1.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
2.
Riot control
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Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
3.
War on drugs
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However, two years prior to this, Nixon had formally declared a war on drugs that would be directed toward eradication, interdiction, and incarceration. Today, the Drug Policy Alliance, which advocates for an end to the War on Drugs, oNDCPs view is that drug addiction is a disease that can be successfully prevented and treated. Making drugs more available will make it harder to keep our communities healthy, one of the alternatives that Kerlikowske has showcased is the drug policy of Sweden, which seeks to balance public health concerns with opposition to drug legalization. The prevalence rates for use in Sweden are barely one-fifth of those in Spain. The report was criticized by organizations that oppose a general legalization of drugs, the first U. S. law that restricted the distribution and use of certain drugs was the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914. The first local laws came as early as 1860, in 1919, the United States passed the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol, with exceptions for religious and medical use. In 1920, the United States passed the National Prohibition Act, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics was established in the United States Department of the Treasury by an act of June 14,1930. In 1933, the prohibition for alcohol was repealed by passage of the 21st Amendment. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt publicly supported the adoption of the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act, the New York Times used the headline Roosevelt Asks Narcotic War Aid. In 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was passed, several scholars have claimed that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry, largely as an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family. These scholars argue that with the invention of the decorticator, hemp became a cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry. These scholars believe that Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings, however, there were circumstances that contradict these claims. One reason for doubts about those claims is that the new decorticators did not perform satisfactorily in commercial production. To produce fiber from hemp was a process if you include harvest, transport. Technological developments decreased the labor with hemp but not sufficient to eliminate this disadvantage, the Nixon campaign in 1968, and the Nixon White House after that, had two enemies, the antiwar left and black people. We could arrest their leaders, raid their homes, break up their meetings, did we know we were lying about the drugs. - John Ehrlichman, to Dan Baum for Harpers Magazine in 1994, about President Richard Nixons war on drugs, in 1973, the Drug Enforcement Administration was created to replace the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs. The Nixon Administration also repealed the federal 2–10-year mandatory minimum sentences for possession of marijuana and started federal demand reduction programs and drug-treatment programs
4.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Search warrant
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In most countries a search warrant cannot be issued in aid of civil process. The laws usually make an exception for hot pursuit, an officer following a criminal who has fled the scene of a crime has the right to enter a property where the criminal has sought shelter. This contrasts with authoritarian regimes, where police typically can search property, in the England and Wales, a local magistrate issues search warrants, which require that a constable provide evidence that supports the warrant application. Under Section 18a of PACE, a constable can conduct a search immediately without an inspectors authorisation and this subsection allows a constable to search the home of a suspect under arrest in their presence before they take the suspect to a police station. Under Section 32 of PACE, a constable who arrests a person who is on their own property or has just left their premises, Search warrants must be signed by a Sheriff after a petition from police. Gas company officials may enter a home to inspect, repair, or replace gas meters and this hearing is ex parte meaning only the crown is present. This fact obliges the police to include any facts that hurt their application. After a search the occupant will have a copy of the warrant, if these requirements are not met by the police the evidence found may become admissible against the accused at trial. Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, most police searches require a warrant based on probable cause. Under the Fourth Amendment, searches must be reasonable and specific and this means that a search warrant must specify the object to search for and the place to search for it. Other items, rooms, outbuildings, persons, vehicles, etc. may require additional search warrants, to obtain a search warrant, an officer must prove to a magistrate or judge that probable cause exists based upon direct information or hearsay information. Police can seize property and persons under a search warrant. The standard for a warrant is lower than the quantum of proof required for a later conviction. In the United States, the issue of federal warrants is determined under Title 18 of the United States Code, the law has been restated and extended under Rule 41 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Federal search warrants may be prepared on Form AO93, Search, each state also enacts its own laws governing the issuance of search warrants. This doctrine is not actually an exception to the Fourth Amendment, balanced against the sovereigns interests at the border are the Fourth Amendment rights of entrants. This balance at international borders means that routine searches are reasonable there, certain cases dont require a search warrant, such as where a person in control of the object or property gives consent. Some commonly cited exigent circumstances are, hot pursuit of a felon, imminent destruction of evidence before a warrant can be obtained, emergency searches
7.
Narcotic
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The term narcotic originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties. In the United States, it has become associated with opiates and opioids, commonly morphine and heroin. The primary three are morphine, codeine, and thebaine, legally speaking, the term narcotic is imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations. When used in a context in the U. S. a narcotic drug is simply one that is totally prohibited, or one that is used in violation of governmental regulation. In the medical community, the term is more precisely defined, statutory classification of a drug as a narcotic often increases the penalties for violation of drug control statutes. The adoption of this Convention is regarded as a milestone in the history of drug law. The Convention also established the International Narcotics Control Board, merging the Permanent Central Board, the 1961 Convention seeks to control more than 116 drugs that it classifies as narcotic. These include, plant-based products such as opium and its derivatives morphine, codeine and heroin, synthetic narcotics such as methadone and pethidine, and cannabis, coca and cocaine. The Convention divides drugs into four groups, or schedules, in order to enforce a greater or lesser degree of control for the various substances, opium smoking and eating, coca leaf chewing, cannabis resin smoking and the non-medical use of cannabis are prohibited. In medicine, an agent that induces stupor, coma. In the context of drug control, “narcotic drug” means any drug defined as such under the 1961 Convention. In doing so, they approach the term from the law enforcement point of view, the best example is the definition of narcotics in the United Nations Conventions. Narcotics are substances and preparations that induce drowsiness, sleep, stupor, insensibility, etc. thus, the legal definition of a narcotic is whether or not it is listed on the Schedules of the Convention. If it is on some of the Schedules, it is narcotic, the term usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. In common parlance and legal usage, it is often used imprecisely to mean illicit drugs, for example, narcotics control legislation in Canada, USA, and certain other countries includes cocaine and cannabis as well as opioids. Because of this variation in usage, the term is best replaced by one with a specific meaning. Such term does not include the isoquinoline alkaloids of opium, poppy straw and concentrate of poppy straw. Coca leaves, except coca leaves and extracts of leaves from which cocaine, ecgonine
8.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
9.
Crowd control
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Crowd control is a public security practice where large crowds are managed to prevent the outbreak of crowd crushes, affray, fights involving drunk and disorderly people or riots. Crowd crushes in particular can cause many hundreds of fatalities, crowd control can involve privately hired security guards as well as police officers. Crowd control is used at large, public gatherings like street fairs, music festivals, stadiums. At some events, security guards and police use metal detectors and sniffer dogs to prevent weapons, materials such as stanchions, crowd control barriers, fences and decals painted on the ground can be used to direct a crowd. Keeping the crowd comfortable and relaxed is also essential, so things like awnings, cooling fans, for controlling riots and demonstrations, see riot control. Specific products that are used to implement line management and public guidance in high traffic areas include retractable belt systems, post and rope systems are also popular, especially in banks and theaters. A crowd controller is also name for a bouncer or doorman
10.
Submachine gun
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A submachine gun is a magazine-fed, automatic carbine designed to fire pistol cartridges. The term submachine gun was coined by John T. Thompson, the submachine gun was developed during World War I. At its zenith during World War II, millions of SMGs were made, after the war, new SMG designs appeared frequently. However, by the 1980s, SMG usage decreased, today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault rifles, which have a greater effective range and are capable of penetrating the helmets and body armor used by modern infantrymen. Carbine-type automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed during the stages of World War I by Italy, Germany. Their improved firepower and portability offered an advantage in trench warfare, in 1915, the Italians introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft machine gun. It fired pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun and this odd design was then modified into the Beretta OVP carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the Beretta Model 1918 after the end of World War I. Both the Beretta OVP and the Model 1918 had a wooden stock, a 25-round top-fed box magazine. The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08 pistol equipped with a larger-capacity snail-drum magazine, by 1918, Bergmann Waffenfabrik had developed the MP18, the first practical submachine gun. This weapon fired the 9×19mm Parabellum round and used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine as the Luger P-08, the MP18 was used in significant numbers by German stormtroopers employing infiltration tactics, achieving some notable successes in the final year of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent Germanys collapse in November 1918, after World War I, the MP18 would evolve into the MP28/II SMG, which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, a semi & full auto selector, and other minor improvements. The Thompson submachine gun had been in development at approximately the time as the Bergmann. However, the war ended before prototypes could be shipped to Europe, although it had missed its chance to be the first purpose-designed submachine gun to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons and had the longest active service life of the three. However, the FBI and other U. S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use, eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted by many military organizations, especially as World War II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs. The Italians were among the first to develop submachine guns during World War I, however, they were slow to produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model 1938 was not available in numbers until 1943. The 38 was made in a series of improved and simplified models all sharing the same basic layout. The Beretta has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear for full-auto, most models use standard wooden stocks, although some models were fitted with an MP 40-style under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the German SMG
11.
