1.
Dry dock
–
A dry dock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships, boats, the use of dry docks in China goes at least as far back the 10th century A. D. The upper works included several decks with cabins and saloons. After many years, their hulls decayed and needed repairs, so in the Hsi-Ning reign period a palace official Huang Huai-Hsin suggested a plan. A large basin was excavated at the end of the Chin-ming Lake capable of containing the dragon ships. Then so that the quickly filled with water, after which the ships were towed in above the beams. The the water was pumped out by wheels so that the ships rested quite in the air, when the repairs were complete, the water was let in again, so that the ships were afloat once more. The first English and oldest surviving dry dock still in use was commissioned by Henry VII of England at HMNB Portsmouth in 1495 and this dry dock currently holds the worlds oldest commissioned warship, HMS Victory. Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called Descrittione dellartifitiosa machina. In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a ship and then proceeds to describe. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel, the ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure. The Alfredo da Silva Dry Dock, of the Lisnave Dockyards in Almada, Portugal, was the largest in the world until 2000, harland and Wolff Heavy Industries in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is the site of a large dry dock 556 by 93 metres. The massive cranes are named after the Biblical figures Samson and Goliath, Goliath stands 96 m tall, while Samson is taller at 106 m. The Saint-Nazaires Chantiers de lAtlantique owns one of the biggest in the world,1,200 by 60 metres, the largest graving dock of the Mediterranean as of 2009 is at the Hellenic Shipyards S. A. The largest roofed dry dock is at the German Meyer Werft Shipyard in Papenburg, Germany, it is 504 m long,125 m wide, Dry Dock 12 at Newport News Shipbuilding is 662 by 76 metres the largest dry dock in the USA. The largest floating-dock in North America named The Vigorous and it is operated Vigor Industries in Portland, OR, in the Swan Island industrial area along the Willamette River. The keel blocks as well as the block are placed on the floor of the dock in accordance with the docking plan of the ship. Routine use of dry docks is for the graving i. e. the cleaning, removal of barnacles and rust, some fine-tuning of the ships position can be done by divers while there is still some water left to manoeuvre it about
2.
Bristol
–
Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
3.
Great Western Steamship Company
–
The Great Western Steam Ship Company operated the first regular transatlantic steamer service from 1838 until 1846. Related to the Great Western Railway, it was expected to achieve the position that was secured by the Cunard Line. The firms first ship, the Great Western was capable of record Blue Riband crossings as late as 1843 and was the model for Cunards Britannia, the companys second steamer, the Great Britain was an outstanding technical achievement of the age. The company collapsed because it failed to secure a mail contract, the company might have had a more successful outcome had it built sister ships for the Great Western instead of investing in the too advanced Great Britain. By the 1830s, Liverpool was overtaking Bristol as a transatlantic port, the Great Western Railway was formed in 1833 to build a Bristol-London line and appointed Isambard Kingdom Brunel as chief engineer. The issue of the length was discussed at an 1835 directors meeting when supposedly Brunel joked that the line could be made longer by building a steamship to run between Bristol and New York. The necessary investors were recruited by Brunels friend, Thomas Guppy, the next year, the Great Western Steam Ship Company was established, even though the rail line was still years from completion. Construction on the Brunel designed Great Western was started in June 1836 at William Pattersons shipyard, Brunel argued that larger ships were more efficient and was ultimately proved correct. However, Lardners conclusions scared away some potential Bristol investors and the new firm was undersubscribed, Great Western was launched in July 1837 and ready for her maiden Bristol-New York voyage the following April. To beat its rival, British and American chartered the Irish Sea steamer, while the Sirius left Cork, Ireland four days before the Great Western departed Avonmouth, Great Western still came within a day of overtaking Sirius to New York. To complete the voyage, Sirius was forced to burn spars when coal ran low, because British and American did not begin its regular service until the following year, the Great Western Steam Ship Company is considered the first regular transatlantic steamship service. The Great Western proved clearly superior to the British Queen and was the model for every successful Atlantic wooden paddle-wheeler, during 1838-1840, Great Western averaged 16 days,0 hours westward to New York and 13 days,9 hours home. In 1838, the company paid a 9% dividend, but that was to be the only dividend because of the expense of building the companys next ship. Unfortunately, the events in 1839 doomed the company, construction of the Great Britain proved disastrously protracted and expensive, and for the next six years the Great Western operated alone. Even more disastrous was the British Governments decision to award the transatlantic mail contract to Samuel Cunard, famed Arctic explorer, Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed as Comptroller of Steam Machinery and Packet Service in April 1837. Nova Scotians led by their young Assembly Speaker, Joseph Howe lobbied for steam service to Halifax, the Rebellions of 1837 were still ongoing and London realized that the proposed Halifax service was also important for defence reasons. That November, Parry released a tender for North Atlantic mail service to Halifax, Great Western bid £45,000 for a monthly Bristol-Halifax-New York service to begin in 18 to 24 months. The St. George Steam Packet Company also bid £45,000 for a monthly Cork-Halifax service including their Sirius, Great Westerns directors were confident that they would win the contract because of the demonstrated success of their first steamer
4.
William Patterson Shipbuilders
–
Patterson, the founder, was born in Arbroath, Scotland, in 1795 and worked his way up from London shop seller to shipwright at Rotherhithe, and then foreman at steamship builder William Evans. Here he took charge of the yard for the build of the steam packet Dasher for the Post Office, when Scott when bankrupt in 1830, Patterson stepped in to take over the yard at East Wapping with partner John Mercer, Jr, as Patterson & Mercer. He also had business in the trade and had at least one vessel in operation. Patterson’s first vessel was the steam packet County of Pembroke for the Bristol Channel trade, by this time Mercer had left the business and it was refashioned William Patterson & Son. Many changes stimulated by Brunel were embodied and she sailed from Bristol in December 1844. She was rebuilt as the then world’s largest sailing ship and her figurehead still features at the M Shed. The yard’s first warships were three ‘war steamers’ for the Peruvian Navy, two sisterships Inca and Cacique of 628 tons bm and the larger Corah of 970 tons bm each built with steam in 1849. These were wooden paddle vessels with low power engines and a sail plan. Patterson was responsible for a number of cutters and also had a line of yachts built in the yard. The Oriana of 69 tons bm was built in 1852 for G. S. Tritton of the Royal Yacht Squadron, 1864-65 was the final flourish with four large iron three-masters being completed, including Royal Adelaide and Royal Sovereign of 140 tons bm for Fernie Brothers of Liverpool. These were the largest iron sailing ships built in Bristol. William Patterson Sr. moved to Liverpool in 1865, and his son continued at Bristol with a business at Dean’s Marsh
5.
