1.
Kannada
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The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas, and a total of 50.8 million speakers according to a 2001 census. It is one of the languages of India and the official. The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script, Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Kannada has a literary history of over a thousand years. Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, in July 2011, a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language. Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language, and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B, steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three periods, Old Kannada from 450–1200 CE, Middle Kannada from 1200–1700, and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present. Kannada is influenced to an extent by Sanskrit. Influences of other such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in the Kannada language. Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times, the vernacular Prakrit-speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages, some examples of naturalised words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are, baṇṇa derived from vaṇṇa, hunnime from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are, varṇa, arasu from rajan, paurṇimā, Kannada has numerous borrowed words such as dina, kopa, surya, mukha, nimiṣa and anna. Pre-old Kannada was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada. According to Jain tradition, Brahmi, the daughter of Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, invented 18 alphabets, including Kannada, which points to the antiquity of the language. Supporting this tradition, an inscription of about the 9th century CE, containing specimens of different alphabets and it has been claimed that the Greek dramatists of the 5th–4th century BCE were familiar with the Kannada country and language. This would show a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere, the palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also in Sanskrit and Kannada. In the 150 CE Prakrit book Gaathaa Saptashati, written by Haala Raja, Kannada words like tIr, tuppa, on the Pallava Prakrit inscription of 250 CE of Hire Hadagalis Shivaskandavarman, the Kannada word kOTe transforms into koTTa. In the 350 CE Chandravalli Prakrit inscription, words of Kannada origin like punaaTa, in one more Prakrit inscription of 250 CE found in Malavalli, Kannada towns like vEgooraM, kundamuchchaMDi find a reference. Pliny the Elder was a naval and army commander in the early Roman Empire and he writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias
2.
Moodabidri
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Moodabidri, is a town in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the headquarters, Mangalore city, in Karnataka. Because of widely grown bamboo in ancient days, this place got named as Moodabidri, Moodabidri comes from two words, Moodu and Bidiru. Moodu means East and Bidiru means bamboo and its average elevation is 147 metres. As of 2001 India census, Mudbidri had a population of 25,710, males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. Moodabidri has an literacy rate of 88. 57%, Male literacy is 93. 13%. Moodabidri basically contains two villages, Pranthya and Marnad, Moodabidri is also called as Jaina Kashi of the South. Moodabidri is on National Highway 169 and it is accessible from Mangalore city by bus. Mangalore Airport is 23 km away from Moodabidri and it is 54 km from Udupi and 18 km from Karkala. Other nearby places are Venur, Belthangady, Kudremukh, Agumbe, Tulu spoken by majority of the population, followed by Konkani and Kannada. A small Muslim population speaks Beary and Urdu, visitors can manage with Hindi and English. Moodabidri has a health centre. The hospital has improved in the last few years, medicine supply to the hospital is stable and medicines are available for all common ailments. Well qualified doctors, including dentists, are available and PG interns practice, the hospital has an X-ray machine, dental chair, and an ambulance facility. A few of the hospitals are Alvas nursing home, Prabhu clinic, pai hospital, dental clinics like Dr Parveens Modern Dental Clinic Dr Hegdes Dental Speciality Clinic, and Dr Parveens, Janatha Clinic, Dr. Shinajs dental clinic. Alvas Health Centre is a centre for comforting patients. There is ayurvedic wing with all the rare plants in Shobavanna. In 2014, a new facility named Ever Care Clinic opened, focusing on management
3.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
4.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
5.
Deity
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A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
6.
