 gun. Both weapons had power ramming, which enabled rapid fire at high angles against aircraft, the 5/38 entered service on USS Farragut, commissioned in 1934. The base ring mount, which improved the rate of fire, entered service on USS Gridley. Even this advanced system required nearly 100 rounds of ammunition expenditure per aircraft kill, however, the planes were normally killed by shell fragments and not direct hits, barrage fire was used, with many guns firing in the air at the same time. Base ring mounts with integral hoists had a rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute per barrel, however. On pedestal and other mounts lacking integral hoists,12 to 15 rounds per minute was the rate of fire, useful life expectancy was 4600 effective full charges per barrel. The 5/38 cal gun was mounted on a large number of US Navy ships in the World War II era. It was backfitted to many of the World War I-era battleships during their wartime refits and it has left active US Navy service, but it is still on mothballed ships of the United States Navy reserve fleets. It is also used by a number of nations who bought or were given US Navy surplus ships, each mount carries one or two Mk 12 5/38cal Gun Assemblies. The gun assembly shown is used in single mounts, and it is the gun in twin mounts. It is loaded from the left side, the left gun in twin mounts is the mirror image of the right gun, and it is loaded from the right side. The Mk12 gun assembly weighs 3,990 lb, the major Mk12 Gun Assembly characteristics are,158 Semi-automatic During recoil, some of the recoil energy is stored in the counter-recoil system. That stored energy is used during counter-recoil to prepare the gun for the next round, the firing pin is cocked, the breech is opened, the spent powder case is ejected, and the bore is air cleaned. Hand loaded A Projectile-Man and a Powder-Man are stationed at each gun assembly and their job is to move the round, consisting of a projectile and a powder case, from the hoists to the rammer tray, and then start the ram cycle. The hydraulically driven Rammer Spade, called the Power Spade in that picture, is at the back of the Rammer Tray, if the multiple names of the Spade is confusing, look at this footnote. Vertical sliding-wedge breech block The breech block closes the chamber behind the powder case and it also holds the firing pin assembly
6.
3"/50 caliber gun
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For Army 3-inch gun see 3-inch M1918 gun The 3″/50 caliber gun in United States naval gun terminology indicates the gun fired a projectile 3 inches in diameter, and the barrel was 50 calibers long. Different guns of this caliber were used by the U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard from 1890 through the 1990s on a variety of combatant and transport ship classes. The US Navys first 3″/50 caliber gun was a model with a projectile velocity of 2,100 feet per second. Low-angle mountings for this gun had a range of 7000 yards at the elevation of 15 degrees. The gun entered service around 1900 with the Bainbridge-class destroyers, and was fitted to Connecticut-class battleships. By World War II these guns were only on a few Coast Guard cutters. These guns fired the same 2,700 feet per second used by the following dual-purpose Marks. These were built-up guns with a tube, partial-length jacket, hoop, dual-purpose 3″/50 caliber guns first entered service in 1915 as a refit to USS Texas, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. They also replaced the original low-angle 4/50 caliber guns on flush-deck Wickes and these dual-purpose guns were quick-firing, meaning that they used fixed ammunition, with powder case and projectile permanently attached, and handled as a single unit weighing 34 pounds. Maximum range was 14,600 yards at 45 degrees elevation, useful life expectancy was 4300 effective full charges per barrel. The 3/50 caliber gun Marks 17 and 18 was first used as a deck gun on R-class submarines launched in 1918-1919. At the time it was an improvement on the earlier 3/23 caliber gun, after using larger guns on many other submarines, the 3/50 caliber gun Mark 21 was specified as the standard deck gun on the Porpoise- through Gato-class submarines launched in 1935-1942. The small gun was chosen to remove the temptation to engage enemy vessels on the surface. The gun was mounted aft of the conning tower to reduce submerged drag. Wartime experience showed that larger guns were needed and this need was initially met by transferring 4/50 caliber guns from S-class submarines as they were shifted from combat to training roles from late 1942. Later, the 5/25 caliber gun, initially removed from battleships sunk or damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor and later manufactured in a submarine version, post-war experimentation with an extended range variant was abandoned as shipboard surface-to-air missiles were developed. The United States Navy considered contemporary 5/38 caliber guns and 5″/54 caliber guns more effective against surface targets, the 3″/50 caliber gun was a semiautomatic anti-aircraft weapon with a power driven automatic loader. These monobloc 3″ guns were fitted to both single and twin mountings, the single was to be exchanged for a twin 40 mm antiaircraft gun mount and the twin for a quadruple 40 mm mount
7.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
8.
Victory ship
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The Victory ship was a class of cargo ship produced in large numbers by North American shipyards during World War II to replace losses caused by German submarines. A total of 531 Victory ships were built, one of the first acts of the United States War Shipping Administration upon its formation in February 1942 was to commission the design of what came to be known as the Victory class. The design was an enhancement of the Liberty ship, which had successfully produced in extraordinary numbers. Victory ships were larger than Liberty ships,14 feet longer at 455 feet,6 feet wider at 62 ft. Displacement was up just under 1,000 tons, to 15,200, with a raised forecastle and a more sophisticated hull shape to help achieve the higher speed, they had a quite different appearance from Liberty ships. To make them vulnerable to U-boat attacks, Victory ships made 15 to 17 knots,4 to 6 knots faster than the Libertys. The extra speed was achieved through more modern, efficient engines, most used steam turbines, which had been in short supply earlier in the war and reserved for warships. All were oil-fired, but for a handful of Canadian vessels completed with both coal bunkers and oil tanks, another improvement was electrically powered auxiliary equipment, rather than steam-driven machinery. To prevent the hull fractures that a few Liberty ships developed and these were manned by United States Navy Armed Guard personnel. The VC2-S-AP5 Haskell-class attack transports were armed with the 5-inch stern gun, one quad 40 mm Bofors cannon, four dual 40 mm Bofors cannon, the Haskells were operated and crewed exclusively by U. S. Navy personnel. The Victory ship was noted for good proportion of cubic between holds for a ship of its day. A Victory ships cargo hold one, two and five hatches are a single rigged with a capacity of 70,400,76,700, and 69,500 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ships hold three and four hatches are double rigged with a capacity of 136,100 and 100,300 bale cubic feet respectively. Victory ship have built in mast, booms and derrick cranes, the first vessel was SS United Victory launched at Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation on 12 January 1944 and completed on 28 February 1944, making her maiden voyage a month later. American vessels frequently had a name incorporating the word Victory, the British and Canadians used Fort and Park respectively. Although initial deliveries were slow—only 15 had been delivered by May 1944—by the end of the war 531 had been constructed, because the Atlantic battle had been won by the time that the first of the Victory ships appeared none were sunk by U-boats. Three were sunk by Japanese kamikaze attack in April of 1945, many Victory ships were converted to troopship to bring US soldiers home at the end of World War II as part of Operation Magic Carpet. A total of 97 Victory ships were converted to carry up to 1,600 soldiers
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Liberty ship
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The Liberty ship was a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II. Though British in conception, the design was adapted by the United States for its simple, mass-produced on an unprecedented scale, the now iconic Liberty ship came to symbolize U. S. wartime industrial output. The class was developed to meet British orders for transports to replace those torpedoed by German U-boats, the vessels were purchased both for the U. S. fleet and lend-lease deliveries of war materiel to Britain and the Soviet Union. Eighteen American shipyards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945, easily the largest number of ships produced to a single design and their production mirrored on a much larger scale the manufacture of the Hog Islander and similar standardized ship types during World War I. Only three Liberty Ships are preserved, two as operational museum ships. S, the number was doubled in 1939 and again in 1940 to 200 ships a year. Ship types included two tankers and three types of merchant vessel, all to be powered by steam turbines, limited industrial capacity, especially for reduction gears, meant that relatively few of these ships were built. In 1940 the British government ordered 60 Ocean-class freighters from American yards to replace war losses and these were simple but fairly large with a single 2,500 horsepower compound steam engine of obsolete but reliable design. Britain specified coal-fired plants, because it then had extensive coal mines, the order specified an 18-inch increase in draft to boost displacement by 800 long tons to 10,100 long tons. The accommodation, bridge, and main engine were located amidships, the first Ocean-class ship, SS Ocean Vanguard, was launched on 16 August 1941. The design was modified by the United States Maritime Commission, in part to increase conformity to American construction practices, but more importantly to make it even quicker and cheaper to build. The US version was designated EC2-S-C1, EC for Emergency Cargo,2 for a ship between 400 and 450 feet long, S for steam engines, and C1 for design C1. The new design replaced much riveting, which accounted for one-third of the costs, with welding. It was adopted as a Merchant Marine Act design, and production awarded to a conglomerate of West Coast engineering and construction companies headed by Henry J. Kaiser known as the Six Companies. Liberty ships were designed to carry 10,000 long tons of cargo, usually one type per ship, but, during wartime, generally carried loads far exceeding this. On 27 March 1941, the number of ships was increased to 200 by the Defense Aid Supplemental Appropriations Act and increased again in April to 306. By 1941, the turbine was the preferred marine steam engine because of its greater efficiency compared to earlier reciprocating compound steam engines. Eighteen different companies built the engine. It had the advantage of ruggedness and simplicity
11.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
12.