Museum ship
–
A museum ship, also called a memorial ship, is a ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public for educational or memorial purposes. Some are also used for training and recruitment purposes, mostly for the number of museum ships that are still operational. Many, if not most, museum ships are also associated with a maritime museum, only a few survive, sometimes because of historical significance, but more often due to luck and circumstance. The restoration and maintenance of museum ships presents problems for historians who are asked for advice, for instance, the rigging of sailing ships has almost never survived, and so the rigging plan must be reconstructed from various sources. Studying the ships also allows historians to analyze how life on and operation of the ships took place, numerous scientific papers have been written on ship restoration and maintenance, and international conferences are held discussing the latest developments. Another consideration is the distinction between a museum ship, and a ship replica. As repairs accumulate over time, less and less of the ship is of the materials. Visitors without historical background are often unable to distinguish between a historical museum ship and a ship replica, which may serve solely as a tourist attraction. Typically the visitor enters via gangplank, wanders around on the deck, then goes below, usually using the original stairways, giving a sense of how the crew got around. The interior features restored but inactivated equipment, enhanced with mementos including old photographs, explanatory displays, pages from the logs, menus. Some add recorded sound effects, audio tours or video displays to enhance the experience, in some cases, the ships radio room has been brought back into use, with volunteers operating amateur radio equipment. Often, the callsign assigned is a variation on the identification of the ship. For example, the submarine USS Cobia, which had the call NBQV, is now on the air as NB9QV. The World War II submarine USS Pampanito, berthed at the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, had the wartime call NJVT and is now on the air as NJ6VT, in other cases, such as the USS Missouri, a distinctive call is used. This radio work not only helps restore part of the vessel, a number of the larger museum ships have begun to offer hosting for weddings, meetings, other events, and sleepovers, and on a few ships still seaworthy, cruises. In the United States, this includes the USS Constitutions annual turnaround, a place on the deck is by invitation or lottery only, and highly prized. Many consider the appeal of an interesting old vessel on the city waterfront strong enough that any port city should showcase one or more museum ships. This may even include building a ship at great expense
6.
Passenger ship
–
A passenger ship is a merchant ship whose primary function is to carry passengers on the sea. The type does however include many classes of ships designed to transport substantial numbers of passengers as well as freight, only in more recent ocean liners and in virtually all cruise ships has this cargo capacity been eliminated. While typically passenger ships are part of the merchant marine, passenger ships have also used as troopships. An ocean liner is the form of passenger ship. Once such liners operated on scheduled line voyages to all inhabited parts of the world, with the advent of airliners transporting passengers and specialized cargo vessels hauling freight, line voyages have almost died out. Her success demonstrated that there was a market for large cruise ships, successive classes of ever-larger ships were ordered, until the Cunard liner Queen Elizabeth was finally dethroned from her 56-year reign as the largest passenger ship ever built. Both the RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 and her successor as Cunards flagship RMS Queen Mary 2, QM2 was superseded by the Freedom of the Seas of the Royal Caribbean line as the largest passenger ship ever built, however, QM2 still hold the record for the largest ocean liner. The Freedom of the Seas was superseded by the Oasis of the Seas in October 2009, by convention and long usage, the size of civilian passenger ships is measured by gross tonnage, which is a dimensionless figure calculated from the total enclosed volume of the vessel. Gross tonnage is not a measure of weight, although the two concepts are often confused, weight is measured by displacement, which is the conventional means of measuring naval vessels. Often a passenger ship is stated to weigh or displace a certain tonnage, but the figure given nearly always refers to gross tonnage, gross tonnage normally is a much higher value than displacement. However, by the conventional and historical measure of gross tonnage, the Oasis of the Seas measures over 225,000 GT, over twice as large as the largest cruise ships of the late 1990s. Power is also unavailable to the crew of the ship to operate electrically powered mechanisms, lack of an adequate backup system to propel the ship can, in rough seas, render it dead in the water and result in loss of the ship. It is believed some owners and operators of ships built before 1980, fred Olsens Black Prince, built in 1966 was one such ship, but was reported to be headed for inter-island service in Venezuelan waters. The International Ice Patrol was formed in 1914 after the sinking of the RMS Titanic to address the issue of iceberg collision
7.
Cylinder (engine)
–
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
8.
Marine steam engine
–
A marine steam engine is a steam engine that is used to power a ship or boat. Reciprocating steam engines were replaced in marine applications during the 20th century by steam turbines. The first commercially successful engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The steam engine improvements brought forth by James Watt in the half of the 18th century greatly improved steam engine efficiency. In 1807, the American Robert Fulton built the worlds first commercially successful steamboat, simply known as the North River Steamboat, following Fultons success, steamboat technology developed rapidly on both sides of the Atlantic. The first successful transatlantic crossing by a steamship occurred in 1819 when Savannah sailed from Savannah, Georgia to Liverpool, the first steamship to make regular transatlantic crossings was the sidewheel steamer Great Western in 1838. As the 19th century progressed, marine engines and steamship technology developed alongside each other. A wide variety of reciprocating steam engines were developed over the course of the 19th century. The two main methods of classifying such engines are by connection mechanism and cylinder technology, most early marine engines had the same cylinder technology but a number of different methods of supplying power to the crankshaft were in use. Thus, early engines are classified mostly according to their connection mechanism. Some common connection mechanisms were side-lever, steeple, walking beam, however, steam engines can also be classified according to their cylinder technology. One can therefore sometimes find examples of engines which were classified under both methods, such as the walking beam. Over time, as most engines became direct-acting but cylinder technologies were growing more complex, Some of the more commonly encountered types of marine steam engine are listed in the following sections. Note that not all of these terms may have been used exclusively in relation to marine applications, the side-lever engine was the first type of steam engine to be widely adopted for marine use in Europe. The side-lever was an adaptation of the earliest form of steam engine and these levers extended, on the cylinder side, to each side of the bottom of the vertical engine cylinder. A piston rod, connected vertically to the piston, extended out of the top of the cylinder and this rod attached to a horizontal crosshead which, at each end, was connected to vertical rods. These rods connected down to the levers on each side of the cylinder and this formed the connection of the levers to the piston on the cylinder side of the engine. The other side of the levers were connected to each other with a horizontal crosstail and this crosstail in turn connected to and operated a single connecting rod, which turned the crankshaft
9.
Steam engine
–
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
10.
Propeller
–
A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
11.
Schooner
–
A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
12.
Square rig
–
These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
13.
Steamship
–
A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
14.
Ocean liner
–
An ocean liner is a ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another along regular long-distance maritime routes according to a schedule. Liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes, cargo vessels running to a schedule are sometimes called liners. The category does not include ferries or other vessels engaged in trading, nor dedicated cruise ships where the voyage itself. Nor does it include tramp steamers, even those equipped to handle limited numbers of passengers, some shipping companies refer to themselves as lines and their container ships, which often operate over set routes according to established schedules, as liners. Ocean liners are usually built with a high freeboard to withstand rough seas. Additionally, they are designed with thicker hull plating than is found on cruise ships. Once the dominant form of travel between continents, ocean liners were rendered obsolete by the emergence of long-distance aircraft after World War II. Advances in automobile and railway also played a role. As of 2015, RMS Queen Mary 2 was the ship still in service as an ocean liner. Ocean liners were the mode of intercontinental travel for over a century. In addition to passengers, liners carried mail and cargo, ships contracted to carry British Royal Mail used the designation RMS. Liners were also the way to move gold and other high-value cargoes. The busiest route for liners was on the North Atlantic with ships travelling between Europe and North America and it was on this route that the fastest, largest and most advanced liners travelled. Shipping lines are companies engaged in shipping passengers and cargo, often on established routes and schedules, regular scheduled voyages on a set route are called line voyages and vessels trading on these routes to a timetable are called liners. The alternative to liner trade is tramping whereby vessels are notified on a basis as to the availability of a cargo to be transported. The term ocean liner has come to be used interchangeably with passenger liner, beginning at the advent of the Jet Age, where transoceanic ship service declined, a gradual transition from passenger ships as mean of transportation to nowadays cruise ships started. In order for ocean liners to remain profitable, cruise lines have modified some of them to operate on routes, such as the Queen Elizabeth 2. The Italian Lines SS Michelangelo and SS Raffaello, the last ocean liners to be primarily for crossing the North Atlantic
15.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
16.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
17.