Assault rifle
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An assault rifle is a selective-fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine. Assault rifles were first used during World War II, examples include the StG44, AK-47 and the M16 rifle. However, other sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the production order, the StG44 is generally considered the first selective fire military rifle to popularize the assault rifle concept. Today, the assault rifle is used to define firearms sharing the same basic characteristics as the StG44. The U. S. Army defines assault rifles as short, compact, in a strict definition, a firearm must have at least the following characteristics to be considered an assault rifle, It must be capable of selective fire. It must have a cartridge, more power than a pistol. Its ammunition must be supplied from a box magazine. It must have a range of at least 300 metres. Rifles that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are not assault rifles. For example, Select-fire M2 Carbines are not assault rifles, their range is only 200 yards. Select-fire rifles such as the FN FAL battle rifle are not assault rifles, semi-automatic-only rifles like variants of the Colt AR-15 are not assault rifles, they do not have select-fire capabilities. Semi-auto rifles with fixed magazines like the SKS are not assault rifles, selective fire rifles like the Fedorov Avtomat which in hindsight could be classified as prototypical assault rifles. However,6. 5x50mm Arisaka is still very much a full-powered rifle cartridge and they would soon develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the range and accuracy of a rifle. The result was the Sturmgewehr 44, which the Germans produced in large numbers and it fired a new and revolutionary intermediate powered cartridge, the 7. 92×33mm Kurz. This new cartridge was developed by shortening the standard 7. 92×57mm Mauser round and giving it a lighter 125-grain bullet, a smaller lighter cartridge also allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition to support the higher consumption rate of automatic fire. The Sturmgewehr 44 features an inexpensive, easy-to-make, stamped steel design and this weapon was the prototype of all successful automatic rifles. The barrel and overall length were shorter than a traditional rifle, on July 15,1943, a Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the Peoples Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets soon developed the 7. 62×39mm M43 cartridge, the semi-automatic SKS carbine, shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 assault rifle, which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service
12.
Breaching round
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A breaching round or slug-shot is a shotgun shell specially made for door breaching. Breaching rounds are designed to destroy door deadbolts, locks, and hinges without risking lives by ricocheting or by flying on at lethal speed through the door, as traditional buckshot can. These frangible rounds are made of a sintered material, often metal powder in a binder such as wax. They are used by military and SWAT teams to quickly force entry into a locked room, amongst police, these rounds are nicknamed master keys, and their use is known as Avon calling. The most effective use of round is with a stand-off breacher attached to the muzzle of a specially converted shotgun. The stand-off is held on the surface of the door and vents gases to prevent overpressure, though designed not to endanger people behind or around a door, a breaching round is easily lethal if fired directly at a human target. Examples of breaching rounds are, Royal Arms has made the Tesar round for over 25 years using a frangible copper slug of various weights and they are known as Tesar rounds and used by many military and law enforcement agencies around the world. The US military M1030 breaching round, a 12 gauge 2¾ inch shell which uses a 40 gram projectile made of powdered steel, the Clucas MoE Hatton Round, a 12-gauge 3-inch magnum shell which uses a 43 gram frangible projectile, consisting of a high density wax binder
13.
Sniper rifle
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A sniper rifle is a man-portable, high precision, shoulder-fired rifle, for military or law enforcement use, designed to ensure more accurate shooting at longer ranges than other small arms. A typical sniper rifle is built for high levels of accuracy, fitted with a telescopic sight, the military role of a sniper dates back to the turn of the 18th century, but the true sniper rifle is a much more recent development. Some sniper rifles are based on the designs of standard rifles, the Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world. His rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, at trials in 1857, which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworths design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. Also, the Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of 2,000 yards, during the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a distance than ever before. The telescopic sight, or scope, was fixed and could not be adjusted. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having effective ranges of up to a mile away from its target. During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazine, the British were equipped with the Lee–Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa, the marksman was a component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 that was renowned for the expert marksmanship, the men wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that men never lived. After the Boer War, the Scouts became the first official unit in the British Army. It was not until World War I that sniper rifles began to be used regularly in battle. In Germany, these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, german gunsmiths fitted the scope above the barrel for optimal accuracy. During the War, the accuracy of the rifle was greatly improved. By the end of World War II snipers were reported to provide reasonable accuracy over 600 m with anything over this range being unpredictable
14.
Stun grenade
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A stun grenade, also known as a flash grenade, flashbang or sound bomb or Braquo, is a non-lethal explosive device used to temporarily disorient an enemys senses. It is designed to produce a flash of light and an intensely loud bang of greater than 170 decibels without causing permanent injury. It was first used by the British Armys SAS in the late 1970s, the flash produced momentarily activates all photoreceptor cells in the eye, making vision impossible for approximately five seconds, until the eye restores itself to its normal, unstimulated state. An afterimage will also be visible for a time, impairing the victims ability to aim with precision. The loud blast is meant to temporary loss of hearing. The concussive blast of the detonation can still injure, and the heat created can ignite flammable materials such as fuel, the fires that occurred during the Iranian Embassy siege in London were caused by stun grenades. The filler consists of a pyrotechnic metal-oxidant mix of magnesium or aluminum, although stun grenades are usually designed to be non-lethal, several injuries and deaths have been officially attributed to their use. The flashbang grenades police used in the set the home on fire. Police said they were no one was inside, and so, at first. Smalley and Weiss died of smoke inhalation and her family eventually won a $1.6 million civil suit against the city. In February 2010, police in Minneapolis, Minnesota, raided the apartment of Rickia Russell looking for drugs, while Russell was eating dinner with her boyfriend, police threw a flashbang grenade after breaching the door. The exploding flashbang gave Rickia 3rd degree burns on both calves, and burns to her head, no drugs were found in Russells apartment and the Minneapolis City Council agreed to pay $1 million in damages. In January 2011, a California man named Rogelio Serrato died of smoke inhalation after a grenade launched by a police SWAT team ignited a fire in his home. The man was believed to have been hiding in the attic when the fire broke out, in February 2011, a North Carolina SWAT police officer was injured at his home when a stun grenade accidentally detonated while he was attempting to secure his equipment. He underwent emergency surgery, but later died of his injuries, in January 2014, a man was severely injured during rioting caused by the 2014 Ukrainian revolution after he attempted to pick up a live, undetonated stun grenade. The grenade detonated seconds before he could reach it, the explosion caused damage to his right hand and arm, leading to the loss of most of his fingers, as well as heavy blood loss. As of February 2014, the condition is unknown. However, a video of it has been uploaded to LiveLeak, on May 28,2014, a 19-month-old baby boys face was severely burned and mutilated when a stun grenade was thrown into his playpen by a SWAT team looking for drugs in a Cornelia, Georgia home
15.