Superstructure
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A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of structures such as buildings, bridges. The word superstructure is a combination of the Latin prefix, super with the Latin stem word, in order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and bridges, the superstructure might be separated from its foundation by various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery. All together, these implement the system of protection called base isolation. As stated above, superstructure consists of the parts of the ship or a boat, including sailboats, fishing boats, passenger ships, and submarines and this does not usually include its masts or any armament turrets. Note that in times, turrets do not always carry naval artillery. The size of a watercrafts superstructure can have implications in the performance of ships and boats, since these structures can alter their structural rigidity, their displacements. These can be detrimental to any vessels performance if they are taken into consideration incorrectly, the height and the weight of superstructure on board a ship or a boat also affects the amount of freeboard that such a vessel requires along its sides, down to her waterline. In broad terms, the more and heavier superstructure that a ship possesses, on a bridge, the portion of the structure that is the span and directly receives the live load is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the abutment, piers, and other structures are called the substructure
13.
Forecastle
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Forecastle refers to the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the foremast, or the forward part of a ship with the sailors living quarters. Related to the meaning is the phrase before the mast which denotes anything related to ordinary sailors. The syncope of the word, focsle or focsle, is common among nautical terms, the positioning of the apostrophes represents silent letters, thus focsle. In medieval shipbuilding, a ship of war was usually equipped with a tall and it served as a platform for archers to shoot down on enemy ships, or as a defensive stronghold if the ship were boarded. A similar but usually much larger structure, called the aftcastle, was at the aft end of the ship, having such tall upper works on the ship was detrimental to sailing performance. Sailors stationed on the forecastle, or forecastle men, were responsible for handling the headsails, in the Royal Navy of the 17th and 18th centuries, these roles were reserved for older seamen who lacked the agility to go aloft or take other more strenuous duties aboard. By the end of the 19th century, raised forecastle had become a feature on warships again, in an attempt to keep forward gun positions from getting unacceptably wet on heavy seas. In addition the forecastle may provide additional crews quarters as in the past, a disadvantage of such a design is the structural weakness at the forecastle break relative to a flush deck structure. Media related to Forecastles at Wikimedia Commons
14.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
15.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
16.
Suisun Bay
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Suisun Bay is a shallow tidal estuary in northern California. It lies at the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, forming the entrance to the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, Suisun Marsh, the tidal marsh land to the north, is the largest marsh in California. Grizzly Bay forms an extension of Suisun Bay. The bay is directly north of Contra Costa County, the bay was named in 1811, after the Suisunes, a Native American tribe of the area. The word originates with the Patwin, on the west, Suisun Bay is drained by the Carquinez Strait, which connects to San Pablo Bay, a northern extension of San Francisco Bay. In addition to the bridges at the Carquinez Strait, it is spanned in its center by the Benicia-Martinez Bridge. It is the anchorage of the Suisun Bay Reserve Fleet, a collection of U. S. Navy and merchant reserve ships, the Glomar Explorer was anchored here after recovering a sunken Soviet submarine in the mid-1970s. Many ships were removed and sold for scrap in the 1990s, in 2010, plans were announced to remove the mothball fleet in stages, with final removal by 2017. The Central Pacific Railroad built a ferry that operated between Benicia and Port Costa, California from 1879 to 1930. The ferry boats Solano and Contra Costa were removed from service when the nearby Martinez railroad bridge was completed in 1930, from 1913 until 1954 the Sacramento Northern Railway, an electrified interurban line, crossed Suisun Bay with the Ramon, a distillate-powered train ferry. Kinder Morgan pleaded guilty to operating a corroded pipeline and paid three dollars in penalties and restitution. Suisun Bay Reserve Fleet Kinder Morgan Information Regarding Pipeline Release Suisun Bays ghost fleet may finally R. I. P
17.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
18.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
19.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
20.
Shipwrecking
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Warfare, piracy, mutiny, or sabotage including, guns, torpedoes, depth charges, mines, bombs and missiles. Fire Biofouling such as polychaete and other worms on wood hulls. She was too narrow, had too little ballast and her lower deck had too low free-board for good seaworthiness. Poor design allowed the ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise to put to sea with open roll-on/roll-off bow doors, failure or leaking of the hull is a serious problem that can lead to the loss of buoyancy or the free surface effect and the subsequent sinking of the vessel. Even the hulls of modern ships have cracked in heavy storms. Leaks between the planks of wooden vessels are a particular problem. Equipment failure caused the shipwreck of cruiseferry Estonia in 1994, the stress of stormy seas on hull and bow especially caused the bow visor to break off, in turn tearing the watertight bow door open and letting seawater flow onto the car deck. Failure of pumps can lead to the loss of a potentially salvageable ship with only a minor leak or fire, failure of the means of propulsion, such as engines, sails or rigging, can lead to the loss of a ship. Loss of propulsion or steering can inhibit a ships ability to position itself in a storm. Waves attacking a ships side can overwhelm and sink it, instability is caused by the centre of mass of the ship rising above the metacenter resulting in the ship tipping on its side or capsizing, which is often referred to as foundered or foundering. This can lead to a if the openings on the upper side are not watertight at the time of the capsize. To remain buoyant, the hull of a vessel must prevent water entering the air spaces of the vessel. Large ships are designed with Compartments to help avoid foundering, on 25 October 2012, the tall ship Bounty sank in a hurricane. The vessel left New London, Connecticut, heading for St. Petersburg, Florida, on 29 October 2012 at 03,54 EDT, the ships owner called the United States Coast Guard for help during the hurricane after losing contact with the ships master. He reported she was taking on water off the coast of North Carolina, about 160 miles from the storm, there were sixteen people aboard, two of whom did not survive the sinking. Poor weather can cause problems, high winds low visibility cold weather high waves Wind causes waves which result in other difficulties. Waves make navigation difficult and dangerous near shallow water, also, waves create buoyancy stresses on the structure of a hull. The weight of breaking waves on the fabric of the force the crew to reduce speed or even travel in the same direction as the waves to prevent damage
21.