Dundrum, County Down
–
Dundrum is a village and townland in County Down, Northern Ireland. It is beside Dundrum Bay, about 4 miles outside Newcastle on the A2 road, the village is best known for its ruined Norman castle. It had a population of 1,555 people in the 2011 Census, in 1177 the Normans, who had conquered great swathes of Ireland, invaded eastern Ulster and captured territories along its coast. John de Courcy, who had led the invasion, began building Dundrum Castle in the early 13th century on top of an earlier Gaelic fort, the castle was to guard the land routes from Drogheda to Downpatrick. In 1203, de Courcy was expelled from Ulster by fellow Norman Hugh de Lacy, two years later, de Courcy tried to re-take the castle but failed. It was visited by King John in 1210, who spent money for works to the castle. Dundrum castle was held by the Earls of Ulster until the 15th century, it was captured by the Magennises of Mourne, in 1517 the Earl of Kildare briefly captured the castle, as did Lord Deputy Grey in 1538. The castle was surrendered to the Crown in 1601 by Phelim Magennis, granted to Edward Lord Cromwell, the Magennises re-took the castle during the Eleven Years War but lost it to the Parliamentarians. The Blundells returned after the war and built the house on the edge of the castle. In the 17th century, Ulsters ports began to rise in prominence, in 1625 William Pitt was appointed as Customer of the ports of Newcastle, Dundrum, Killough, Portaferry, Donaghadee, Bangor and Holywood. Coal was an import into Dundrum, where the East Downshire Steamship Company was based. Dundrum was a port until 1984. The SS Great Britain, one of the first iron ships and designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was on its way from Liverpool to New York in 1846, when it ran aground during bad weather in Dundrum Bay. The captain, James Hosken, miscalculated the speed, and with poor charts. It took a year to re-float the ship but it continued in use for years before being installed as a visitor attraction in Bristol. In 1967, nearby Murlough became Irelands first nature reserve, Dundrum railway station was opened by the Belfast & County Down Railway on 25 March 1869 and operated until 16 January 1950. Dundrum Cricket Club plays in the NCU Senior League, comedian and television presenter, Patrick Kielty, was born and grew up in Dundrum. Dundrum is classified as a village by the NI Statistics and Research Agency, on Census day there were 1,065 people living in Dundrum
18.
Navigation
–
Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. The field of navigation includes four categories, land navigation, marine navigation, aeronautic navigation. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks, all navigational techniques involve locating the navigators position compared to known locations or patterns. Navigation, in a sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and direction. In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation, for information about different navigation strategies that people use, visit human navigation. In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts, early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another. Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the mariners astrolabe first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages, the perfecting of this navigation instrument is attributed to Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in the Age of Discovery. Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the compass started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, the Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the sponsorship of Prince Henry. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route, in 1492 the Spanish monarchs funded Christopher Columbuss expedition to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the Discovery of America. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later. The fleet of seven ships sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Southern Spain in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the Pacific making a number of discoveries including Guam and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from the original seven, the Victoria led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The Trinidad sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a path back to the Americas. He arrived in Acapulco on October 8,1565, the term stems from 1530s, from Latin navigationem, from navigatus, pp. of navigare to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship, from navis ship and the root of agere to drive. Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator, latitude is usually expressed in degrees ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude is usually expressed in degrees ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west, sydney, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of 74° west, for most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude
19.
Error
–
An error is an action which is inaccurate or incorrect. In some usages, an error is synonymous with a mistake, for instance, in statistics error refers to the difference between the value which has been computed and the correct value. One reference differentiates between error and mistake as follows, An error is a deviation from accuracy or correctness, a mistake is an error caused by a fault, the fault being misjudgment, carelessness, or forgetfulness. Now, say that I run a stop sign because I was in a hurry, and wasnt concentrating, and the stop me. If, however, I try to park in an area with conflicting signs, and I get a ticket because I was incorrect on my interpretation of what the signs meant, the first time it would be an error. The second time it would be a mistake since I should have known better, gaffes and faux pas can be labels for certain instances of this kind of error. More serious departures from social norms carry labels such as misbehavior and labels from the system, such as misdemeanor. Departures from norms connected to religion can have other labels, such as sin, an individual language users deviations from standard language norms in grammar, syntax, pronunciation and punctuation are sometimes referred to as errors. A gaffe is a mistake, usually made in a social environment. The mistake may come from saying something that is true, and it may also be an erroneous attempt to reveal a truth. Finally, gaffes can be malapropisms, grammatical errors or other verbal and gestural weaknesses or revelations through body language, philosophers and psychologists interested in the nature of the gaffe include Freud and Gilles Deleuze. Deleuze, in his Logic of Sense, places the gaffe in a process that can culminate in stuttering. Sports writers and journalists commonly use gaffe to refer to any kind of mistake, see medical error for a description of error in medicine. In statistics, an error is not a mistake but rather a difference between a computed, estimated, or measured value and the true, specified, or theoretically correct value. In science and engineering in general an error is defined as a difference between the desired and actual performance or behavior of a system or object. This definition is the basis of operation for many types of control systems, another approach is related to considering a scientific hypothesis as true or false, giving birth to two types of errors, Type 1 and Type 2. The first one is when an hypothesis is considered false. Engineers seek to design devices, machines and systems and in such a way as to mitigate or preferably avoid the effects of error, whether unintentional or not
20.
Marine salvage
–
Marine salvage is the process of recovering a ship and its cargo after a shipwreck or other maritime casualty. Salvage may encompass towing, re-floating a vessel, or effecting repairs to a ship, today, protecting the coastal environment from spillage of oil or other contaminants is a high priority. The legal significance of salvage is that a successful salvor is entitled to a reward, the amount of the award is determined subsequently at a hearing on the merits by a maritime court in accordance with Articles 13 and 14 of the International Salvage Convention of 1989. Originally, a successful salvage was one where at least some of the ship or cargo was saved, otherwise the principle of No Cure, in the 1970s, a number of marine casualties of single-skin-hull tankers led to serious oil spills. Such casualties were unattractive to salvors, so the Lloyds Open Form made provision that a salvor who acts to try to prevent environmental damage will be paid and this Lloyds initiative proved so advantageous that it was incorporated into the 1989 Convention. All vessels have a duty to give reasonable assistance to other ships in distress in order to save life. Any offer of salvage assistance may be refused, but if it is accepted a contract automatically arises to give the successful salvor the right to a reward under the 1989 Convention. Typically, the ship and the salvor will sign up to an LOF agreement so that the terms of salvage are clear, in the Early Modern Period, diving bells were often used for salvage work. In 1658, Albrecht von Treileben was contracted by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to salvage the warship Vasa, between 1663-1665 von Treilebens divers were successful in raising most of the cannon, working from a diving bell. In 1687, Sir William Phipps used a container to recover £200. The era of modern salvage operations was inaugurated with the development of the first surface supplied diving helmets by the inventors, Charles and John Deane and Augustus Siebe, in the 1830s. Royal George, a 100-gun first-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, sank undergoing routine maintenance work in 1782, using their new air-pumped diving helmets, they managed to recover about two dozen cannons. Following on from success, Colonel of the Royal Engineers Charles Pasley commenced the first large scale salvage operation in 1839. His plan was to break up the wreck of Royal George with gunpowder charges, pasleys diving salvage operation set many diving milestones, including the first recorded use of the buddy system in diving, when he ordered that his divers operate in pairs. In addition, the first emergency swimming ascent was made by a diver after his air line became tangled, Pasley recovered 12 more guns in 1839,11 more in 1840, and 6 in 1841. In 1842 he recovered only one iron 12-pounder because he ordered the divers to concentrate on removing the hull rather than search for guns. Other items recovered, in 1840, included the brass instruments, silk garments of satin weave of which the silk was perfect, and pieces of leather. By 1843 the whole of the keel and the timbers had been raised
21.