Body armor
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Body armor or Body armour, or personal armor/armour is protective clothing, designed to absorb and/or deflect slashing, bludgeoning and penetrating attacks by weapons. It was historically used to military personnel, whereas today, it is also used to protect various types of police, private citizens. Many factors have affected the development of personal armor throughout human history, significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological necessities of armor production. For instance full plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper, with the development of capitalism and technological advancements armor became more available to the lower classes often at a cost of quality. Eastern armor has a history, spanning several thousand years. The oldest known Western armor is the Dendra panoply, dating from the Mycenaean Era around 1400 BC, mail, also referred to as chainmail, is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It is believed to have been invented by Celtic people in Europe about 500 BC, most cultures who used mail used the Celtic word Byrnne or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. The Romans widely adopted mail as the lorica hamata, although they made use of lorica segmentata. While no non-metallic armor survives, a linen laminate known as linothorax is repeatedly mentioned in ancient Greek sources, in East Asian history laminated armor such as lamellar, and styles similar to the coat of plates, and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used, in pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the late 13th century, the knees were capped, a variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armorers seemingly experimented. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces, the coat of plates was developed, an armor made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat. Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th to 15th centuries were made of iron, Iron armor could be carburized or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate, the small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century to replace the great helm, such as the sallet and barbute and later the armet and close helm. By about 1400 the full harness of plate armor had been developed in armories of Lombardy Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armor
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Ballistic shield
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The most capable of hand-carried ballistic shields will reliably defeat high-velocity centerfire rifle calibers at muzzle velocities. Although perhaps better described as rather than shields, wheel-mounted rolling armored panels pushed along the ground by users are now being sold as a type of ballistic shield. Recent advances in science have resulted in more efficient bullet protective composites. Mission compatibility is an important consideration when determining which shield design is most appropriate to provide protection against the anticipated threat, or will policy dictate purely defensive shield usage such as perimeter establishment, observation, and slow clearing operations. There is no one size fits all shield design solution to all potential uses and possible threats to a ballistic shield. Many modern hand-carried ballistic shields provide clear armored viewing visors, lighting systems, kickstands, carrying straps, other designs are more basic and provide only a simple armor panel bolted onto a handle
17.
Vehicle armour
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Military vehicles are commonly armoured to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, missiles or shells, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft and ships, civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by reporters, officials and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common, armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo. Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space junk, the design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, rolled homogeneous armour is strong, hard, and tough. Steel with these characteristics is produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size, rolling and forging irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Aluminium is used when weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars, wrought iron was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 13 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one meter of solid wood, titanium is roughly the weight of aluminium, but as strong as iron. So despite being rather expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour, because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940, the original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the backing plate. Bulletproof glass is a term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour, bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, the polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance
18.
Night vision device
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A night vision device, also known as a night optical/observation device, is an optoelectronic device that allows images to be produced in levels of light approaching total darkness. The image may be a conversion to light of both visible light and near-infrared, while by convention detection of thermal infrared is denoted thermal imaging. The image produced is typically monochrome, e. g. shades of green, NVDs are most often used by the military and law enforcement agencies, but are available to civilian users. The term usually refers to a unit, including an image intensifier tube, a protective and generally water-resistant housing. Many NVDs also include components such as a sacrificial lens. An NVD may have an IR illuminator, making it an active as opposed to passive night vision device, Night vision devices were first used in World War II and came into wide use during the Vietnam War. The technology has evolved greatly since their introduction, leading to several generations of night vision equipment with performance increasing, consequently, they are available for a wide range of applications, e. g. for gunners, drivers and aviators. The classification below was introduced by the US manufacturers through the US government. Other manufacturers do not abide by it, in 1929, Hungarian physicist Kálmán Tihanyi invented the infrared-sensitive electronic television camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain. The first military night vision devices were introduced by the German army as early as 1939, the first devices were being developed by AEG starting in 1935. In mid-1943, first tests with infrared night-vision devices and telescopic rangefinders mounted on Panther started, two different arrangements / solutions were created and used on Panther tanks. Solution A - Sperber FG1250, with range up to 600m, was made up of one 30 cm infrared searchlight and this was matched by an earlier experimental Russian version dubbed the PAU-2 and was field tested in 1942. From late 1944 to March 1945, some Panzerkampfwagen V Panther Ausf G mounted with FG1250, were successfully tested, by the end of World War II, the German Reich had equipped approximately 50 Panther tanks, which saw combat on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. The Vampir man-portable system for infantrymen was being used with Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles, parallel development of night vision systems occurred in the USA. The M1 and M3 infrared night sighting devices, also known as the sniperscope or snooperscope, were introduced by the US Army in World War II and they were active devices, using a large infrared light source to illuminate targets. Vladimir K. Zworykin working for the Radio Corporation of America, zworykins idea came from a former radio guided-missile. At that time infra-red was commonly called black light, a term later restricted to ultraviolet and it was not a success due to its size and cost. First generation passive devices, introduced during the Vietnam War, were an adaptation of earlier active GEN0 technology, using an S-20 photocathode, their image intensifiers produce a light amplification of around 1, 000×, but are quite bulky and require moonlight to function properly
19.
Motion detector
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A motion detector is a device that detects moving objects, particularly people. Such a device is integrated as a component of a system that automatically performs a task or alerts a user of motion in an area. They form a component of security, automated lighting control, home control, energy efficiency. An electronic motion detector contains an optical, microwave, or acoustic sensor, changes in the optical, microwave, or acoustic field in the devices proximity are interpreted by the electronics based on one of the technologies listed below. Most low-cost motion detectors can detect up to distances of at least 15 feet, specialized systems cost more, but have much longer ranges. Motion detectors have found use in domestic and commercial applications. One common application is activating automatic door openers in businesses and public buildings, Motion sensors are also widely used in lieu of a true occupancy sensor in activating street lights or indoor lights in walkways, such as lobbies and staircases. In such smart lighting systems, energy is conserved by only powering the lights for the duration of a timer, after which the person has left the area. A motion detector may be among the sensors of an alarm that is used to alert the home owner or security service when it detects the motion of a possible intruder. Such a detector may also trigger a security camera to record the possible intrusion, no energy is emitted from the sensor, thus the name passive infrared. This distinguishes it from the eye for instance, in which the crossing of a person or vehicle interrupts a visible or infrared beam. Microwave These detect motion through the principle of Doppler radar, and are similar to a speed gun. Ultrasonic An ultrasonic wave is emitted and reflections from objects are received. Exactly as in Doppler radar, heterodyne detection of the field indicates motion. The detected doppler shift is also at low audio frequencies since the wavelength of around a centimeter is similar to the wavelengths used in microwave motion detectors. One potential drawback of ultrasonic sensors is that the sensor can be sensitive to motion in areas where coverage is undesired, for instance, such extended coverage may be desirable for lighting control, where the goal is detection of any occupancy in an area. But for opening a door, for example, a sensor selective to traffic in the path toward the door is superior. Tomographic motion detector These systems sense disturbances to radio waves as they pass from node to node of a mesh network and they have the ability to detect over large areas completely because they can sense through walls and other obstructions
20.
Hostage
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A hostage is a person or entity which is held by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against war. A person who seizes one or more hostages is known as a hostage-taker, if the hostages are present voluntarily, then the receiver is known as a host. These obligations would be in the form of signing of a peace treaty and this would eventually influence them culturally and open the way for an amicable political line if they ascended to power after release. This caused the element gīsl = hostage in many old Germanic personal names, the practice was also commonplace in the Imperial Chinese tributary system, especially between the Han and Tang dynasties. The practice continued through the early Middle Ages, the Irish High King Niall of the Nine Hostages got his epithet Noígiallach because, by taking nine petty kings hostage, he had subjected nine other principalities to his power. This practice was adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India. The practice of taking hostages as security for the out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. In France, after the revolution of Prairial, the law of hostages was passed. Relatives of émigrés were taken from disturbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, the law only resulted in an increase in the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal with the insurrection in Lombardy, another case where hostages have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject of much discussion. The measure seems to have been effective, in 1900 during the Second Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria, Lord Roberts adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards it was abandoned. The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its occupation, took hostages as security against outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. It may be noticed, however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy, the regulations, however do not allude to the practice of taking hostage. In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune and it was an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valrien on the 4 April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21 May. Taking hostages is today considered a crime or an act of terrorism, the criminal activity is known as kidnapping. An acute situation where hostages are kept in a building or a vehicle that has taken over by armed terrorists or common criminals is often called a hostage crisis. Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions states that the taking of hostages during a conflict is a war crime and shall remain prohibited at any time
21.