Angle of list
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The angle of list is the degree to which a vessel heels to either port or starboard. A listing vessel is stable and at equilibrium, but the distribution of weight causes it to heel to one side. By contrast roll is the movement from side to side caused by waves. If a listing ship goes beyond the point where a righting moment will keep it afloat, it will capsize, angle of loll Heeling Keeled over Metacentric height Ship stability
22.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
23.
Distress signal
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A distress signal or distress call is an internationally recognized means for obtaining help. Distress signals are communicated by transmitting radio signals, displaying a visually observable item or illumination, a distress signal indicates that a person or group of people, ship, aircraft, or other vehicle is threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and requires immediate assistance. Use of distress signals in other circumstances may be against local or international law, an urgency signal is available to request assistance in less critical situations. In order for distress signalling to be the most effective, two parameters must be communicated, Alert or notification of a distress in progress Position or location of the party in distress. A hand-held flare burns for three minutes and can be used to localize or pinpoint more precisely the location or position of the party in trouble. An EPIRB both notifies or alerts authorities and at the time provides position indication information. Distress signals at sea are defined in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, mayday signals must only be used where there is grave and imminent danger to life. Otherwise, urgent signals such as pan-pan can be sent, most jurisdictions have large penalties for false, unwarranted or prank distress signals. EPIRB signals are received and processed by a constellation of satellites known as COSPAS-SARSAT, older EPIRBs which use 121.5 MHz are obsolete. Many regulators require vessels which proceed offshore to carry an EPIRB, many EPIRBs have an in-built Global Positioning System receiver. When activated these EPIRBs rapidly report the latitude and longitude of the emergency accurate to within 120m, the position of non-GPS EPIRBs is determined by the orbiting satellites, this can take ninety minutes to five hours after activation and is accurate to within 5 km. Marine safety authorities recommend the use of GPS-equipped EPIRBs, a miniaturised EPIRB capable of being carried in crew members clothing is called a Personal Locator Beacon. Regulators do not view them as a substitute for a vessels EPIRB, in situations with a high risk of man overboard, such as open ocean yacht racing, PLBs may be required by the events organisers. PLBs are also carried during risky outdoor activities upon land. EPIRBs and PLBs have an identification number. A purchaser should register their EPIRB or PLB with the search and rescue authority. EPIRB registration allows the authority to alert searchers of the name, label, type, size and paintwork, to promptly notify next-of-kin. A DSC radio distress signal can include the position if the lat/long are manually keyed into the radio or if a GPS-derived position is passed directly into the radio
24.
USS Rockaway (AVP-29)
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USS Rockaway, later AG-123, was a United States Navy Barnegat-class seaplane tender in commission from 1943 to 1946. She served in both the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean during World War II, in 1948, she was loaned to the United States Coast Guard, in which she served as the cutter USCGC Rockaway, later WAGO-377, WHEC-377, and WOLE-377, from 1949 to 1972. Rockaway was laid down on 30 June 1941 by Associated Shipbuilders, Inc. at Seattle and she was launched on 14 February 1942, sponsored by Mrs. Z. E. Briggs, and commissioned on 6 January 1943 with Commander H. C. Following shakedown, Rockaway became a unit of the United States Atlantic Fleet in April 1943 with her base at Norfolk. From April 1943 until October 1944, Rockaway delivered supplies and personnel to outlying bases in the North Atlantic Ocean, Rockaway completed nine round trips across the Atlantic during this interval, steaming independently. On several occasions, she made submarine contacts and dropped depth charges, after a shipyard period in November 1944, Rockaway was based in the Panama Canal Zone, completing two trips to the Galapagos Islands with aviation supplies and personnel. In December 1944 she rescued 13 survivors from a PBM Mariner flying boat which had crashed in the Pacific Ocean off Coco Solo, Rockaway operated from Brazil from February 1945 to July 1945, supplying the various naval bases from Belém to Bahia, Brazil, with men and equipment. While steaming to Recife, Brazil, on 21 February 1945, Rockaway, located a disabled tanker, in July 1945, Rockaway began conversion at the Boston Navy Yard in Boston, Massachusetts, into a press information ship. After hostilities with Japan ended on 15 August 1945 before an invasion could occur, Rockaway received one battle star for her World War II service. Rockaway departed Boston, Massachusetts, on 26 October 1945 and she reported to the Inactive Fleet at Orange, Texas, on 12 November 1945. Decommissioned there on 21 March 1946, Rockaway was placed in reserve, after World War II, the Navy transferred 18 of the ships to the Coast Guard, in which they were known as the Casco-class cutters. The U. S. Navy loaned Rockaway to the Coast Guard on 24 December 1948, after undergoing conversion for use as a weather-reporting ship, she was commissioned into the Coast Guard service as the cutter USCGC Rockaway on 10 January 1949. Rockaway was stationed at Staten Island in New York City, which remained her home throughout her Coast Guard career. Her primary duty was to serve on ocean stations in the Atlantic Ocean to gather meteorological data, in September 1958, Rockaway salvaged a U. S. Navy seaplane 180 nautical miles from Bermuda. In December 1964, she rescued four people from the merchant ship Smith Voyager, Rockaway was reclassified as an oceanographic ship and redesignated as WAGO-377 in 1965. She took part in a United States Coast Guard Academy cadet cruise in August 1965, on 24 February 1966, Rockaway stood by the British merchant ship Parthia until a commercial tug arrived to assist Parthia. On 1 May 1966, Rockaway again was reclassified, this time as a high endurance cutter, on 26 September 1966 her period on loan to the Coast Guard ended when she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and transferred permanently to the Coast Guard. From 20 January 1967 to 30 March 1967, Rockaway conducted an Eastern Tropical Pacific Cruise in the Pacific off Mexico, from November 1967 through January 1968, she conducted an oceanographic survey off Norfolk, Virginia
25.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
26.