Immigration to Australia
–
Immigration to Australia is considered part of the history of human migration that started in Africa. Permanent European settlement began in 1788 with the establishment of a British penal colony in New South Wales, from early federation in 1901, Australia maintained the White Australia Policy, which was abolished after World War II. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia, from the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Net overseas migration has increased from 30,042 in 1992–93 to 212,700 persons in 2013–14, the largest components of immigration are the skilled migration and family re-union programs. A2014 sociological study concluded that, Australia and Canada are the most receptive to immigration among western nations, Australia is a signatory to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and has resettled many asylum seekers. In recent years, Australias policy of mandatory detention of unauthorised arrivals by boat has attracted controversy, European migration to Australia began with the British convict settlement of Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. The First Fleet comprised 11 ships carrying 775 convicts and 645 officials, members of the crew, marines, the settlers consisted of petty criminals, second-rate soldiers and a crew of sailors. There were few with skills needed to start a self-sufficient settlement, such as farmers and builders, male settlers far outnumbered female settlers. The Second Fleet arrived in 1790 bringing more convicts, the conditions of the transportation was described as horrific and worse than slave transports. Of the 1,026 convicts who embarked,267 died during the voyage, the fleet was more of a drain on the struggling settlement than of any benefit. Conditions on the Third Fleet, which followed on the heels of the Second Fleet in 1791, were a bit better, of the more than 2000 convicts brought onto the ships,173 male convicts and 9 female convicts died during the voyage. Other transport fleets bringing further convicts as well as freemen to the colony would follow, by the end of the penal transportation in 1868, approximately 165,000 people had entered Australia as convicts. This latter group were subject to increasing restrictions and discrimination, making it impossible for many to remain in the country and this was selected to be one the immigrant did not know, the last time an immigrant passed a test was in 1909. Perhaps the most celebrated case was Egon Erwin Kisch, a left-wing Czechoslovakian journalist, who could speak five languages, who was failed in a test in Scottish Gaelic, the government also found that if it wanted immigrants it had to subsidise migration. The great distance from Europe made Australia a more expensive and less attractive destination than Canada, the number of immigrants needed during different stages of the economic cycle could be controlled by varying the subsidy. Before federation in 1901, assisted migrants received passage assistance from government funds. The British government paid for the passage of convicts, paupers, few immigrants received colonial government assistance before 1831. Approved groups such as these were assured of entry by being issued with a Certificate of Exemption from the Dictation Test, after World War II Australia launched a massive immigration program, believing that having narrowly avoided a Japanese invasion, Australia must populate or perish
22.
Falkland Islands
–
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles east of South Americas southern Patagonian coast, the archipelago, with an area of 4,700 square miles, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, the islands capital is Stanley on East Falkland. Controversy exists over the Falklands discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans, at various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands, in April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War, most Falklanders favour the archipelago remaining a UK overseas territory, but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The population primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent, other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, under the British Nationality Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens. The islands lie on the boundary of the oceanic and tundra climate zones. They are home to bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports, oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina. The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the two main islands. The name Falkland was applied to the channel by John Strong, Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey. The name Falklands was not applied to the islands until 1765, the term Falklands is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands. The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764, Bougainville, who founded the islands first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo. The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo, in Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas. The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands, although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic, whether or not the settlements were aware of each others existence is debated by historians
23.
Hulk (ship type)
–
A hulk is a ship that is afloat, but incapable of going to sea. The word hulk is used as a verb, a ship is hulked to convert it to a hulk. The verb was also applied to crews of Royal Navy ships in dock, although the term hulk can be used to refer to an abandoned wreck or shell, it is much more commonly applied to hulls that are still performing a useful function. In the days of sail, many hulls served longer as hulks than they did as functional ships, wooden ships were often hulked when the hull structure became too old and weak to withstand the stresses of sailing. More recently, ships have been hulked when they become obsolete or when they become uneconomical to operate. A sheer hulk was used in shipbuilding and repair as a crane in the days of sailing ships. Booms known as sheers were attached to the base of a hulks lower masts or beam, blocks & tackle were then used in such tasks as placing or removing the lower masts of the vessel under construction or repair. These lower masts were the largest and most massive single timbers aboard a ship, the concept of sheer hulks originated with the Royal Navy in the 1690s, and persisted in Britain until the early nineteenth century. Most sheer hulks were decommissioned warships, Chatham, built in 1694, was the first of only three purpose-built vessels, there were at least six sheer hulks in service in Britain at any time throughout the 1700s. The concept spread to France in the 1740s with the commissioning of a sheer hulk at the port of Rochefort. By 1807 the Royal Navy had standardised sheer hulk crew numbers to comprise a boatswain, mate and six seamen, an accommodation hulk is a hulk used as housing, generally when there is a lack of quarters available ashore. An operational ship may be used for accommodation, but a hulk can accommodate more personnel than the hull would accommodate as a functional ship. For this role, the hulk is often modified to improve living conditions. Receiving hulks and prison hulks are specialized types of accommodation hulks, during World War II, purpose-built barracks ships were used in this role. A receiving ship is a used in harbour to house newly recruited sailors before they are assigned to a ships crew. In the Royal Navy, the use of impressment to collect sailors resulted in the problem of preventing escape of the unwilling recruits. The receiving ship was part of the solution, it was difficult to get off the ship without being detected, receiving ships were typically older vessels that could still be kept afloat, but were obsolete or no longer seaworthy. Receiving ships often served as floating hospitals as many were assigned in locations without shore-based station hospitals, often the afloat surgeon would take up station on the receiving ship
24.
Scuttling
–
Scuttling is the deliberate sinking of a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull. This can be achieved in several ways—valves or hatches can be opened to the sea and their success would have halted his inland march and conquest of the Aztec Empire. HMS Sapphire was a 32-gun, fifth-rate sailing frigate of the Royal Navy in Newfoundland Colony to protect the English migratory fishery, the vessel was trapped in Bay Bulls harbour by four French naval vessels led by Jacques-François de Brouillan. To avoid capture, the English scuttled the vessel on 11 September 1696, the British sank one ship on October 10,1781 to prevent it from getting captured by the French fleet. During the Belgian war of independence, Dutch gunboat commander Jan van Speijk came under attack from a mob of Antwerp labourers. When they forced him and his crew to surrender, he ignited a barrel of gunpowder, thus sinking his ship and killing himself, according to tradition, in his last words he said hed rather be blown up than become a Belgian. Van Speijk went on to become a hero in The Netherlands. After the war, it became a challenge to recover the ships. In 1861, the Federal steam frigate Merrimack was set afire in Gosport Shipyard to keep her from falling into Confederate hands, the unsuccessful attempt at scuttling enabled the Confederate Navy to raise and rebuild her as Virginia. Virginia was later sunk by the Confederates after her famous battle with USS Monitor to keep her from being taken back. During the War of the Pacific, as Chilean troops entered Lima and El Callao, in August 1914, SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was requisitioned by the Kaiserliche Marine and converted into an auxiliary cruiser, assigned to commerce raiding in the Atlantic. She was fitted with six 10.5 cm guns and two 37 mm guns, after sparing two passenger ships because they were carrying many women and children, she sank two freighters before she herself was sunk on 26 August 1914. She was caught refuelling off the shore of the then Spanish colony of Río de Oro in western Africa by the old British 6-inch gunned cruiser HMS Highflyer, badly outgunned, the ship eventually ran out of ammunition. The crew abandoned and scuttled her, British sources at the time insisted that Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse sank because of the damage inflicted by Highflyer. In December 1914, SMS Dresden was the only German warship to escape destruction in the Battle of the Falkland Islands and she eluded her British pursuers for several more months, until she put into Más a Tierra in March 1915. Her engines were out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers. There, she was trapped by British cruisers, which violated Chilean neutrality, dresdens Executive Officer - the future Admiral Wilhelm Canaris - negotiated with the British and bought time for his shipmates to scuttle Dresden. Thetis, Intrepid and Iphigenia were filled with concrete then sent to block a critical canal, heavy defensive fire caused the Thetis to scuttle prematurely, the other two cruisers sank themselves successfully in the narrowest part of the canal
25.