LAPD Metropolitan Division
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The Los Angeles Police Department Metropolitan Division, also known as Metro, is an elite division within the Los Angeles Police Department. The Metro Division, which also contains LAPDs Special Weapons and Tactics team, Metro Division developed from a compact, mobile crime-fighting team formed by Chief James E. Davis in 1933. Named the Reserve Unit, it was formed to work throughout Los Angeles to specifically suppress criminal activity, by 1968 the unit was expanded from 70 officers to approximately 200 officers. In 1997, following the North Hollywood bank robbery, numbers were increased to approximately 350 sworn officers and 16 civilian support personnel, the Reserve Unit was originally based out of Room 114 at Parker Center, the LAPDs headquarters. The code number 114 is used today to refer to the Metropolitan Division, Metro is now based at LAPDs Central Facilities Building. The Operations Platoon performs the administrative and support functions, “A, B, C, and G Platoons are primarily responsible for crime suppression. Special Weapons and Tactics, “D” Platoon personnel, respond to situations involving barricaded suspects or hostages. “K-9” Platoon and “E” Platoon makes up the remainder of the Division, the Division also maintains a doctor, crisis negotiators and other specialists in weaponry, computer science, and audio-visual technology. A, B, C, E, H, G, M platoon serves as the command and administrative section and also provides the support function for the Division. Additionally, the Crime Analysis and Deployment Detail utilizes automated repressible crime information citywide to determine Metro deployment in identified high-risk areas, in addition, this platoon is in charge of the armory that maintains all of Metro’s equipment. This includes millions of dollars worth of specialized vehicles, weapons, ammunition, a, B, C, and G platoons are tasked with crowd control, riot control, tactical support elements, protection details, counter-assault teams, and crime suppression. Their most active function is maintaining selective enforcement details in high crime areas and targeting repeat offenders. Particular efforts are directed to the suppression of burglary, robbery, auto theft, a, B, C, and G Platoons often serve high risk search warrants. During most of the details and high profile events within the city. Rapid deployment, surprise, extensive training and thorough planning are all parts of successful SWAT operations. SWAT currently operates the Lenco B. E. A. R. the E Platoon serves as both the LAPDs mounted police unit and the reserve unit of the Special Operations Bureau. The E platoon began as a volunteer/reserve officer program and was integrated into the Department in 1988. The platoon currently has 32 horses and is located in a state-of-the-art Ahmanson Equestrian Facility, officers and their horses deploy on City streets or during special events and add to the Department’s professional image
22.
Philadelphia Police Department
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The Philadelphia Police Department is the police agency responsible for law enforcement and investigations within the City of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The PPD is the oldest municipal police agency, fourth largest police force, since records were first kept in 1828, at least 270 PPD officers have died in the line of duty. The PPD employs over 6,400 sworn officers and over 800 civilian personnel, the highest-ranking officer is Commissioner Richard Ross. The head of the PPD is the commissioner, who is appointed by the mayor, the current commissioner is Richard Ross. Under the commissioner are two deputy commissioners. The First Deputy Commissioner heads Field Operations, the Deputy Commissioner and Chief Administrative Officer heads Organizational Services, Strategy, and Innovation. The Office of Field Operations is headed by the three-star First Deputy Commissioner of Field Operations, the force comprises two commands, Patrol Operations and, Specialized Operations and Homeland Security, each command is headed by a two-star Deputy Commissioner. The Office of Organizational Services, Strategy, and Innovation is headed by the three-star Deputy Commissioner and Chief Administrative Officer, Patrol Operations is headed by a two-star Deputy Commissioner of Patrol Operations, currently Kevin Bethel, who oversees both the patrol and detective units. Patrol Operations is divided into two commands, Regional Operations Command and Regional Operations Command. Each regional command is headed by an inspector, and is subdivided into three divisions. Each division is headed by an inspector, a division comprises three or four districts, there are 21 patrol districts in all, and each district is headed by a captain. Each district is subdivided into three or four police service areas, each headed by a lieutenant, for a total of 64 PSAs citywide, in January 2013, Commissioner Ramsey announced changes to the command structure of the department lowering the number of deputy commissioners from 9 to 6. Ramsey only replaced one of the deputies who was promoted from staff inspector of the Internal Affairs Bureau to deputy commissioner of the Office of Professional Responsibility, the beginnings of the mounted unit can be traced to the Fairmount Park Mounted Guard created in 1867. In 1889 the Philadelphia Police Mounted Patrol Unit was established, the Philadelphia Police unit survived until 1952, however, the Fairmount Park unit would be used for parades and crowd control measures. The Fairmount Park Mounted Guard became the Fairmount Park Police in 1966, in 1972, Mayor Frank Rizzo found it unnecessary for taxpayers to fund two separate police departments, and merged the Fairmount Park Police into the Philadelphia Police, creating the Park Division. The mounted unit was again used to patrol the streets of Philadelphia. The mounted unit survived to celebrate 100 years in 1989, but was disbanded in 2004 due to cuts by Mayor John F. On July 18,2008, Philadelphia Police Commissioner Charles H. Ramsey confirmed that plans are in the works to recreate the mounted unit
23.
Bank robbery
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For the song by The Clash, see Bankrobber. Bank robbery is the crime of stealing money from a bank, while bank employees and customers are subjected to force, violence. This most commonly refers to robbery of a branch as opposed to other bank-owned property, such as a train, armored car. By contrast, burglary is defined as, unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft, Bank robbery is defined as entering a bank when it is open and obtaining money from the teller either by using force or the threat of force. Breaking into a bank when it is closed is burglary, Bank robbery occurs in cities and towns. This concentration is often attributed to there being more branches in urban areas and this has advantages both for bank robbers and for law enforcement. In urban areas the transportation infrastructure is highly developed, especially where banks tend to cluster near retail shopping areas. Such banks are highly profitable targets for robbers, who are then afforded a number of escape routes. Law enforcement benefit by being able to more quickly. Consequently, many bank robbers are caught the same day, the clearance rate for bank robbery is among the highest of all crimes, at nearly 60%. The urban location of the crime also contributes to its repeat victimization profile, the Australian Institute of Criminology analyzed trends in bank robbery over a four-year period. Unarmed gangs inflicted the most injuries to victims and failed the least in their robbery attempts, armed robbers used a disguise more often compared to unarmed robbers, with armed pairs employing disguises most often. According to the Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics injuries occur in about two percent and a death occurs in less than one percent of all U. S. bank robberies, violent takeover bank robberies that are often portrayed in the media are rare. The majority of bank robberies taking place today are so-called note jobs and these are usually accomplished by simply passing a written note to the teller demanding money. The idea is to attract as little attention as possible, in most cases, other customers present in the bank during a robbery are unaware of what is occurring. Standard bank policy is to avoid violence as much as possible, so they will hand over the money. The robber usually makes away with cash, but in small amounts, according to British Bankers Association data, in 2007 there were 106 attempted or successful robberies in Britain in which an average of 1.6 persons were involved. According to the New York Times and the Saturday Evening Post, two men, James Honeyman and William J. Murray, entered the City Bank of New York using forged keys
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Los Angeles Police Department
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The Los Angeles Police Department, officially the City of Los Angeles Police Department, is the law enforcement agency for the city of Los Angeles, California, United States. With 9,843 officers and 2,773 civilian staff, it is the third-largest municipal police department in the United States, after the New York City Police Department, the department serves an area of 498 square miles and a population of 4,030,904 people. The LAPD has been fictionalized in numerous movies, novels, the department has also been associated with a number of controversies, mainly concerned with racism, police brutality, and police corruption. The first specific Los Angeles police force was founded in 1853, as the Los Angeles Rangers, the Rangers were soon succeeded by the Los Angeles City Guards, another volunteer group. Neither force was particularly efficient and Los Angeles became known for its violence, gambling, the first paid force was created in 1869, when six officers were hired to serve under City Marshal William C. Warren. By 1900, under John M. Glass, there were 70 officers, in 1903, with the start of the Civil Service, this force was increased to 200. During World War II, under Clemence B, horrall, the overall number of personnel was depleted by the demands of the military. Despite efforts to maintain numbers, the police could do little to control the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots, Parker advocated police professionalism and autonomy from civilian administration. However, the Bloody Christmas scandal in 1951 led to calls for civilian accountability, under Parker, LAPD created the first SWAT team in United States law enforcement. Officer John Nelson and then-Inspector Daryl Gates created the program in 1965 to deal with threats from radical organizations such as the Black Panther Party operating during the Vietnam War era. The old headquarters for the LAPD was Parker Center, named former chief William H. Parker. The new headquarters is the new Police Administration Building located at 100 W. 1st St. immediately south of Los Angeles City Hall, the Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners also known as the Police Commission, is a five-member body of appointed officials which oversees the LAPD. The board is responsible for setting policies for the department and overseeing the LAPDs overall management, the Chief of Police reports to the board, but the rest of the department reports to the chief. The Office of the Inspector General is an independent part of the LAPD that has oversight over the department’s internal disciplinary process and it was created by the recommendation of the Christopher Commission and it is exempt from civil service and reports directly to the Board of Police Commissioners. The current Inspector General is Alexander A. Bustamante who was formerly an Assistant United States Attorney, the OIG receives copies of every complaint filed against members of the LAPD as well as tracking specific cases along with any resultant litigation. The OIG also conducts audits on select investigations and conducts regular reviews of the system in order to ensure fairness. As well as overseeing the LAPDs disciplinary process, the Inspector General may undertake special investigations as directed by the Board of Police Commissioners, the Office of the Chief of Police is the administrative office comprising the Chief of Staff and the Employee Relations Group. The majority of the LAPDs approximately 10,000 officers are assigned within the Office of Operations, an Assistant Chief, currently First Assistant Chief Michel Moore, commands the office, and reports directly to the chief of police
25.