Chandraprabha
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In Jainism, Chandraprabha was the eighth Tirthankara of Avasarpini. Chandraprabhu was born to King Mahasena and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri to the Ikshvaku dynasty, according to Jain texts, his birth-date was the twelfth day of the Posh Krishna month of the Indian calendar. He is said to have become a siddha, i. e. soul at its purest form or a liberated soul, Chandraprabha was the eighth Tirthankara of Avasarpini. He was born to King Mahasena and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri to the Ikshvaku dynasty, according to Jain texts, his birth-date was the twelfth day of the Posh Krishna month of the Indian calendar. He is said to have become a siddha, i. e. soul at its purest form or a liberated soul, Tijara Jain Temple - The temple was established in 1956 following the recovery of an idol of Chandraprabha. Prabhas Patan Sowcarpet, Chennai - This beautiful temple of white marble is located in Mint Street in the Sowcarpet locality of Channai and this temple though quite new derives inspiration from the famous Dilwara temples of Mount Abu. The Nagaraja Temple in Kanyakumari district after which the town Nagercoil got its name was a Jain temple, recently unearthed inscriptions establish that it was indeed a Jain temple until the mid 16th century AD. It was slowly transformed into a Hindu temple, nāga a famous local deity for all classes of society. The local deities were included in their ways of worship as devas. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, an eminent epigraphist and archaeologist, Chandraprabha is associated with Half Moon emblem, Naga tree, Vijaya or Syama & Vijaya Yaksha and Jvalamalini & Bhrikuti Yakshi. Arihant God in Jainism Jainism and non-creationism Tijara Jain Temple Tukol, tandon, Om Prakash, Jaina Shrines in India, New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 81-230-1013-3
7.
Matha
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A matha is a Sanskrit word that means cloister, institute or college, and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism. Monastic life, for studies or the pursuit of moksha traces it roots to the 1st millennium BCE. The matha tradition in Hinduism was likely established in the second half of 1st millennium CE. Mathas grew over time, with the most famous and still surviving centers of Vedanta studies being those started by Adi Shankara, other major and influential mathas belong to various schools of Hindu philosophy, such as those of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The monastery host and feed students, sannyasis, gurus and are led by Acharyas and these monasteries are sometimes attached to Hindu temples and have their codes of conduct, initiation and election ceremonies. The mathas in the Hindu tradition have not been limited to religious studies, the term matha is also used for monastery in Jainism, and the earliest monasteries near Jain temples are dated to be from about the 5th-century CE. A matha refers to cloister, institute or college, and in some contexts refers to hut of an ascetic, the root of the word is math, which means inhabit or to grind. The roots of monastic life are traceable in the Vedic literature, the asceticism and monastic practices possibly emerged in India in the early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. Scholars such as Patrick Olivelle state that the history of Hindu monasteries played a role in the composition of the Sannyasa Upanishads of Hinduism, six of these Upanishads were composed before the 3rd-century CE, probably starting sometime in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. These six Sannyasa Upanishads are Aruni Upanishad, Kundika Upanishad, Kathashruti Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Jabala Upanishad, the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook, and these pre-date Adi Shankara. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism Vedanta philosophy and this may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu monasteries belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition. Almost all medieval Sannyasa Upanishads are also Advaita Vedantin because of these monasteries, the only significant exception is the 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism philosophy and is likely linked to a Vaishnavism monastery. In addition to the Upanishads, evidence of matha tradition in Hinduism is found in genre of its literature, such as chapter 12.139 of the Mahabharata. Matha-s were regionally known by terms, such as Ghatika-s and Khandika-s. The oldest verifiable Ghatika for Vedic studies, from inscription evidence is in Kanchi, the mathas and attached temples routinely hosted debating, Vedic recital and student competitions, and these were part of community festivals in the history of South Asia. Some Hindu monasteries offered hospice care for pilgrims and various forms of assistance to their local communities, the matha is a monastery, often with numerous students, many teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its daily operations. Their organization is more sophisticated than an Ashrama or Gurukul which is usually boutique, a matha, like a college, designates teaching, administrative and community interaction functions, with prefix or suffix to names, with titles such as Guru, Acharya, Swami and others. In Lingayat Shaiva mathas for example, teachers are Gurus, the functions the responsibilities of Acharyas
8.
Jain cosmology
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Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe and its constituents according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe, as an entity, existing since infinity. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and this Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. It is characterised by chetana and upayoga, though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, ajīva Pudgala - Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i. e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible, Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed, dharma-dravya and Adharma-dravya - Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe, dharma and Adharma are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe, Ākāśa - Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points, Kāla - Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha, Conventional time is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances, real time, however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes that go on incessantly in all substances. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on natural laws. The existence of a deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajju high and its breadth is seven Rajjus at the bottom and decreases gradually till the middle where it is one Rajju. The width then increases gradually till it is five Rajju and again till it is one Rajju. The apex of the universe is one Rajju long, one Rajju wide, the total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajju. The svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is constant increase and decrease in the breadth, apart from the apex which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts
9.