Jack Hayward
–
Sir Jack Arnold Hayward OBE was an English businessman, property developer, philanthropist and president of English football club Wolverhampton Wanderers. He served first as a Pilot Officer in the Royal Air Force 671 Squadron S. E, asia Command in India, flying Dakota transporters to the 14th Army in Burma, and in 1946 was demobilised as a Flight Lieutenant. After demobilization he began work in Rotary Hoes, part of the Firth Cleveland Group of Companies formed by his father, Sir Charles Hayward, as an agricultural equipment salesman in South Africa. In 1951 he founded the American arm of the Group in New York and his father began the family involvement with the Bahamas during the 1950s, after relocating his business from the United States. Jack arrived in Grand Bahama in 1956 and became a Vice-President of The Grand Bahama Port Authority, Jack took over his fathers interests in the Bahamas, and continued to play an active role in Freeport. In addition to his home in Freeport, within Britain he owned a farm in Sussex in England and was Laird of Dunmaglass, the Sunday Times Rich List placed him as 125th richest in Britain with an estimated £160million fortune in 2009. Hayward twice could have become owner of his football club Wolverhampton Wanderers. In 1982, when Wolves were in difficulties, he was reportedly offered 400 shares for around £40,000. Hayward became the owner and chairman of Wolves after buying the club in May 1990 for £2.11 million and his reign saw seven different managers employ his resources in attempts to make the club a top flight side. In May 2007 it was announced that he had control of the club to businessman Steve Morgan for a nominal £10 fee. Hayward had originally offered the club for sale in September 2003, Morgans takeover was formally completed on 9 August 2007. Hayward remained the president of Wolverhampton Wanderers and was later inducted into the clubs Hall of Fame. Other such benefactors include Jack Walker, Lionel Pickering, Steve Gibson and he funded three international racing yachts Great Britain I, II and III, spent £100,000 on saving the sloop Gannet and contributed another £100,000 to help raise the Mary Rose. He financed tours of the West Indies by the England womens cricket team in 1969–70 and 1970–71, in 1979 Hayward gave evidence for the Crown in court when Thorpe was implicated in the Norman Scott case, letters from Thorpe that Hayward had kept being among exhibits. In later life Hayward boasted he would have founded a party far more right wing than Margaret Thatcher, Hayward was nicknamed Union Jack in the Bahamas media for his British patriotism. Into Freeport he imported ten red London buses and was permitted by the General Post Office to install British-style red telephone, visiting seamen from the Royal Navy were always given dinner at a local restaurant “with the compliments of Sir Jack”. Back in Britain, Hayward drove a Range Rover bearing the bumper sticker, in Whos Who, he declared his recreations as, mainly, promoting British endeavours, mainly in sport. protecting the British landscape, keeping all things bright, beautiful and British. He relaxed by watching cricket and taking part in amateur dramatics — he built a theatre at Freeport for the local Players’ Guild
26.
National Historic Fleet
–
The National Historic Fleet is a list of historic ships and vessels located in the United Kingdom, under the National Historic Ships register. National Historic Ships UK is a body which advises the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport and other public bodies on ship preservation. As part of this remit, National Historic Ships maintains the National Register of Historic Vessels, as of September 2014 there are 206 vessels on the register, including museum ships, those still in active or commercial service, and a number currently laid up. Some are being restored, others have an uncertain future. Barcelona Charter Search the Registers - National Historic Fleet
27.
Bristol Harbour
–
Bristol Harbour is the harbour in the city of Bristol, England. The harbour covers an area of 70 acres and it is often called the Floating Harbour as the water level remains constant and it is not affected by the state of the tide on the river. Netham Lock in east Bristol is the limit of the harbour. Beyond the lock is a junction, on one arm the navigable River Avon continues upstream to Bath, and on the other arm is the tidal River Avon. The first 1 mile of the harbour, downstream from Netham Lock to Totterdown Basin, is an artificial canal known as the Feeder Canal. Downstream of Totterdown Basin, the floating harbour occupies the natural course of the River Avon. This separation of the harbour and the tidal River Avon allows boats in the harbour to remain floating at low tide, reduces currents and silting. Between Bristol Temple Meads railway station and Hotwells, the harbour, downstream of Bristol Temple Meads railway station, the floating harbour meanders through Bristol city centre, Canons Marsh and Hotwells. At Hotwells, the floating harbour rejoins the tidal River Avon, via a series of locks, Bristol Harbour was the original Port of Bristol, but as ships and their cargo have increased in size, it has now largely been replaced by docks at Avonmouth and Portbury. These are located 7 miles downstream at the mouth of the River Avon, the harbour is now a tourist attraction with museums, galleries, exhibitions, bars and nightclubs. The Bristol Harbour Railway, operated by M Shed, runs between the museum and the Create Centre on some weekends and bank holidays, historic boats are permanently berthed in the harbour. The historic vessels of M Shed museum, which include the steam tug Mayflower, firefloat Pyronaut, a separate cross-harbour ferry carries pedestrians from the ferry landing at the Great Britain to the new harbour inlet opposite. Bristol Packet Boat Trips offer regular tours with commentaries and river cruises on the Tower Belle up the River Avon to Conham, Hanham and Bath. In late July each year, the Bristol Harbour Festival is held, resulting in an influx of boats, including ships, Royal Navy vessels. Bristol grew up on the banks of the Rivers Avon and Frome, saint Augustines Reach became the heart of Bristols docks with its quays and wharfs. The River Avon within the gorge, and the River Severn into which it flows, has tides which fluctuate about 30 feet between high and low water. This means that the river is navigable at high-tide but reduced to a muddy channel at low tide in which ships would often run aground. As early as 1420, vessels from Bristol were regularly travelling to Iceland, after Cabot arrived in Bristol, he proposed a scheme to the king, Henry VII, in which he proposed to reach Asia by sailing west across the north Atlantic
28.