Daryl Gates
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Daryl Gates was the Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department from 1978 to 1992. His length of tenure was only to that of William H. Parker. As chief of police, he took a hardline, aggressive, Gates is co-credited with the creation of SWAT teams with LAPDs John Nelson, who others claim was the originator of SWAT in 1965. Gates also co-founded D. A. R. E along with the Los Angeles Unified School District, after the Rodney King beating and the riots afterward, Gates retired from the police department. Gates was born in Glendale, California, to a Mormon mother and he grew up in Glendale and Highland Park, in the northeastern part of Los Angeles. The Great Depression affected his life, his father was an alcoholic. Gates graduated from Franklin High School in Highland Park, and joined the U. S. Navy in time to see action in the Pacific Theater during World War II. After leaving the U. S. Navy, he attended Pasadena City College and married his first wife and he went on to take pre-law classes at the University of Southern California. Gates joined the LAPD on September 16,1949, among his roles as an officer, he was picked to be the chauffeur for Chief William H. Parker. Gates often remarked that he gained many administrative and professional insights from Parker during the hours spent together each day. Gates worked hard to prepare for his exams, scoring first in the sergeants exam. On his promotion to lieutenant, he rejoined Chief Parker as Parkers executive officer and he was promoted to captain, responsible for intelligence. By the time of the Watts riots in 1965 he was an inspector, on March 28,1978, Gates became the 49th Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department. Gates, considered the father of SWAT, established the unit in order to deal with hostage rescue and extreme situations involving armed. In 1965, Officer John Nelson came up with the idea to form a specially trained and equipped unit to respond to, as an inspector, Gates approved this idea. He formed a small group of volunteer officers. His first SWAT team, which Gates had originally wanted to name Special Weapons Attack Team, was born LAPD SWAT and this SWAT unit was initially constituted as 15 teams of four men each, for a total staff of 60. These officers were given special status and benefits, but in return they had to attend monthly trainings, SWAT was copied almost immediately by most US police departments, and is now used by law enforcement agencies throughout the world
26.
Edward M. Davis
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Davis name was familiar to a generation of Americans since it appeared on its own card for technical advice in the closing credits of the popular television programs Dragnet and Adam-12. Born in Los Angeles, California to James Leonard Davis and Lillian Fox Davis, Davis graduated from John C, fremont High School in Los Angeles. He joined the LAPD and married Virginia Osborne in 1940, during World War II he took a leave of absence from the police department in order to serve in the United States Navy. When he became Chief of Police, Davis inherited a police department that was essentially the creation of Chief William H. Parker, the result was a department that saw itself as a bastion for peace and the traditional American values of old Los Angeles. He instantly became well-known internationally in 1969 when he held a conference announcing the arrests of Charles Manson and his followers for what are known as the Tate. His role is well-documented in the book Helter Skelter, written by Vincent Bugliosi, as the power and numbers of street gangs increased, the community of Los Angeles became the victim of increasing escalations of violence, intimidation, and other felonies. Although the chokeholds were less violent than older methods of beating recalcitrant suspects, by the time the policy was halted in May 1982 by the Police Commission,15 people had died. City of Los Angeles v. Lyons,461 U. S.95, Davis increased resources toward monitoring and investigating political circles and simultaneously attempted to squash vice. In 1972, Hayden White, acting as sole plaintiff, brought suit against Davis, the covert activities included police officers registering as students, taking notes of discussions occurring in classes, and making police reports on these discussions. The Supreme Court found for White in a unanimous decision, under Davis the LAPD and its vice squad were known for active policing against gays. Zealous officers are purported to have dangled a youth over a cliff to try to make him reveal names of a pedophile ring. On April 10,1976 over a hundred officers, with Davis present, raided a charitable slave auction event, dozens of men were detained on charges of violating an 1899 anti-slavery statute, but the expensive raid was criticized by the city council and no one was convicted. In 1975, Davis declined an invitation from Christopher Street West to attend Los Angeles gay pride celebration, Davis was often known for some of his colorful language. Davis retired in 1978 to run for Governor of California but lost the Republican primary election, two years later, he was elected to the California State Senate. He would serve for 12 years, Davis additionally lost a bid in the Republican primary for the United States Senate in 1986. In contrast to his policy of investigating the homosexual movement, as a Senator. He also became a vocal environmentalist in his later years, in 1992, when he decided to retire from the California State Senate, he went out of his way to recruit former State Assemblywoman Marion W. La Follette to run for his seat. This despite the fact that the current Assemblywoman, Cathie Wright, had declared for the seat
27.
Watts riots
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The Watts riots, sometimes referred to as the Watts Rebellion, took place in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles from August 11 to 16,1965. On August 11,1965, an African-American motorist was arrested for suspicion of drunk driving, a minor roadside argument broke out, and then escalated into a fight. The community reacted in outrage to allegations of brutality that soon spread. Los Angeles police needed the support of nearly 4,000 members of the California Army National Guard to quell the riots, the riots were blamed principally on police racism. It was the citys worst unrest until the Rodney King riots of 1992, in the Great Migration of the 1920s, major populations of African-Americans moved to Northern and Midwestern cities such as Detroit, Chicago, St. This wave of migration largely bypassed Los Angeles, in the 1940s, in the Second Great Migration, black Americans migrated to the West Coast in large numbers, in response to defense industry recruitment efforts at the start of World War II. The black population in Los Angeles leapt from approximately 63,700 in 1940 to about 350,000 in 1965, rising from 4% of LAs population to 14%. Los Angeles had racial restrictive covenants that prevented blacks and Mexican Americans from renting and buying in certain areas, since the beginning of the 20th century, Los Angeles has been geographically divided by ethnicity. In the 1910s, the city was already 80% covered by restrictive covenants in real estate. By the 1940s, 95% of Los Angeles and southern California housing was off-limits to African Americans and Asians, minorities who had served in World War II or worked in L. A. s defense industries returned to face increasing patterns of discrimination in housing. In addition, they found themselves excluded from the suburbs and restricted to housing in East or South Los Angeles, such real-estate practices severely restricted educational and economic opportunities available to the minority community. With an influx of residents, housing in South Los Angeles became increasingly scarce, overwhelming the already established communities. Davenport Builders, for example, was a developer who responded to the demand. What was originally a white neighborhood in the 1940s increasingly became an African American. These new housing developments provided better ways of life with space for families to grow. For a time in the early 1950s, with its numbers of African Americans. In the area south of Slauson Avenue, whites bombed or fired into houses, in an escalation of behavior that began in the 1920s, white gangs in nearby cities such as South Gate and Huntington Park routinely accosted blacks who traveled through white areas. Suburbs in the Los Angeles area grew explosively, most of these suburbs barred black people using a variety of methods
28.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
29.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
30.