Elizabeth City, North Carolina
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Elizabeth City is a city in Pasquotank County, North Carolina, in the United States. As of the 2014 census, it had a population of 18,047, Elizabeth City is the county seat and largest city of Pasquotank County. It is the cultural, economic and educational hub of the sixteen-county Historic Albemarle region of northeastern North Carolina, the city is the economic center of the region, as well as home to many historic sites and cultural traditions. Marketed as the Harbor of Hospitality, Elizabeth City has had a history of shipping due to its location at a narrowed bend of the Pasquotank River. Founded in 1794, Elizabeth City prospered early on from the Dismal Swamp Canal as a mercantile city, with the addition of minor roads, a schoolhouse, and soon a church, a small community was established at these narrows. In 1793, construction of the Dismal Swamp Canal began, which would drive Elizabeth Citys commerce, in 1794, the town was renamed Elizabethtown, but due to confusion with another town of the same name, in 1801, the city was renamed Elizabeth City. The name Elizabeth has been attributed to Elizabeth Betsy Tooley, a local tavern proprietress who donated much of the land for the new town, the improvements made to the Dismal Swamp Canal made Elizabeth City a financial center of trade and commercially successful for the early 19th century. In 1826, the government purchased 600 stocks in the canal and, in 1829. With these funds, the Dismal Swamp Canal was widened and deepened, further bolstering Elizabeth Citys financial success was the movement in 1827 of the customs house from Camden County to Elizabeth City. From only 1829 to 1832, Elizabeth Citys tolls tripled, during the American Civil War the Confederate States had a small fleet stationed at Elizabeth City. After the Battle of Roanoke Island the Union forces sent a fleet to take the city, there was a small skirmish that followed which ended in a Union victory. Elizabeth City was under Union control for the remainder of the war, meanwhile, overland travel slowly improved, furnishing greater trade between neighboring counties, and a ferry continued to be used for transport between Elizabeth City and Camden County. However, the completion of competing canals and railroads around Elizabeth City diverted some of its success to neighboring cities. The declaration of World War II reinvigorated Elizabeth Citys industries, particularly in shipbuilding, textiles, additionally from 1942 to 1944, the Elizabeth City Shipyard manufactured thirty 111-foot SC-class submarine chasers, four YT-class yard tugboats, and six 104-foot QS-class quick supply boats. The Elizabeth City Shipyard not only built the largest number of subchasers for the war effort, as of June 2013, the Elizabeth City Shipyard is still in operation. The conclusion of the war led to an economy as industry withdrew gradually over the following decades to form the service. Starting in the late 1990s, revival efforts in tourism and civic revitalization centered over downtown, during the Civil War, there was a small battle between the Confederate states and the Union near Elizabeth City on the Pasquotank River on February 10,1862. It was nothing more than a skirmish and casualties were low, the battle ended in a Union victory with subsequent capture of the city
27.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
28.
Survivalism
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Survivalism is a movement of individuals or groups who are actively preparing for emergencies, including possible disruptions in social or political order, on scales from local to international. Survivalists often acquire emergency medical and self-defense training, stockpile food and water, prepare to become self-sufficient, use of the term survivalist dates from 1976. The Cold War era civil defense programs promoted public atomic bomb shelters, personal fallout shelters, the Great Depression that followed the Wall Street Crash of 1929 is cited by survivalists as an example of the need to be prepared. Harry Browne began offering seminars on how to survive a monetary collapse in 1967, with Don Stephens providing input on how to build and he gave a copy of his original Retreaters Bibliography to each seminar participant. Articles on the subject appeared in small-distribution libertarian publications such as The Innovator and it was during this period that Robert D. Kephart began publishing Inflation Survival Letter. For several years the newsletter included a section on personal preparedness written by Stephens. It promoted expensive seminars around the US on similar cautionary topics, Stephens participated, along with James McKeever and other defensive investing, hard money advocates. In the next decade Howard Ruff warned about socio-economic collapse in his 1974 book Famine, Ruffs book was published during a period of rampant inflation in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. Most of the elements of survivalism can be there, including advice on food storage. The book championed the claim that precious metals, such as gold, Ruff later published milder variations of the same themes, such as How to Prosper During the Coming Bad Years, a best-seller in 1979. Firearms instructor and survivalist Colonel Jeff Cooper popularized the concept of hardening retreats against small arms fire, in an article titled Notes on Tactical Residential Architecture in Issue #30 of P. S. Letter, Cooper suggested using the Vauban Principle, whereby projecting bastion corners would prevent miscreants from being able to approach a retreats exterior walls in any blind spots. Corners with this implementation of a Vauban Star are now called Cooper Corners by James Wesley Rawles. Of course, the doors and window frames would expand in the summer heat. The winter-summer cycle would destroy them, Other newsletters and books followed in the wake of Ruffs first publication. Kurt Saxon used the term survivalist to describe the movement, in 1976, before moving to the Inland Northwest, he and his wife authored and published The Survivors Primer & Up-dated Retreaters Bibliography. For a time in the 1970s, the terms survivalist and retreater were used interchangeably, while the term retreater eventually fell into disuse, many who subscribed to it saw retreating as the more rational approach to conflict-avoidance and remote invisibility. Survivalism, on the hand, tended to take on a more media-sensationalized, combative
29.
District court
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District courts are a category of courts which exists in several nations. These include, District Court is the given to the intermediate court in most Australian States. They hear indictable criminal offences excluding treason, murder and, in some States and their civil jurisdiction is also intermediate, typically being for civil disputes where the amount claimed is greater than a $75000 but less than $750000. The limits vary between Australian States, in Victoria, the equivalent Court is called the County Court. Below them is the Magistrates Courts, known as the Local Court in New South Wales, above them are the State Supreme Courts. Austria has some 200 district, or local, courts, which decide minor civil, see also Judicial system of Finland Finland has 27 district courts, which deal with criminal cases, civil cases and petitionary matters. Each court is headed by the Chief Judge and other District Judges, in certain cases, the district court may also have Lay Judges. The cases are handled and resolved either in a session or in chambers, in simple cases decisions can be made by notaries. The District Courts in Hong Kong, established in 1953, has limited jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. In its criminal jurisdiction, the court may try the more serious cases, with the exceptions of murder, manslaughter. The maximum term of imprisonment it may impose is seven years, there are one Chief District Judge and 30 District Judges, among which three District Judges sit in the Family Court and two District Judges sit in the Lands Tribunal as Presiding Officers. The District Courts of India are presided over by a judge and they administer justice in India at a district level. These courts are under administrative and judicial control of the High Court of the State to which the district concerned belongs, the District Courts of Indonesia are part of public courts for all cases non-related to religion, constitutions or military matters. The decisions of guilt or innocence are made by a panel of three led by a chair judge. The District Court in Ireland was established in 1924, the District Courts in Israel serve both as the appellate courts and also as the court of first instance for some cases. They are the first court level for most civil and criminal cases, most cases are held with one judge. The District Courts of New Zealand deals with all matters other than murder, manslaughter. The Courts can also hear civil claims up to $200,000, District Courts were called the Magistrates Courts until 1980
30.