SS Great Western
–
SS Great Western of 1838, was an oak-hulled paddle-wheel steamship, the first steamship purpose-built for crossing the Atlantic, and the initial unit of the Great Western Steamship Company. She was the largest passenger ship in the world from 1837 to 1839, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Great Western proved satisfactory in service and was the model for all successful wooden Atlantic paddle-steamers. She was capable of making record Blue Riband voyages as late as 1843, Great Western worked to New York for 8 years until her owners went out of business. She was sold to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and was scrapped in 1856 after serving as a ship during the Crimean War. In 1836, Isambard Brunel, his friend Thomas Guppy and a group of Bristol investors formed the Great Western Steamship Company to build a line of steamships for the Bristol-New York route. The idea of regular scheduled service was under discussion by several groups. Great Westerns design sparked controversy from critics that contended that she was too big, the principle that Brunel understood was that the carrying capacity of a ship increases as the cube of its dimensions, whilst the water resistance only increases as the square of its dimensions. This meant that ships were more fuel efficient, something very important for long voyages across the Atlantic. Great Western was an iron-strapped, wooden, side-wheel paddle steamer, the hull was built of oak by traditional methods. She was the largest steamship for one year, until the British, on 31 March 1838, Great Western sailed for Avonmouth to start her maiden voyage to New York. Before reaching Avonmouth, a fire out in the engine room. During the confusion Brunel fell 20 feet, and was injured, the fire was extinguished, and the damages to the ship were minimal, but Brunel had to be put ashore at Canvey Island. As a result of the accident, more than 50 passengers cancelled their bookings for the Bristol-New York voyage, construction of the rival British and Americans first ship was delayed, and the company chartered Sirius to beat Great Western to New York. Sirius was a 700 GRT Irish Sea steam packet on the London – Cork route and she left London three days before Great Western, refuelled at Cork, and departed for New York on 4 April. Great Western was delayed in Bristol because of the fire and did not depart until 8 April, even with a four-day head start, Sirius only narrowly beat Great Western, arriving on 22 April. When coal ran low, the crew burned 5 drums of resin, Great Western arrived the following day, with 200 tons of coal still aboard. Although the term Blue Riband was not coined until years later, however, Sirius only held the record for a day because Great Westerns voyage was faster at 8.66 knots. Great Western proved completely satisfactory in service and influenced the design of other Atlantic paddlers, even Cunards Britannia was a reduced version of Great Western
29.
John Laird (shipbuilder)
–
John Laird was a Scottish shipbuilder and key figure in the development of the town of Birkenhead. He was the brother of Macgregor Laird. He was one of the first to use iron in the construction of ships and he was born in Greenock, Scotland, the eldest son of Scottish entrepreneur, William Laird and Agnes Macgregor. In the same year the Lairds moved to Liverpool, John Laird was educated at Liverpool Royal Institution. In 1824 the Laird family moved to Birkenhead, where William Laird and this manufactured boilers near Wallasey Pool. This partnership was dissolved in 1828 and William Laird was joined in his business by John Laird, the company was renamed William Laird & Son. John Laird realised that the techniques of bending iron plates and riveting them together to build ships were similar to the involved in making boilers. Lairds first vessel was a 60 ft pre-fabricated iron lighter in 1829 – displacement sixty tons – which was used on canals and this was followed by further orders for more lighters and in 1833 the paddle steamer Lady Lansdowne was built for the same firm. Many of the orders were for pre-fabricated river steamers, in 1834, he built the paddle steamer John Randolph for Savannah, Georgia, stated to be the first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company, he built in 1839 the Nemesis, in 1839 Lairds built their first screw-propelled steamer, Robert F. Stockton, a 63 ft tug for use on North American waterways. By 1840, Lairds had built another 21 iron paddle-steamers including four gun boats for anti-piracy patrols for the British East India Company. Further orders for paddle frigates included the 1,400 ton HMS Birkenhead of 1848 which was wrecked off South Africa with the loss of over 400 soldiers in 1852. Perhaps their most famous vessel was the Confederate raider CSS Alabama, in 1857 the business moved to a new yard upstream from the Woodside Ferry, where it remained. In 1844 John Laird started the construction of the Birkenhead Docks in the tidal Wallasey Pool and these were intended to compete with the Port of Liverpool but the venture was not a success and the system was merged with Liverpool docks in 1858. In October 1863 John Laird and his company were caught making two naval ram vessels for the Confederate States Navy, El Toussoun and El Monastir. The names of two ships do not appear to hold any significance in the confederacy which leads to the possibility that this was a covert contract between Laird and the Confederate navy. British marines raided these ships during construction forcing off the workmen, the Royal Navy additionally deployed a gunship, HMS Heron, to the area to prevent the half constructed ships from leaving the port. Laird then sued the British government for impeding on his construction because their construction did not violate the 1819 Foreign Enlistment Act nor British neutrality, in fact, the Lincoln Administration had requested Laird to build armed iron clads for the Union in 1861
30.
English Channel
–
The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
31.
Packet boat
–
Packet boats were small boats designed for domestic mail, passenger, and freight transportation in European countries and their colonies, including North American rivers and canals. They were used extensively during the 18th and 19th centuries and featured regularly scheduled service, when such ships were put into use in the 18th century on the Atlantic Ocean between Great Britain and its colonies, the services were called the packet trade. Packet craft were used extensively in European coastal mail services since the 17th century, as early as 1629, the Dutch East India Company was carrying some passengers on the ill-fated Batavia from Texel in Holland to Java. Later, scheduled services were offered, but the time journeys took depended much on the weather and they are even found to be a subject of Daniel Defoes 1724 novel Roxana, The Fortunate Mistress. In England the King maintained a weekly service with the continent. Their importance was evident in the Rose Hill Packet becoming the first craft built in the colony of New South Wales in 1789. In North America, when the Erie Canal opened in New York state in 1825 along the Mohawk River, earlier they were also known as dispatch boats, but the service was also provided by privateers during time of war, and on occasion chartered private yachts. News of record passages was eagerly awaited by the public, behind this search for sailing faster than the wind however lay the foundations for a development in naval architecture and its science which would serve until the appearance of the steam vessels. The American canal packet boats were typically narrow to accommodate canals, in the cabin space they could carry up to 60 passengers. Unlike European and American sailing vessels, that sought to attain greater speed under sail, compared to overland travel, the boats cut journey time in half and were much more comfortable. Travelers could get from New York City to Buffalo in ten days, with a combination of sailing, some passengers took the boats to see both the Erie Canal and the natural landscapes. Significantly, thousands of others used packet boats to emigrate to Ohio and these boats were also instrumental in the settling of and travel within Upstate New York through the branch canals such as the Chenango Canal. Packet boats were popular along the James River and Kanawha Canal in Virginia. In 1863, during the Civil War, the packet boat Marshall carried the body of Confederate General Stonewall Jackson from Lynchburg to his home in Lexington, Virginia for burial. In addition to carrying mail, most mail steamers carried passengers or cargo since the revenue from the mail service, if any, was insufficient by itself to pay for the cost of its travel. However, the advantage for a steamship carrying mail was that its arrival would be advertised in advance in the newspapers, in most cases, mail carried by mail steamers was delivered to the post office to which it was addressed. In some cases, the mail would be advertised in the local newspaper for pickup at the post office or at the steamships office for a fee. When this occurred, the delivery service would place its own local service stamp or mark on the envelope when the extra fee was paid
32.
Hull (watercraft)
–
The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
33.
Antwerp
–
Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
34.
Dry rot
–
Dry rot is wood decay caused by certain species of fungi that digest parts of the wood which give the wood strength and stiffness. It was previously used to describe any decay of cured wood in ships, the life-cycle of dry rot can be broken down into four main stages. Dry rot begins as a spore which, in high enough concentrations. If the spores are subjected to sufficient moisture they will begin to grow fine white strands known as hyphae, as the hyphae germinate they will eventually form a large mass known as mycelium. The final stage is a body which pumps new spores out into the surrounding air. In other fields, the term has been applied to the decay of crop plants by fungi, Dry rot is the term given to brown rot decay caused by certain fungi that deteriorate timber in buildings and other wooden construction without an apparent source of moisture. The term is a misnomer because all wood decaying fungi need a minimum amount of moisture before decay begins, the decayed wood takes on a dark or browner crumbly appearance, with cubical like cracking or checking, that becomes brittle and can eventually crush the wood into powder. Chemically, wood attacked by dry rot fungi is decayed by the process as other brown rot fungi. An outbreak of dry rot within a building can be a serious infestation that is hard to eradicate. Significant decay can cause instability and cause the structure to collapse, however, there has been no published experimental evidence to support the phenomena. Both species of fungi cause brown rot decay, preferentially removing cellulose and hemicellulose from the timber leaving a matrix of modified lignin. The term dry rot is somewhat misleading, as species of fungi Serpula lacrymans and Meruliporia incrassata require an elevated moisture content to initiate an attack on timber. Once established, the fungi can remain active in timber with a content of more than 20%. At relative humidities below 86 percent, growth of Serpula lacrymans is inhibited and these relative humidities correspond to equilibrium moisture contents of wood of 19 and 15 percent, respectively. An explanation of the dry rot circles around boatyards periodically. In the age of ships, boats were sometimes hauled for the winter. The boats already had some amount of rot occurring in the wood members, as the wood dried out, the cell walls would crumble. Some have suggested the importance of these fungi providing their own source of nutrients as being more significant than providing a source of moisture
35.