Christian Parenti
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Christian Parenti is an American investigative journalist, academic, and author. The Freedom, Shadows and Hallucinations in Occupied Iraq, is an account of the US occupation of Iraq. In Tropic of Chaos, Climate Change and the New Geography of Violence, Parenti has also reported from Afghanistan, Iraq, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ivory Coast and China. Parentis reporting in Afghanistan was the subject of an award-winning HBO documentary called Fixer, parentis writing is usually published in The Nation, and he frequently appears on Doug Henwoods radio show, Behind The News, on KPFA in Berkeley, to discuss his work. Parentis book Tropic of Chaos was influential in making the recent PBS documentary Extreme Realities, Parenti appears extensively in the documentary as a talking head and in vérité footage reporting. He also writes for other publications, including the London Review of Books, Mother Jones. He was a fellow at CUNYs Center for Place, Culture and Politics. Parenti has taught at the New College of California and at St. Marys College in Moraga and he currently teaches in the Liberal Studies program at New York University. His most recent published work is a significant contribution to Anthropocene or Capitalocene, concerning the political and economic foundations of climate change. Parenti is the son of Michael Parenti and Susan Parenti, Susan is an artist who lives in Vermont. He attended Buxton School in Williamstown, Massachusetts, the New School for Social Research in New York, and the London School of Economics and he divides his time between Brattleboro, Vermont, and New York City. Since 2014, Parenti has been working on a book which focuses on Rethinking the State in the Context of Climate Crisis, and he has recently published several articles addressing this theme
31.
Charles Whitman
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Charles Joseph Whitman was an American mass murderer who became infamous as the Texas Tower Sniper. On August 1,1966, he murdered his mother and wife in their homes, then went to the University of Texas at Austin where he shot and killed three people inside the universitys tower. He then went to the towers 28th-floor observation deck, where he fired at random for some 95 minutes, killing fourteen people and wounding thirty-one before being shot and killed by police. Whitman was born on June 24,1941, in Lake Worth, Florida, Whitman Jr. Whitmans father had been raised in an orphanage in Savannah, Georgia, and described himself as a self-made man. In 1940, he married Margaret, then 17 years old, the marriage of Whitmans parents was marred by domestic violence, Whitmans father was an admitted authoritarian who provided for his family but demanded near perfection from all of them. He was known to physically and emotionally abuse his wife and children, as a boy, Whitman was described as a polite, well-mannered child who seldom lost his temper. He was extremely intelligent—an examination at the age of six revealed his IQ to be 139, Whitmans academic achievements were encouraged by his parents, yet any indication of failure or a lethargic attitude would be met with discipline—often physical—from his father. Margaret Whitman was a devout Roman Catholic who raised her sons in the same faith, the Whitman brothers regularly attended Mass with their mother, and all three brothers served as altar boys at the Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church. Whitman Sr. was a collector and enthusiast, who taught each of his sons from an early age how to shoot, clean. He regularly took them on hunting trips, and Charles became an avid hunter and his father said of him, Charlie could plug the eye out of a squirrel by the time he was sixteen. At age 11, Whitman joined the Boy Scouts, becoming at 12 years three months—reportedly the youngest of any Eagle Scout up to that time, Whitman also became an accomplished pianist at the age of 12. At around the time, he undertook an extensive newspaper route. On September 1,1955, Whitman entered St. Anns High School in West Palm Beach, by the next month, he had saved enough money from his newspaper route to purchase a Harley-Davidson motorcycle, which he used on his route. Whitman enlisted in the United States Marine Corps one month after his June 1959 graduation from high school and he had not told his father beforehand. Whitman told a friend that the catalyst was an incident a month earlier, in which his father had beaten him. Whitman left home on July 6, having been assigned an 18-month tour of duty with the Marines at Guantanamo Bay and his father still did not know he had enlisted. As Whitman traveled toward Parris Island, his father learned of his action and telephoned a branch of the federal government, during Whitmans initial 18-month service in 1959 and 1960, he earned a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal, a Sharpshooters Badge, and the Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal. He achieved 215 of 250 possible points on marksmanship tests, doing well when shooting rapidly over long distances as well as at moving targets
32.
Law enforcement in the United States
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Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of the criminal justice system of the United States, along with courts and corrections. Although each component operates semi-independently, the three form a chain leading from investigation of suspected criminal activity to administration of criminal punishment. Also, courts are vested with the power to make determinations regarding the conduct of the other two components. Law enforcement operates primarily through governmental police agencies, other duties may include the service and enforcement of warrants, writs, and other orders of the courts. Policing in the United States is conducted by close to 18,000 federal, state, local, every state has its own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state. Both police and law enforcement agencies operate at the highest level and are endowed with police roles, the agencies have nationwide jurisdiction for enforcement of federal law. All federal agencies are limited by the U. S. Code to investigating matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government. However, federal powers have become very broad in practice. The Department of Justice is responsible for most law enforcement duties at the federal level, the Department of Homeland Security is another branch with numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it. U. S. Customs and Border Protection, U. S and it should be noted that the United States Coast Guard is assigned to the United States Department of Defense in the event of war. Command in such situations remains a complex and flexible issue, each of the United States 50 federated states retain their own police, military and domestic law-making powers. The US Constitution gives the government the power to deal with foreign affairs. For policing, this means if a non-federal crime is committed in a US state and the fugitive does not flee the state. Most states operate statewide government agencies that provide law enforcement duties, including investigations and they may be called state police or highway patrol, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. In addition, the Attorney Generals office of state has its own state bureau of investigation. In Texas, the Texas Ranger Division fulfill this role though they have their history in the period before Texas became a state, in Colorado, for instance, the Department of Revenue has its own investigative branch, as do many of the state-funded universities. Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by sheriffs departments or offices, County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide jurisdiction. In some areas, there is a department which only handles minor issues such as service of papers
33.
Mass media
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The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, via such media as film, radio, recorded music, digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social sites, websites. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organizations that control these technologies, such as studios, publishing companies. In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries, books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question. For example, it is whether to include cell phones, computer games. In the 2000s, a called the seven mass media became popular. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites, the sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a mass form of media. While a telephone is a communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium. There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites and this transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium, video games provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online, excluding the Internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually
34.