Karma in Jainism
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Karma is the basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. Human moral actions form the basis of the transmigration of the soul, the soul is constrained to a cycle of rebirth, trapped within the temporal world, until it finally achieves liberation. Liberation is achieved by following a path of purification, Karma not only encompasses the causality of transmigration, but is also conceived of as an extremely subtle matter, which infiltrates the soul—obscuring its natural, transparent and pure qualities. Karma is thought of as a kind of pollution, that taints the soul with various colours, based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of karma, various types of karma are classified according to their effects on the potency of the soul. The Jain theory seeks to explain the process by specifying the various causes of karmic influx and bondage, placing equal emphasis on deeds themselves. The Jain karmic theory attaches great responsibility to individual actions, the Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities and purity of conduct. According to Jains, all souls are pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss. However, in experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time and this bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further, Jainism speaks of karmic dirt, as karma is thought to be manifest as very subtle and microscopically imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe. They are so small that one space-point—the smallest possible extent of space—contains an infinite number of karmic particles and it is these karmic particles that adhere to the soul and affect its natural potency. This material karma is called dravya karma, and the resultant emotions—pleasure, pain, love, hatred, the relationship between the material and psychic karma is that of cause and effect. The material karma gives rise to the feelings and emotions in worldly souls, which—in turn—give rise to psychic karma and these emotions, yet again, result in influx and bondage of fresh material karma. Jains hold that the matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are the carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world. When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in an interactive karmic field called kārmaṇa śarīra, thus, karma is a subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul
10.
Sallekhana
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Sallekhana is the last vow prescribed by the Jain ethical code of conduct. The vow of sallekhana is observed by the Jain ascetics and lay votaries at the end of their life by reducing the intake of food. Sallekhana is allowed when normal life according to religion is not possible due to old age and it is a highly respected practice among the members of the Jain community. According to Jain texts, sallekhana leads to ahimsā, as a person observing sallekhana subjugates the passions, in 2015, the Rajasthan High Court banned the practice, calling it suicide. On 31 August 2015, the Supreme Court of India stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court, Sallekhana is made up from two words sal and lekhana, which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is sallekhana, Sallekhana is prescribed both for householders and ascetics. In Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five fundamental vows, ascetics must observe complete abstinence and their vows are thus called mahavratas, the vows of the laity are called anuvratas. Jain ethical code also prescribes seven supplementary vows, which include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the vows prescribed to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhana at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, Sallekhana is treated as a supplementary to the twelve vows taken by Jains. However, some Jain Acharyas such as Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin and Vasunandin have included it under the last vow, according to famous Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the sallekhana can be observed only on the arrival of unavoidable calamity, distress, senescence and disease. The duration of the practice could be up to years or more. Sixth part of the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is on sallekhana, the procedure expounded is as follows— Giving up solid food by degrees, one should take to milk and whey, then giving them up, to hot or spiced water. Giving up hot water also, and observing fasting with full determination, he should give up his body, the purpose is to purge old karmas and prevent the creation of new ones. The vow of Sallekhana can not be taken by a lay person on his own without being permitted by a monk, in around 300 BC, Chandragupta Maurya undertook sallekhana atop Chandragiri Hill, Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa, Karnataka. Chandragupta basadi at Shravanabelagola marks the place where the saint Chandragupta died, the Doddahundi nishidhi inscription, a hero stone from Doddahundi,18 km from Tirumakudalu Narasipura in the Mysore district, Karnataka state, India. It has an undated old Kannada language inscription which historians J. F. Fleet, I. K. Sarma, rice have dated by context to 840 or 869 C. E. The hero stone has a depiction in frieze of the ritual death of the Western Ganga Dynasty king Ereganga Nitimarga I. The memorial was raised by the kings son Satyavakya, such nishidhis were raised in medieval India in honor of important Jain personalities who ended their life voluntarily after following severe ritual vow
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