Woodworm
–
Woodworm is the wood-eating larvae of any of many species of beetle. It is also a description given to the infestation of a wooden item by these larvae. The size of the varies, but are typically 1mm to 1. 5mm in diameter for the most common household species. Adult beetles which emerged from the wood may also be found in the summer months, typically the adult beetles lay eggs on, or just under the surface of, a wooden item. A building with a problem in the structure or furniture probably/possibly also has a problem with excess damp. The issue could be lack of ventilation in a roof space, whilst damp is a leading factor resulting in woodworm some species of woodboring insect, such as the Woodboring weevil, are only found in instances where fungal rot has already begun to occur. Woodworm infestation is generally controlled with chemical insecticides, however, it is also advisable to investigate and solve possible damp issues, as dry wood is not usually affected, and wood that remains damp may be re-infected at a later date. Additionally, there are freezing treatments, which are quite effective, low-oxygen treatment is effective, but very time consuming, up to eight weeks, and is often expensive. Anobiidae Bookworm List of common household pests Shipworm Woodboring beetle
36.
Hogging and sagging
–
Hogging and sagging describe the shape of a beam or similar long object when loading is applied. Hogging describes a beam which curves upwards in the middle, hogging is the stress a ships hull or keel experiences that causes the center or the keel to bend upward. Sagging is the stress a ships hull or keel is placed under when a wave is the length as the ship. This causes the middle of the ship to bend down slightly, sagging or dynamic hogging may have been what sank the Prestige off Spain on 19 November 2002. Hogging, or hog, also refers to the semi-permanent bend in the keel, especially in wooden-hulled ships, at the beginning of her 1992 refit, USS Constitution had over 13 inches of hog. The keel blocks in the drydock were set up especially to support this curve, during her three years in drydock, the center keel blocks were gradually shortened, allowing the hog to settle out. Additionally, the diagonal risers specified in her design to resist hogging. The similar-sized USS Constellation had 36 inches of hog before refitting, during loading and discharging cargo, ships bend due to the distribution of the weights in the various holds and tanks on board. This is taken into account when calculating cargo, by applying what is called a 3/4 mean draft and this is also called the two-thirds mean correction, directly derived from Simpsons first rule. Glossary of nautical terms Strength of ships Hog chains This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, constellations 1994 restoration article has several photos showing the hogging. Diagram showing hogging stress and the diagonal risers
37.
SS Archimedes
–
SS Archimedes was a steamship built in Britain in 1839. She is notable for being the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller, Archimedes had considerable influence on ship development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy, in addition to her influence on commercial vessels. The principle of moving water with a screw has been known since the invention of the Archimedes screw, in 1807, the worlds first commercially successful steam-powered vessel, Robert Fultons North River Steamboat, made its debut. As this vessel was powered by paddlewheels rather than a propeller, in 1835, two inventors in Britain, John Ericsson and Francis Pettit Smith, began working separately on the problem. Smith would subsequently file a patent in keeping with this accidental discovery. In the meantime, Ericsson was conducting his own experiments, in 1837, he built a 45-foot screw propelled steamboat, Francis B. Ogden, named after his patron, the American consul to Liverpool, in the summer of 1837, Ericsson demonstrated his boat on the Thames River to senior members of the British Admiralty, including Surveyor of the Navy Sir William Symonds. In spite of the boat achieving a speed of 10 miles an hour, comparable with that of existing paddle steamers, Symonds and his entourage were unimpressed. The Admiralty maintained the view that screw propulsion would be ineffective in ocean-going service, apparently aware of the Navys view that screw propellers would prove unsuitable for seagoing service, Smith determined to prove this assumption wrong. In September 1837, he took his vessel to sea, steaming from Blackwall, London to Hythe, Kent, with stops at Ramsgate, Dover. On the way back to London on the 25th, Smiths craft was observed making headway in stormy seas by officers of the Royal Navy. The Admiraltys interest in the technology was revived, and Smith was encouraged to build a full size ship to more conclusively demonstrate the technologys effectiveness. The companys proposed vessel was initially tentatively named Propeller, but the name adopted for the ship was Archimedes. Archimedes was built 1838, by Henry Wimshurst in London, according to F. P. Smith himself, the ship was constructed of English oak, but a later entry in Lloyds Register indicates that parts of the keel at least were of Baltic fir. The ship was 125 feet long, 22½ feet wide, and 237 tons burthen, built to a schooner pattern, with classic hull lines and a slender, raking funnel and masts, she was considered by contemporaries to be a beautiful vessel. Smith initially had some difficulty sourcing suitable engines for the ship, the twin engines supplied by the Rennies each had two 37-inch cylinders with a three-foot stroke, delivering a combined nominal horsepower of about 80, and an actual horsepower of about 60. The engines ran at 26 rpm, which through gearing drove the shaft at about 140 rpm. The boilers operated at a pressure of 6 psi, the engines were installed in early 1839, following the ships launch in October 1838
38.
Francis Pettit Smith
–
Sir Francis Pettit Smith was an English inventor and, along with John Ericsson, one of the inventors of the screw propeller. He was also the force behind the construction of the worlds first screw-propelled steamship. He was born at Hythe, Kent where his father was the postmaster, as a boy he had acquired great skill in the construction of model boats and took special interest in their means of propulsion. This fascination with boats remained with him and in 1834 on a reservoir near his farm and he became utterly convinced that this form of propulsion was greatly superior to the paddle wheel which was in use at the time. After securing the backing of several parties, he helped organize the Propeller Steamship Company which in 1839 built the worlds first successful screw-propelled steamship. He also helped persuade the British Admiralty to adopt screw propulsion, between 1864 and 1870 he resided in an elegant Victorian house at 17 Sydenham Hill SE26, near Crystal Palace Park, a fact noted on a Blue Plaque. In 1860 the government appointed him to the post of curator of the Patent Museum at South Kensington, in 1871 a knighthood was conferred upon him. Smith died at 15 Thurloe Place, South Kensington in February 1874, Smith married twice and had children by each marriage. Smith negotiated with the Governors of Dulwich College for the lease of a plot of land on Sydenham Hill where he built his house named Centra House in 1864, the house was designed by Charles Barry, Jr. In the grounds Smith had planted a considerable shrubbery and had use of woodlands down to College Road, a later resident added a Pulhamite fountain and small grotto to the rear of the residence and renamed the house Dilkoosh. It was later renamed to its present title – Fountain House
39.