Delano, California
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Delano is a city in Kern County, California, United States. Delano is located 31 miles north-northwest of Bakersfield at an elevation of 315 feet, the population was 62,088 in 2016, up from 38,824 in 2000. It is Kern Countys second largest city after Bakersfield, the area is particularly well known as a center for the growing of table grapes. Delano is also home to two California state prisons, North Kern State Prison and Kern Valley State Prison, the Voice of America once operated its largest, most powerful shortwave broadcast facility outside Delano at 35°45′15″N 119°17′7″W. However, the Voice of America ceased broadcasts in October 2007, citing a changing mission, reduced budgets. Delanos two school districts currently operate eight schools, three middle schools, three comprehensive high schools and two alternative high schools. The city has its own department and contracts with the Kern County Fire Department for fire services, EMS services are privately provided by local company. Delano was founded on July 14,1869 as a town, not because the railroad passed through the town but because the railroad coming down from San Francisco. The name was given by the Southern Pacific Railroad in honor of Columbus Delano. The first post office opened in 1874, the town naturally started with a boom. Great loads of bullion were delivered here from the mines in the mountains, Delano became the northern terminus for the passenger stages that ran south to Bakersfield and Los Angeles. The fare from Bakersfield to Delano was $7.00 a trip, Delano was a major hub of farmworker organization efforts and Chicano movement politics. Filipino immigrants Philip Vera Cruz and Larry Dulay Itliong were instrumental in shaping the direction of farm worker movement in the 1950s, the strikers goal was to improve farmworkers wages and working conditions. The National Farm Workers Association, a largely Hispanic union led by Cesar Chavez, during the strike, the two groups joined forces and formed the United Farm Workers of America. By 1970, the UFW won a contract with major grape growers across California, Delano is also known as The Town because of the many towns folk that roam there. Major farm employers in Delano include Wonderful Citrus, Columbine Vineyards, Munger Farms, Lucich Farms, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 14.4 square miles, over 99% of which is land. Delanos climate is characteristic of the San Joaquin Valley, the weather is hot and dry during the summer and cool and damp in winter. Frequent winter ground fog known regionally as tule fog can obscure vision, record temperatures range between 115 °F and 14 °F. Delano is located within a desert climatic zone, receiving 7.51 in of rainfall annually
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Kern County, California
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Kern County is a county in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 839,631, Kern County comprises the Bakersfield, CA Metropolitan statistical area. The county spans the end of the Central Valley. Its northernmost city is Delano and its southern reach expands just beyond Lebec to the Grapevine, the countys economy is heavily linked to agriculture and to petroleum extraction. There is also an aviation, space, and military presence, such as Edwards Air Force Base, the China Lake Naval Air Weapons Station. It is one of the fastest growing areas in the United States in terms of population growth, and suffers from significant water supply issues and poor air quality. The area was claimed by the Spanish in 1769, and in 1772 Commander Don Pedro Fages became the first European to enter it, in the beginning, the area that became Kern County was dominated by mining in the mountains and in the desert. The south of Tulare County was later organized as Kern County in 1866, with additions from Los Angeles and its first county seat was in the mining town of Havilah, in the mountains between Bakersfield and Tehachapi. The flatlands were considered inhospitable and impassable at the due to swamps, lakes, tule reeds. This changed when settlers started draining lands for farming and constructing canals, within 10 years the valley surpassed the mining areas as the economic center of the county, and the county seat was moved as a result from Havilah to Bakersfield in 1874. The discovery well of the Kern River Oil Field was dug by hand in 1899, soon the towns of Oil City, Oil Center and Oildale came into existence. The county derives its name from the Kern River, which was named for Edward Kern, frémonts 1845 expedition, which crossed Walker Pass. The Kern River was originally named Rio Bravo de San Felipe by Father Francisco Garces when he explored the area in 1776, severe earthquakes have struck Kern County within historical times, including the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake. On July 21,1952, an earthquake occurred with the epicenter about 23 miles south of Bakersfield and it measured 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale and killed 12 people. In addition to the deaths, it was responsible for hundreds of injuries, the main shock was felt over much of California and as far away as Phoenix, Arizona and Reno, Nevada. The earthquake occurred on the White Wolf Fault and was the strongest to occur in California since the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Tehachapi suffered the greatest damage and loss of life from the earthquake, though its effects were widely felt throughout central and southern California. Ground disturbances that were created by the earthquakes were also surveyed, the details of these false accusations are covered extensively in the 2008 documentary Witch Hunt, narrated by Sean Penn. Kern county is considered to be a hotbed of country music, the Buck Owens Crystal Palace is located in Bakersfield
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Tulare County, California
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Tulare County is a county in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 442,179, the county is named for Tulare Lake, once the largest freshwater lake west of the Great Lakes. Drained for agricultural development, the site is now in Kings County, Tulare County comprises the Visalia-Porterville, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county is located south of Fresno, spanning from the San Joaquin Valley east to the Sierra Nevada. Sequoia National Park is located in the county, as are part of Kings Canyon National Park, in its northeast corner, as of the 2010 census, the population was 442,179, up from 368,021 at the 2000 census. The land was occupied for thousands of years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples, beginning in the eighteenth century, Spain established missions to colonize California and convert the American Indians to Christianity. Comandante Pedro Fages, while hunting for deserters in the Central Valley in 1772, discovered a lake surrounded by marshes and filled with rushes. It is from this lake that the county derives its name, the root of the name Tulare is found in the Nahuatl word tullin, designating cattail or similar reeds. After Mexico achieved independence, it continued to rule California, after the Mexican Cession and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the area became part of the United States. Tulare County was soon formed from parts of Mariposa County only 4 years later in 1852, there were two early attempts to split off a new Buena Vista County in 1855, and Coso County in 1864, but both failed. Parts of the territory were given to Fresno County in 1856, to Kern County and to Inyo County in 1866. The infectious disease Tularemia caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis is named after Tulare County, in 1908 Colonel Allen Allensworth and associates founded Allensworth as a black farming community. They intended to develop a place where African Americans could thrive free of white discrimination and it was the only community in California founded, financed and governed by African Americans. While its first years were successful, the community encountered environmental problems from dropping water tables which eventually caused it to fail. Today the historic area is preserved as the Colonel Allensworth State Historic Park, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,839 square miles. It was established in 1890 as the second U. S. national park, the park is south of and contiguous with Kings Canyon National Park, the two are administered by the National Park Service as one unit, called Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. State Route 43 State Route 63 State Route 65 State Route 99 State Route 180 State Route 190 State Route 198 Tulare County Transit provides a bus service linking the population centers
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San Joaquin Valley
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Although a majority of the valley is rural, it does contain urban cities such as Fresno, Bakersfield, Stockton, Modesto, Turlock, Porterville, Visalia, Merced, and Hanford. Unlike the Sacramento Valley, the system for which the San Joaquin Valley is named does not extend very far along the valley. Most of the south of Fresno, instead, drains into Tulare Lake. The valleys primary river is the San Joaquin, which drains north through half of the valley into the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. The Kings and Kern Rivers are in the endorheic basin of the valley. The San Joaquin Valley began to form about 66 million years ago during the early Paleocene era, broad fluctuations in the sea level caused various areas of the valley to be flooded with ocean water for the next 60 million years. About 5 million years ago, the outlets began to close due to uplift of the coastal ranges. Starting 2 million years ago, a series of glacial episodes periodically caused much of the valley to become a fresh water lake, Lake Corcoran was the last widespread lake to fill the valley about 700,000 years ago. At the beginning of the Holocene there were three major lakes remaining in the part of the Valley, Tulare Lake, Buena Vista Lake. In the late 19th and in the 20th century, agricultural diversion of the Kern River eventually dried out these lakes and its rainy season normally runs from November through April, but since 2011 when a drought became evident it generally received minimal to no rain at all. The drought was still extant by mid-August 2014 with scientists saying it would continue indefinitely. Research from NASA shows that parts of the San Joaquin Valley sank as much as 8 inches in a four-month period, the sinking has destroyed thousands of groundwater well casings and has the potential to damage aqueducts, roads, bridges, and flood-control structures. In the long term, the caused by extracting groundwater could irreversibly reduce the underground aquifers water storage capacity. The National Weather Service Forecast Office for the San Joaquin Valley is located in Hanford, Weather forecasts and climatological information for the San Joaquin Valley are available from its official website. The total population of the eight counties comprising the San Joaquin Valley at the time of the 2010 U. S. Census was 3,971,659. Grapes—table, raisin, and to a lesser extent wine—are perhaps the valleys highest-profile product, but equally important are cotton, nuts, citrus, and vegetables. Though it has been called The food basket of the World, walnuts, oranges, peaches, garlic, tangerines, tomatoes, kiwis, hay, alfalfa and numerous other crops have been harvested with great success. DeRuosi Nut, a large processing plant in Escalon, has been in the valley since 1947
38.