Freeport, Texas
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Freeport is a city in Brazoria County, Texas, United States, located on the Gulf of Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 12,049, Freeport was founded as a European-American settlement in November 1912 by the Freeport Sulphur Company. However, by 1929, that population had grown to 3,500, by 1937, a Freeport School District had been established, consisting of several segregated schools and 27 teachers. There were two schools, one black school, and a white high school. Freeports most substantial economic growth began with the construction of Dow Chemical Company facilities in the city during 1939 and this company is the communitys largest employer. Freeport has the companys largest single manufacturing site in the 21st century, in 1942 the company acquired 5,000 acres outside of town at the Abner Jackson Plantation, and developed it as a company community, now known as Lake Jackson, Texas. It was planned and designed by Michigan architect Alden B, Dow, son of the founder of Dow Chemical. In July 1957, Freeport merged with Velasco, Texas and this had been a temporary capital of the Republic of Texas during the 19th century. Soon thereafter, Freeports population numbered 11,619, in 2003, the city annexed nearby Bryan Beach. The Port of Freeport is a seaport on the Gulf of Mexico, the associated chemical plants provide a stable economy. Freeport is the site of the Dow Chemical Companys Texas Operations facility and this is a subprogram of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, which provides advisory services through its affiliate of the Texas Historical Commission. The Main Street Program is supervised by an advisory board, Freeport Main Street merged with the Freeport Historical Commission in 2007. Freeport was recognized as a National Main Street City in 2006,2007 and 2008 for the progress in design, downtown marketing. Freeport is located in southern Brazoria County at 28°57′34″N 95°21′25″W, near the mouth of the Brazos River in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2003, the city annexed 3.5 miles of beach bounded on the northeast by the village of Quintana and this beach is known as Bryan Beach. It is just a few miles away from Surfside and Quintana beaches, Texas State Highway 288, the Nolan Ryan Expressway, leads north from Freeport 17 miles to Angleton, the county seat, and 61 miles to downtown Houston. Texas State Highway 36 leads northwest 15 miles to Brazoria. According to the United States Census Bureau, Freeport has an area of 17.1 square miles, of which 14.9 square miles is land and 2.1 square miles
31.
Bilge
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The bilge is the lowest compartment on a ship or seaplane, below the waterline, where the two sides meet at the keel. The first known use of the word is from 1513, the word is sometimes also used to describe the water that collects in this area. Water that does not drain off the side of the deck drains down through the ship into the bilge and this water may be from rough seas, rain, leaks in the hull or stuffing box, or other interior spillage. The collected water must be pumped out to prevent the bilge from becoming too full, bilge water can be found aboard almost every vessel. Depending on the design and function, bilge water may contain water, oil, urine, detergents, solvents, chemicals, pitch, particles. Discharge of bilge liquids may be restricted and for vessels is regulated under Marpol Annex I. By housing water in a compartment, the bilge keeps these liquids below decks, making it safer for the crew to operate the vessel, methods of removing water from bilges have included buckets and pumps. Modern vessels usually use electric bilge pumps controlled by automated bilge switches, bilge coatings are applied to protect the bilge surfaces. The water that collects is often noxious, and bilge water or just bilge has thus become a colloquial term used to refer to something bad, fouled. Bilges may contain partitions to damp the rush of water from side to side and fore, partitions may contain limber holes to allow water to flow at a controlled rate into lower compartments. But archaea that are non-indigenous, all-natural and non-GMO also can be used and discharged, since the archaea will die off anyway, large commercial vessels need bilge alarms to notify the crew how much and where the bilge is rising. These bilge alarms are electric devices that are designed to detect leakages in the ship early before major damage is done to the vessel. Oil content meters are sometimes referred to as bilge alarms
32.
Type C1 ship
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Type C1 was a designation for small cargo ships built for the U. S. Maritime Commission before and during World War II. The first C1 types were the smallest of the three original Maritime Commission designs, meant for shorter routes where high speed and capacity were less important, only a handful were delivered prior to Pearl Harbor. But many C1-A and C1-B ships were already in the works and were delivered during 1942, many were converted to military purposes including troop-transports during the war. The Type C1-M ship was a design, for a significantly smaller and shallower draft vessel. This design evolved as an answer for the needs for military transport. Note any Type C1 ship in the control of the British Ministry of War Transport took an Empire name even if being built as another name e. g. Cape Turner. S, shipping Board which had existed since World War I. S. By the end of the war, U. S. shipyards working under MARCOM contracts had built a total of 5,777 oceangoing merchant, what was later known as the C1-A was among the three original cargo ship designs including the basic C2 and C3. Deliveries of the C1-B began before the models, in mid 1941. The C series of ships differed from the Liberty and Victory ships, the first C series vessels were designed prior to hostilities and were meant to be commercially viable ships to modernize the US Merchant Marine, and reduce the US reliance on foreign shipping. The C series ships were more expensive to produce, but their economic viability lasted well into the late 1960s and early 1970s in military, several ships are still in operation. The Type C1-A and C1-B ships were similar in design, All had a top speed of 14 knots. The primary difference between them was that C1-A ships were shelter deck ships, while C1-B ships were full scantling ships, there were many adaptations of the design for special purposes from hospital ships to petroleum gas carriers. With the exception of ships built for specific shipping lines before the war, forty-six Type C1-A ships were built at Pennsylvania Shipyards, Inc. in Beaumont, Texas, with another 19 being built by Pusey and Jones in Wilmington, Delaware. Most were built with motors, though 19 were built with steam turbine engines. These were shelter deck ships, having a very light upper deck, the first keels were laid in 1939. Two of the Pusey and Jones ships were converted to PT boat tenders before entering service, some of the diesel vessels were powered by 2, 6-cylinder Nordberg 2-stroke engines driving the single shaft via magnetic couplings and a reduction gear-box. They were manufactured by Nordberg Manufacturing Company, the engine speed was 220 rpm and the shaft 110 rpm. The engine room was a pleasure to operate and the workmanship outstanding, the Type C1-B ships were built in six different yards, the majority at Consolidated Steel Corporation in Wilmington, California
33.
Type C2 ship
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Type C2 ships were designed by the United States Maritime Commission in 1937–38. They were all-purpose cargo ships with five holds, and U. S. shipyards built 173 of them from 1939 to 1945, compared to ships built before 1939, the C2s were remarkable for their speed and fuel economy. Their design speed was 15.5 knots, but some could make 19 knots on occasion, the first C2s were 459 feet long,63 feet broad, and 40 feet deep, with a 25-foot draft. Later ships varied somewhat in size, in 1937, MARCOM distributed tentative designs for criticism by shipbuilders, ship owners, and naval architects. The final designs incorporated many changes suggested by these constituencies, the ships were to be reasonably fast but economical cargo ships which, with some government subsidies to operators, could compete with vessels of other nations. The basic specifications called for a steel cargo ship with raked stem and cruiser stern, complete shelter and second decks. Dimensions of the hatches were 20 ft ×30 ft, except for No,2, which was 20 ft ×50 ft, allowing such cargo as locomotives, naval guns, long bars, etc. Ventilation to the holds was provided by hollow kingposts, which served as cargo masts. Cargo handling gear consisted of fourteen 5-ton cargo booms, plus two 30-ton booms at Nos.3 and 4 hatches, hot and cold running water was provided throughout. Many of the such as SS Donald McKay were converted by the U. S. Navy for service during World War II. The commercial versions were operated by the government during the war, beginning in late 1945, the commercial ships were sold to merchant shipping lines, with service until the early 1970s. C2, DWT9,758 by 5 builder, as in the USS Polaris C2-S DWT9,970 by Bethlehem Steel of Sparrows Pt, wild Rover a C2-S-B1, renamed Mormackite capsized in heavy seas and sank off Cape Henry in October 7,1954. USS Starlight a C2-S-AJ1, sank in 1970, december 26 with a full load of 8,900 bombs, rockets, shells and mines bound for Da Nang, South Vietnam a bomb went off in rough seas. On January 5,1970 she sank,29 members of her crew died. USS Towner a C2-S-AJ3, renamed SS Guam Bear wrecked and sank in 1967 and she was in a collision outside Apra Harbor, Guam. A constructive total loss, the hulk was towed 2 nautical miles off shore, Type C1 ship Type C3 ship Type C4 ship Liberty ship Victory ship U. S. Merchant Marine Academy From America to United States, The History of the long-range Merchant Shipbuilding Programme of the United States Maritime Commission, by L. A. Sawyer and W. H. Mitchell. Ships for Victory, A History of Shipbuilding under the U. S. Maritime Commission in World War II, United States Maritime Commission C2 Type Ships
34.