Paddle wheel
–
A paddle wheel is a form of waterwheel or impeller in which a number of paddles are set around the periphery of the wheel. It has several uses, some of which are, Very low-lift water pumping, to move and mix algae culture in the raceway ponds used for algaculture. Propulsion of boats Low head hydro power Flow sensors Aerators The paddle wheel is an ancient invention but is used today in a wide range of industrial. The paddle wheel is a device for converting rotary motion of a shaft and linear motion of a fluid. In the linear-to-rotary direction, it is placed in a stream to convert the linear motion of the fluid into rotation of the wheel. This rotation can be used as a source of power, or as an indication of the speed of flow. In the rotary-to-linear direction, it is driven by a prime mover such as a motor or steam engine
40.
Scientific American
–
Scientific American is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein, have contributed articles in the past 170 years and it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Scientific American was founded by inventor and publisher Rufus M. Porter in 1845 as a weekly newspaper. Throughout its early years, much emphasis was placed on reports of what was going on at the U. S, current issues include a this date in history section, featuring excerpts from articles originally published 50,100, and 150 years earlier. Topics include humorous incidents, wrong-headed theories, and noteworthy advances in the history of science, Porter sold the publication to Alfred Ely Beach and Orson Desaix Munn a mere ten months after founding it. Until 1948, it remained owned by Munn & Company, under Munns grandson, Orson Desaix Munn III, it had evolved into something of a workbench publication, similar to the twentieth-century incarnation of Popular Science. In the years after World War II, the fell into decline. Thus the partners—publisher Gerard Piel, editor Dennis Flanagan, and general manager Donald H. Miller, Miller retired in 1979, Flanagan and Piel in 1984, when Gerard Piels son Jonathan became president and editor, circulation had grown fifteen-fold since 1948. In 1986, it was sold to the Holtzbrinck group of Germany, in the fall of 2008, Scientific American was put under the control of Nature Publishing Group, a division of Holtzbrinck. Donald Miller died in December 1998, Gerard Piel in September 2004, Mariette DiChristina is the current editor-in-chief, after John Rennie stepped down in June 2009. Scientific American published its first foreign edition in 1890, the Spanish-language La America Cientifica, a Russian edition V Mire Nauki was launched in the Soviet Union in 1983, and continues in the present-day Russian Federation. Kexue, a simplified Chinese edition launched in 1979, was the first Western magazine published in the Peoples Republic of China, founded in Chongqing, the simplified Chinese magazine was transferred to Beijing in 2001. Later in 2005, an edition, Global Science, was published instead of Kexue. A traditional Chinese edition, known as 科學人, was introduced to Taiwan in 2002, the Hungarian edition Tudomány existed between 1984 and 1992. In 1986, an Arabic edition, Oloom magazine, was published, in 2002, a Portuguese edition was launched in Brazil. From 1902 to 1911, Scientific American supervised the publication of the Encyclopedia Americana and it originally styled itself The Advocate of Industry and Enterprise and Journal of Mechanical and other Improvements. On the front page of the first issue was the engraving of Improved Rail-Road Cars, the masthead had a commentary as follows, Scientific American published every Thursday morning at No.11 Spruce Street, New York, No.16 State Street, Boston, and No. 2l Arcade Philadelphia, by Rufus Porter, five copies will be sent to one address six months for four dollars in advance
41.
Albert, Prince Consort
–
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
42.
British Royal Train
–
In the United Kingdom, the Royal Train is used to convey senior members of the British Royal Family and associated staff of the Royal Household around the railway network of Great Britain. It is formed from a set of claret liveried sleeper, dining. The current stock dates from 1977-1987 and they are arranged according to requirements, and stored when not in use. Many are now in museums or on heritage railways, the National Railway Museum in York has a themed exhibition. Dedicated locomotives have never traditionally been part of the Royal Train, first appearing in special livery only in the 1990s, in the 21st Century, various preserved steam locomotives have also hauled the train on special occasions. The first member of the British Royal Family to travel by train was Queen Dowager Adelaide who took a train from Nottingham to Leeds on 22 July 1840. Queen Victoria was the first British monarch to travel by train, on 13 June 1842 on the Great Western Railway, the train transported the Queen from Slough to Paddington, and was hauled by the locomotive Phlegethon driven by Daniel Gooch assisted by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The Queen used a Royal Saloon which had constructed by the Great Western Railway in 1840. The first carriage built for the use of a member of the British Royal Family was constructed in 1842 by the London. This carriage is now on display in the National Railway Museum in York, in 1869, Queen Victoria commissioned a pair of coaches for £1,800 with the London and North Western Railway. In 1874, the Great Western Railway built a new royal saloon at their Swindon works for the use of the Queen and it was constructed under the supervision of Joseph Armstrong. In 1897 they marked the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria by providing a new Royal Train of six coaches, until now, railway companies had provided special saloon carriages, but there was no regular Royal Train until this one was constructed. It replaced the GWR Royal carriage of 1874 which was re-fitted and lengthened to 53.5 feet, in 1877 the London and South Western Railway built a royal saloon for the use of the Queen. It was built at the workshop at Nine Elms and was 50 feet long. In 1899 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway provided a new train of five carriages, each 52 feet long, comprising the Royal saloon in the centre. In the matters of the decorations and furniture of the saloons the Company consulted their Royal Highnesses, whose choice rested on quiet, the chief woods employed are Karri pine, Cuba mahogany, and satinwood. Nearly sixty years later, after her funeral in 1901, Queen Victorias coffin was taken to London Paddington station, in 1902, her son Edward VII commissioned a new Royal saloons from the London and North Western Railway. They were built in the Wolverton railway works under the direction of C. A, two saloons were provided, one for the King and one for the Queen
43.
Guard of honour
–
An honor guard, or ceremonial guard, is a ceremonial unit, usually military in nature. A primary role for honor guards in the United States and some countries is to provide funeral honors for fallen comrades. An honor guard may also serve as the guardians of the colors by displaying and escorting the national flag on ceremonial occasions at official state functions, finally, honor guards usually provide detachments for review by visiting heads of state. Honor guards also serve in the world for fallen police officers. Persons serving in this capacity may or may not be designated, meaning they may not be assigned to serve each, in the USA, military honor guards may serve as ambassadors to the public, presenting a positive image of their service, and assisting with the recruiting effort. In member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a guard mounted for ceremonial events is known as a guard of honour. Still serving as part of the Argentine Army, they are the presidential guard, two unmounted grenadiers are stationed in front of the Pink House as a symbol of the ceremonial and honor guard. The Brazilian armed forces and police have several troops for ceremonial usages, the most important of them is the Brazilian presidents honor guard. It is composed of the 1st Guards Cavalry Regiment – Independence Dragoons, the Presidential Guard Battalion, National Guards Unit includes military units for army salute ceremonials, a band and a wind orchestra. They marched as the first division in the parade of the 35th, 50th. They are often on parades led by a guard detail carrying the PLA flag. It is stationed at the Casa de Nariño in Bogota and carries the traditions of Simon Bolivars infantry guards company raised in the midst of the Spanish American wars of independence in 1815, in Croatia, the Honor Guard Battalion serves as the guard of honor. The Honor Guard Battalion performs protocol tasks for the needs of state and military officials, as well as tasks related to the protection. It consist of up to 300 members, the unit is under direct command of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. The Republican Guard of the French Gendarmerie provides both foot and horse-mounted guards of honor, in addition, the Wachbataillon takes part in military events and ceremonies of major importance. In Greece, the Presidential Guard is a unit of the Greek Army having the privilege to guard the Monument of the Unknown Soldier. Its members, mostly known as Evzones must be taller than 1. 85m and are trained hard as their duty includes standing completely still for more than an hour 4 times a day. They are famous for their discipline, the ability to stand motionless without even blinking, their stylish walking
_21_332_1_Das_vom_Stapellaufen_des_Great-Britain.PNG)