United Farm Workers
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The United Farm Workers of America, or more commonly just United Farm Workers, is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States. As a result of the commonality in goals and methods, the NFWA and this organization was accepted into the AFL-CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union. Dolores Huerta grew up in Stockton, California, which was in the San Joaquin Valley, in the early 1950s, she completed a degree at Delta Community College, part of the University of the Pacific. She briefly worked as a school teacher. Huerta saw that her students, many of children of farm workers, were living in poverty without enough food to eat or other basic necessities. To help, she one of the founders of the Stockton chapter of the Community Service Organization. The CSO worked to improve social and economic conditions for farm workers, in 1952, Chávez met Fred Ross who was a community organizer working on behalf of the Community Service Organization. This was a group which was affiliated with the Industrial Areas Foundation which was headed by Saul Alinsky, to further her cause, Huerta created the Agricultural Workers Association in 1960. In 1962, she co-founded a workers union with César Chávez, the two made a great team. Chávez was the leader and speaker and Huerta was a skilled organizer. Huerta was instrumental in the many successes, including the strikes against California grape growers in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1950s, César Chávez and Fred Ross developed twenty-two new Community Service Organization chapters in the Mexican American neighborhoods of San Jose, in 1959, Chávez would claim the rank of executive director in the Community Service Organization. During this time, Chávez observed and adopted the notion of having the community become more involved in order to bring about the social changes that the community sought. This would be a tactic in Chávez’s future struggles in fighting for immigrant rights. César Chávez’s ultimate goal in his participation with the Community Service Organization, Saul Alinsky did not share Chávez’s sympathy for the farm workers struggle, claiming that organizing farm workers, was like fighting on a constantly disintegrating bed of sand. In March 1962 at the Community Service Organization convention, Chávez proposed a project for organizing farm workers which was rejected by the organization’s members. By 1965 the National Farm Workers Association had acquired twelve hundred members through Chávez’s person-to-person recruitment efforts which he learned from Fred Ross just a decade earlier, Out of those twelve hundred, only about two hundred paid dues. Also in 1962, Richard Chavez, the brother of César Chávez, designed the black Aztec eagle insignia that would become the symbol of the NFW, César Chávez chose the red and black colors used by the organization
39.
Cesar Chavez
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Cesar Chavez was an American labor leader and civil rights activist who, with Dolores Huerta, co-founded the National Farm Workers Association in 1962. His public-relations approach to unionism and aggressive but nonviolent tactics made the workers struggle a moral cause with nationwide support. By the late 1970s, his tactics had forced growers to recognize the UFW as the agent for 50,000 field workers in California. However, by the membership in the UFW had dwindled to around 15,000. He has since become an icon for organized labor and leftist politics, symbolizing support for workers and he is also famous for popularizing the slogan Sí, se puede, which was adopted as the 2008 campaign slogan of Barack Obama. His supporters say his work led to improvements for union laborers. Although the UFW faltered a few years after Chavez died in 1993 and his birthday, March 31, has become Cesar Chavez Day, a state holiday in California, Colorado, and Texas. Chavez was born on March 31,1927, in Yuma, Arizona and he was the son of Juana Estrada and Librado Chávez. He had two brothers, Richard and Librado, and two sisters, Rita and Vicki and he was named after his grandfather, Cesario. Chavez grew up in an adobe home, the same home in which he was born. His family owned a store and a ranch, but their land was lost during the Great Depression. The familys home was taken away after his father had agreed to clear eighty acres of land in exchange for the deed to the house, an agreement which was subsequently broken. Later, when Chavezs father attempted to purchase the house, he could not pay the interest on the loan and his family then moved to California to become migrant farm workers. The Chavez family faced many hardships in California, the family would pick peas and lettuce in the winter, cherries and beans in the spring, corn and grapes in the summer, and cotton in the fall. When Chavez was a teenager, he and his older sister Rita would help other farm workers and neighbors by driving those unable to drive to the hospital to see a doctor, in 1942, Chavez quit school in the seventh grade. It would be his year of formal schooling, because he did not want his mother to have to work in the fields. Chavez dropped out to become a migrant farm worker. In 1946 he joined the United States Navy and served for two years, Chavez had hoped that he would learn skills in the Navy that would help him later when he returned to civilian life
40.
Delano Police Department
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The Delano Police Department is the agency responsible for law enforcement within the City of Delano, California. The department is divided into three divisions, Administrative Division, Patrol Division, and Investigations Division and it contains over 80 officiers and civilian employees. The police headquarters is located at 2330 High Street Delano, CA93215 Kern County, the department also maintains a type 1 jail. List of law enforcement agencies in California Delano Police Department
41.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
42.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
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Mass racial violence in the United States
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Conflict between Americans and recent European immigrants in the 19th and 20th centuries. Attacks on Native Americans and Americans over the land, frequent fighting among various ethnic groups in major cities, specifically in the Northeast and Midwest United States throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century. One example was explored in the stage musical West Side Story and its film adaptation, violence involving Latin American immigrants in the 20th century. Riots defined by race have taken place between groups in the United States since as early as the pre-Revolution era of the 18th century. During the early-to-mid- 19th centuries, violent rioting occurred between Protestant Nativists and recently arrived Irish Catholic immigrants and these reached heights during the peak of immigration in the 1840s and 1850s in cities including New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. During the early 20th century, riots were common against Irish and French-Canadian immigrants in Providence, the San Francisco Vigilance Movements of 1851 and 1856 have been described as responses to rampant crime and government corruption. During the early 20th century, racial or ethnic violence was directed by whites against Filipinos, Japanese and Armenians in California, during the late 19th century and early 20th century, Italian immigrants were subject to racial violence. In 1891, eleven Italians were lynched by a mob of thousands in New Orleans, in the 1890s a total of twenty Italians were lynched in the South. Anti-Polish violence also occurred in the time period. Like lynchings, race riots often had their roots in economic tensions or in defense of the color line. In 1887, for example, ten workers at sugar plantations in Louisiana, organized by the Knights of Labor. Most of the workers were black, but some were white, infuriating Governor Samuel Douglas McEnery, the militia was called in, but withdrawn to give free rein to a lynch mob in Thibodaux. The mob killed between 20 and 300 blacks, lame men and blind women shot, children and hoary-headed grandsires ruthlessly swept down. The Negroes offered no resistance, they could not, as the killing was unexpected and those of them not killed took to the woods, a majority of them finding refuge in this city. In 1891, a mob lynched Joe Coe, a worker in Omaha. Approximately 10,000 white people, mostly immigrants from South Omaha, reportedly swarmed the courthouse. They took Coe from his cell, beating and then lynching him. Reportedly 6,000 people visited Coes corpse during a public exhibition and this was a period when even officially sanctioned executions, such as hangings, were regularly conducted in public
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Black Panther Party
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In 1969, community social programs became a core activity of party members. The party enrolled the largest number of members and made the greatest impact in the Oakland-San Francisco Bay Area, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. The program was accused of assassinating Black Panther members. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, after being vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In-fighting among Party leadership, caused largely by the FBIs COINTELPRO operation, by 1972 most Panther activity centered on the national headquarters and a school in Oakland, where the party continued to influence local politics. Though under constant police surveillance, the Chicago chapter remained active, the Seattle chapter lasted longer than most, with a breakfast program and medical clinics that continued even after the chapter disbanded in 1977. Party contractions continued throughout the 1970s, and by 1980 the Black Panther Party had just 27 members, the history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Other commentators have described the Party as more criminal than political, the sweeping migration of black families out of the South during World War II transformed Oakland and cities throughout the West and the North. But not much changed in the cities of the North and West, Police departments were almost all white. In 1966, only 16 of Oaklands 661 police officers were African American, insurgent civil rights practices proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience such as SNCC and CORE went into decline. Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed a rich ferment of study groups and political organizations, in late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party. In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations, Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at Merritt College. They joined Donald Warden’s Afro-American Association, where they read widely, debated, dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the brothers on the block, Huey and Bobby sought to take matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, a young black man in San Francisco. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of organizations seeking to build Black Power. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a force, inspired by Robert F. Williams armed resistance to the KKK, Newton studied California gun law until he knew it better than many police officers. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the Watts Rebellion, but with a crucial difference, his patrols would carry loaded guns. According to Bobby Seale, they would sell the books, make the money, buy the guns, well protect a mother, protect a brother, and protect the community from the racist cops
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United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
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