Type C3-class ship
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Type C3-class ships were the third type of cargo ship designed by the United States Maritime Commission in the late 1930s. As it had done with the Type C1 ships and Type C2 ships, the design presented was not specific to any service or trade route, but was a general purpose ship that could be modified for specific uses. The C3 was larger and faster than the C1 and C2 contemporaries, measuring 492 feet from stem to stern, like the C2, it had five cargo holds. A total of 465 of these ships were built between 1940 and 1947, Type C1 ship Type C2 ship Type C4 ship T2 tanker Liberty ship Victory ship Hog Islander U. S. Merchant Marine Academy Sawyer, L. A. Mitchell, W. H, from America to United States, The History of the Long-range Merchant Shipbuilding Programme of the United States Maritime Commission. United States Maritime Commission C3 Type Ships
35.
Babcock & Wilcox
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Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
36.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
37.
Lexington-class aircraft carrier
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The Lexington-class aircraft carriers were a pair of aircraft carriers built for the United States Navy during the 1920s. The ships were built on hulls originally laid down as battlecruisers after World War I, the Treaty, however, allowed two of the unfinished ships to be converted to carriers. They were the first operational aircraft carriers in the USN and were used to carrier aviation tactics. They proved extremely successful as carriers and experience with the Lexington class convinced the Navy of the value of large carriers and they were the largest aircraft carriers in the USN until the Midway-class aircraft carriers were completed beginning in 1945. The ships served in World War II, seeing action in many battles and she supported Allied operations in the Indian Ocean and South West Pacific Areas until she became a training ship at the end of 1943. Saratoga returned to combat to protect American forces during the Battle of Iwo Jima in early 1945, the continued growth in the size and weight of carrier aircraft made her obsolete by the end of the war. In mid-1946, the ship was sunk during nuclear tests in Operation Crossroads. The Lexington-class was originally designed as battlecruisers, with guns, high speed. The Navy laid down six ships of the class in 1919–20, when the battlecruisers were cancelled under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, two of the unfinished ships were designated for completion as carriers. Lexington and Saratoga were selected since they were the most advanced of the six ships in construction, conversion became a series of compromises and mixed blessings which would not have arisen had they been specifically designed carriers from the outset. On the plus side, the ships would have better protection, larger magazines for aircraft bombs and, with the after elevator 28 feet higher than otherwise. A brand-new aircraft carrier was estimated at $27.1 million, conversion of a Lexington class was $22.4 million, not counting the $6.7 million already sunk into them. Added together, the rose to $28.1 million. The bottom line, with the signing of the treaty, was that any capital ships under construction by the five signatories had to be canceled and scrapped, for battlecruisers, this encompassed the United States Lexington class, Japans Amagi class, and Great Britains G3 battlecruisers. For the U. S. Navy, the choice seemed clear, if it scrapped all six Lexingtons in accordance with the treaty, it would throw away $13.4 million that could otherwise go toward aircraft carriers. The Navy opted for the latter course, the next challenge the Navys Bureau of Construction and Repair faced was the tonnage cap set by the treaty. Carriers were to be no more than 27,000 tons, an exception, spearheaded by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and added to the treaty, allowed capital ships under conversion to go up to 33,000 tons, an increase of 6000 tons. This would almost not be enough for a conversion without removing half the power plant, creative interpreting of a clause in the treaty allowed a potential way out of this situation
38.
USS Ranger (CV-4)
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USS Ranger was the first ship of the United States Navy to be designed and built from the keel up as an aircraft carrier. Ranger was a small ship, closer in size and displacement to the first US carrier—Langley—than later ships. An island superstructure was not included in the design, but was added after completion. Deemed too slow for use with the Pacific Fleets carrier task forces against Japan, Ranger saw combat in that theatre and provided air support for Operation Torch. In October 1943, she fought in Operation Leader, air attacks on German shipping off Norway, the ship was sold for scrap in 1947. The Washington Naval Treaty limited both the size of ships that could be built and the total tonnage of aircraft carriers that could be built. What became Ranger was to be the first purpose-built aircraft carrier of the United States Navy, the carrier cost 15.2 million dollars. Ranger had a narrow hull due to its size and one inch of armor on the hangar deck, due to space limits, the carrier was equipped with geared turbines. The design was modified to include an island, increasing the displacement to 14,500 tons. The smoke from the six boilers was vented up six small stacks. The stacks were hinged and were rotated to a parallel with the hangar deck during flight operations. Ranger also incorporated a gallery deck between the deck and hangar deck. The hangar deck was semi-open and had large roll-up metal curtain doors which could be closed in bad weather, one was located on the centerline and two offset to the starboard centerline. It was originally planned to install two catapults on the deck to allow the launching of observation aircraft but this plan was dropped. The carrier was able to carry 76 aircraft at the time, Ranger was armed with six 40 mm quadruple mounts and forty-six 20 mm mounts. She also was armed with eight 5-inch /25 caliber guns, which were removed in June 1944. The carrier was one of the first U. S. Navy ships mounted with light weapons to defend against dive-bombing attacks. The U. S. Navy opened bids for the construction of the carrier on 3 September 1930
39.
Yorktown-class aircraft carrier
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The Yorktown class was a class of three aircraft carriers built by for the United States Navy and completed shortly before World War II. They immediately followed Ranger, the first U. S. These ships bore the brunt of early action in the Pacific War, Enterprise, the sole survivor of the class, was the most decorated ship of the U. S. Navy in the Second World War. After efforts to save her as a ship failed, she was scrapped in 1960. A forerunner to modern development, the Yorktown class was a result of standardized war gaming exercises using Langley. The Naval War College became the repository of American Naval expertise. The results were that islands on the carriers were highlighted and speed itself was considered very important, the 27,000 ton plan for the Yorktown class was a fall back plan from a 23,000 ton carrier that could not achieve that desired speed. The realization that larger carriers would be more survivable was a happy coincidence, nevertheless, the war games and the Naval War College highlighted the greater flexibility presented by large air groups and fast speed. These became along with protection, the guiding principles in the Yorktown class designs. In particular, the 23,000 ton design had to sacrifice protection features, all studies showed that the 27,000 ton designs were to be preferred however all treaty limitations made this impossible. Later it would be noted that the carriers provided close to an all weather ability to launch aircraft. The British Royal Navy had constructed several carriers during this time, admiral Marc Mitscher had in particular pushed for such a carrier. The American Naval Attache J. C. Hunsacker reported that HMS Furious had problems deposing of the fumes without proper smoke stacks, the aviation community continued to demand flush decked carriers. Given additional problems with controlling air groups all American carriers would be constructed with islands, in any case BuAer retracted all demands for flush decked carriers. The 1931 design show an island and the design for USS Ranger the contractor stated that gun control was impossible without a raised island, both USS Ranger and USS Wasp further showed the limitations of sub-20,000 ton designs. USS Ranger proved to be unable to withstand rougher weather in the Pacific while lack of any protective features soon relegated her to a training ship. USS Wasps lack of torpedo protection contributed to her loss in the Pacific theater, as the result of this experience, the U. S. Navy built Yorktown and Enterprise, commissioned in 1937 and 1938 respectively. These were fast and versatile carriers able to carry and operate over 80 warplanes which was almost as many as the much larger Lexington class
40.
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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USS Wasp was a United States Navy aircraft carrier commissioned in 1940 and lost in action in 1942. She was the ship named USS Wasp, and the sole ship of a class built to use up the remaining tonnage allowed to the U. S. for aircraft carriers under the treaties of the time. As a reduced-size version of the Yorktown-class aircraft carrier hull, Wasp was more vulnerable than other United States aircraft carriers available at the opening of hostilities, Wasp was initially employed in the Atlantic campaign, where Axis naval forces were perceived as less capable of inflicting decisive damage. After supporting the occupation of Iceland in 1941, Wasp joined the British Home Fleet in April 1942, Wasp was then transferred to the Pacific in June 1942 to replace losses at the battles of Coral Sea and Midway. After supporting the invasion of Guadalcanal, Wasp was sunk by the Japanese submarine I-19 on 15 September 1942, Wasp was a product of the Washington Naval Treaty. After the construction of the carriers Yorktown and Enterprise, the U. S. was still permitted 15,000 long tons to build a carrier, the Navy sought to squeeze a large air group onto a ship with nearly 25% less displacement than the Yorktown-class. In order to weight and space, Wasp was constructed with low-power machinery. Additionally, Wasp was launched with almost no armor, modest speed and, more significantly, absence of side protection of the boilers and internal aviation fuel stores doomed her to a blazing demise. These were inherent design flaws that were recognized when constructed but could not be remedied within the allowed tonnage and these flaws, combined with a relative lack of damage control experience in the early days of the war, were to prove fatal. Wasp was the first carrier fitted with a deck edge elevator, the elevator consisted of a platform for the front wheels and an outrigger for the tail wheel. The two arms on the sides moved the platform in a half-circle up and down between the deck and the hangar deck. Wasp remained at Boston through May, fitting out, before she got underway on 5 June 1940 for calibration tests on her radio direction finder gear. After further fitting out while anchored in Boston harbor, the new aircraft carrier steamed independently to Hampton Roads, Virginia, four days later, she sailed for the Caribbean in company with the destroyer Morris. En route, she conducted the first of many carrier qualification tests, among the earliest of the qualifiers was Lieutenant, junior grade David McCampbell, who later became the Navys top-scoring ace in World War II. Wasp arrived at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in time to ship in honor of Independence Day. A fatal incident marred the carriers shakedown, on 9 July, one of her Vought SB2U-2 Vindicator dive bombers crashed 2 nautical miles from the ship. Wasp bent on speed to close, as did the plane-guarding destroyer Morris. The latters boats recovered items from the baggage compartment
41.
Essex-class aircraft carrier
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The Essex class was a class of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy that constituted the 20th centurys most numerous class of capital ships. The class consisted of 24 vessels, which came in both short-hull and long-hull versions, thirty-two ships were originally ordered, however as World War II wound down, six were canceled before construction, and two were canceled after construction had begun. No Essex-class ships were lost to enemy action, despite several vessels sustaining very heavy damage, at the time of the repudiations, both Italy and Japan had colonial ambitions, intending on or already conducting military conquests. A longer, wider deck and a deck-edge elevator facilitated more efficient aviation operations. Machinery arrangement and armor protection was improved from previous designs. These features, plus the provision of more guns, gave the ships much enhanced survivability. Some ships in the class would serve until well after the end of the Vietnam War, debates raged, and continue to this day, regarding the effect of strength deck location. British designers comments tended to disparage the use of deck armor. After the abrogation of disarmament treaties by Japan in 1936, the U. S. took a look at its naval strength. With the Naval Expansion Act of Congress passed on 17 May 1938 and this permitted the building of Hornet, which was the third Yorktown-class CV, and Essex, which was the lead ship of a new class. CV-9 was to be the prototype of the 27, 000-ton aircraft carrier, considerably larger than Enterprise, the Navy ordered the first three of the new design, CV-9, CV-10 and CV-11, from Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock on 3 July 1940. These were to become known as Essex-class carriers, under the terms of the Two-Ocean Navy Act, ten more of these carriers were programmed. After the US declaration of war, Congress appropriated funds for nineteen more Essexes, ten were ordered in August 1942 and three more in June 1943. Only two of these were completed in time to see active World War II service, six ships ordered in 1944 were canceled before construction was begun. The first eight hulls were originally assigned names from historic Navy ships, Lexington was originally laid down as Cabot, but was renamed during construction after the original USS Lexington was lost in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. Yorktown, originally to be named Bon Homme Richard, was renamed after the original USS Yorktown was lost at the Battle of Midway on 7 June 1942, Lexington and Yorktown share the unique distinction of being named after both historic ships and historic battles. The erstwhile Valley Forge was renamed Princeton after USS Princeton was sunk in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944, at the conclusion of the war, the six ships ordered but never laid down were canceled. Of the nine still unfinished six were completed, two were scrapped, and Oriskany was taken in hand for modification to an improved design, in drawing up the preliminary design for Essex, particular attention was directed at the size of both the flight and hangar decks
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Midway-class aircraft carrier
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The Midway-class aircraft carrier was one of the longest-serving aircraft carrier designs in history. First commissioned in late 1945, the ship of the class, USS Midway, was not decommissioned until 1992. The USS Franklin D. Roosevelt was decommissioned in 1977, the USS Coral Sea was decommissioned in 1990. The CVB-41 class vessels were conceived in 1940 as a design study to determine the effect of including an armored flight deck on a carrier the size of the Essex class. The resulting calculations showed that the effect would be a reduction of air group size—the resulting ship would have an air group of 64, Navy carrier design were incorporated in the CVB Class, then still under development. HMS ILLUSTRIOUS in an action off Malta on 1 January 1941 was hit by several bombs, the concept went to finding a larger carrier that could support both deck armor and a sufficiently large air group. They would be the last USN carriers to be so designed, the resulting carriers were very large, with the ability to accommodate more planes than any other carrier in the U. S. fleet. In their original configuration, the Midway-class ships had an airwing of almost 130 aircraft and it was soon realized that the coordination of so many planes was beyond the effective command and control ability of one ship. However, their size did allow these ships to easily accommodate the rapid growth in aircraft size. While the resulting ships featured excellent protection and unprecedented airwing size, internally, the ships were very cramped and crowded. Freeboard was unusually low for such large carriers, in seas, they shipped large amounts of water. In addition, in contrast with the earlier Lexington, Yorktown and Essex-classes, although they were intended to augment the US Pacific fleet during World War II, the lead ship of the class, Midway, was not commissioned until 10 September 1945. None of the went on war cruises during the Korean War. They were mainly deployed to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, all three of the Midway class made combat deployments in the Vietnam War. Coral Sea deployed to the Gulf of Tonkin six times, Midway deployed on three occasions, and Franklin D. Roosevelt made one combat deployment before returning to the Mediterranean. In the late 1960s, Midway underwent a modernization and reconstruction program. By the 1970s, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Coral Sea were showing their age, all three retained the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II in their air wings, being too small to operate the new Grumman F-14 Tomcat fleet defense fighter or the S-3 Viking anti-submarine jet. In 1977, Franklin D. Roosevelt was decommissioned, on her final deployment, Roosevelt embarked AV-8 Harrier jump jets to test the concept of including VSTOL aircraft in a carrier air wing
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Light aircraft carrier
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A light aircraft carrier, or light fleet carrier, is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy. The precise definition of the type varies by country, light carriers typically have a complement of aircraft only one-half to two-thirds the size of a fleet carrier. In World War II, the United States Navy produced a number of light carriers by converting cruiser hulls. The Independence-class ships, however, had the virtue of being available at a time when available carrier decks had been reduced to Enterprise and Saratoga in the Pacific, in addition, unlike escort carriers, they had enough speed to take part in fleet actions with the larger carriers. Late in the war, a follow on design to the Independence-class, two vessels in this class—Saipan and Wright—were completed after the wars end. After very brief lives as carriers, the Saipans were converted to command, the British 1942 design light fleet carrier was a scaled-down version of their Illustrious-class fleet carrier. The design could be built in a yard with little or no experience of warship construction, although built to merchant standards, the design incorporated better watertight subdivision. Expected to have a lifetime of three years, the last of the design was taken out of service in 2001. The first eight were built as the Colossus but revisions upgrading the design to larger and heavier aircraft led to the remainder being the Majestic class. In the post-war period, the Royal Navy operated a force of ten Colossus class carriers including the two maintenance carriers, by 1939 HMS Hermes was being considered as equivalent to a light aircraft carrier, due to her small size and lack of armour. Currently five light carriers are in service. The newest light carriers are the Italian Cavour and the Spanish Juan Carlos I, aircraft Carriers of the World,1914 to the Present. Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II
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Independence-class aircraft carrier
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The Independence-class aircraft carriers were a class of light carriers built for the United States Navy that served during World War II. Adapted from the design for Cleveland-class light cruisers, this class of ship resulted from the interest of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in naval air power. With war looming, the former Assistant Secretary of the Navy noted no new aircraft carriers were expected to be completed before 1944. He proposed to some of the many cruisers then under construction to carriers. Undeterred, President Roosevelt ordered another study, on 25 October 1941, the Navys Bureau of Ships reported that aircraft carriers converted from cruiser hulls would be of lesser capability, but available much sooner. After the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the need for more carriers became urgent, the Navy accelerated construction of the 34,000 ton Essex-class aircraft carriers, but these large ships could not be finished quickly. So in January 1942, the Navy also ordered that a Cleveland-class light cruiser then under construction be completed instead as an aircraft carrier. It became the USS Belleau Wood, the first ship of the Independence-class, plans developed for this conversion showed much more promise than expected. Two more light cruisers were reordered as carriers in February, three more in March, and a three in June 1942. The Independence-class design had a short and narrow flight deck and hangar. The hangar, flight deck, and island represented a significant increase in the topside weight. To compensate for this, blisters were added to the original cruiser hull, Ships of this class carried a small air group - only about 30 aircraft. This was originally set to consist of nine fighters, nine bombers, and nine torpedo bombers. These were limited-capability ships, whose principal virtue was near-term availability and their limited size made for seakeeping difficulties in the many typhoons of the Pacific, and their small flight decks led to a relatively high aircraft accident rate. However, being based on a cruiser, they were fast ships. The cruiser hull and engineering allowed them the necessary to operate with the main fleet carrier task groups. Their names followed the US Navys policy of naming aircraft carriers after historic navy ships or historic battles, eight of these carriers participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, which effectively ended Japans carrier air power. The light carriers provided 40 percent of the Fast Carrier Task Forces fighters and 36 percent of the torpedo bombers
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Saipan-class aircraft carrier
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The Saipan-class aircraft carriers were a class of two light carriers Saipan and Wright built for the United States Navy during World War II. Like the nine Independence-class light carriers, they were based on cruiser hulls, however, they differed from the earlier light carriers in that they were built from the keel up as carriers, and were based on heavy rather than light cruiser hulls. They were both scrapped in 1980, compared to their cruiser half-sisters, they were eight feet wider in beam to accommodate the size and weight of the hangar and flight deck. They had very brief lives as light carriers, serving respectively from 1948 to 1954 and 1947 to 1956. The two ships were seen as valuable hulls, however, with a void space within the ship that could easily be translated to other use. They were converted for non-carrier duties in the late 1950s, Saipan as the communications relay ship USS Arlington, in these capacities the two ships served until being decommissioned in 1970 and scrapped in 1980. Statistics NAVAL HISTORICAL CENTER Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
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Escort carrier
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They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, carried fewer planes and were well armed and armored, escort carriers were cheaper and could be built quickly. Escort carriers could be completed in greater numbers as a stop-gap when fleet carriers were scarce, however, the lack of protection made escort carriers particularly vulnerable and several were sunk with great loss of life. The light carrier was a concept to escort carriers in most respects. Most often built on a ship hull, escort carriers were too slow to keep up with the main forces consisting of fleet carriers, battleships. Instead, they were used to escort convoys, defending them from threats such as submarines and planes. In the invasions of mainland Europe and Pacific islands, escort carriers provided air support to forces during amphibious operations. Escort carriers also served as aircraft transports for fleet carriers. In the Battle of the Atlantic, escort carriers were used to protect convoys against U-boats, initially escort carriers accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines. As numbers increased later in the war, escort carriers formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy. In the Pacific theater, CVEs provided air support of troops in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. They lacked the speed and weapons to enemy fleets, relying on the protection of a Fast Carrier Task Force. However, at the Battle off Samar, one U. S. task force of escort carriers managed to defend itself against a much larger Japanese force of battleships. The Japanese met a furious defense of carrier aircraft, screening destroyers, of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the U. S. during World War II,122 were escort carriers. Though no examples survive to this day, the Casablanca class was the most numerous class of aircraft carrier, second was the Bogue class, with 45 launched. In the early 1920s, the Washington Naval Treaty imposed limits on the maximum size, later treaties largely kept these provisions. As a result, construction between the World Wars had been insufficient to meet needs for aircraft carriers as World War II expanded from Europe. The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers′ unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto, conversion of existing ships provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available
United States
