1.
Kannada
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The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas, and a total of 50.8 million speakers according to a 2001 census. It is one of the languages of India and the official. The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th-century Kadamba script, Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th-century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Kannada has a literary history of over a thousand years. Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts, appointed by the ministry of culture, in July 2011, a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language. Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language, and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B, steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three periods, Old Kannada from 450–1200 CE, Middle Kannada from 1200–1700, and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present. Kannada is influenced to an extent by Sanskrit. Influences of other such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in the Kannada language. Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times, the vernacular Prakrit-speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages, some examples of naturalised words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are, baṇṇa derived from vaṇṇa, hunnime from puṇṇivā. Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are, varṇa, arasu from rajan, paurṇimā, Kannada has numerous borrowed words such as dina, kopa, surya, mukha, nimiṣa and anna. Pre-old Kannada was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada. According to Jain tradition, Brahmi, the daughter of Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, invented 18 alphabets, including Kannada, which points to the antiquity of the language. Supporting this tradition, an inscription of about the 9th century CE, containing specimens of different alphabets and it has been claimed that the Greek dramatists of the 5th–4th century BCE were familiar with the Kannada country and language. This would show a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere, the palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also in Sanskrit and Kannada. In the 150 CE Prakrit book Gaathaa Saptashati, written by Haala Raja, Kannada words like tIr, tuppa, on the Pallava Prakrit inscription of 250 CE of Hire Hadagalis Shivaskandavarman, the Kannada word kOTe transforms into koTTa. In the 350 CE Chandravalli Prakrit inscription, words of Kannada origin like punaaTa, in one more Prakrit inscription of 250 CE found in Malavalli, Kannada towns like vEgooraM, kundamuchchaMDi find a reference. Pliny the Elder was a naval and army commander in the early Roman Empire and he writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias
2.
Marathi language
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Marathi is an Indian language spoken predominantly by the Marathi people of Maharashtra. It is the language and co-official language in the Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India, respectively. There were 73 million speakers in 2001, Marathi ranks 19th in the list of most spoken languages in the world, Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India, after Hindi, Bengali and Telugu in that order. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, the major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. Malvani Konkani has been influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi has several features that set it aside from most other Indian languages, Marathi distinguishes inclusive and exclusive forms of we and possesses a three-way gender system that features the neuter in addition to the masculine and the feminine. In its phonology it contrasts apico-alveolar with alveopalatal affricates and, in common with Gujarati, Marathi is primarily spoken in Maharashtra and parts of neighbouring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, union-territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The cities of Baroda, Surat, and Ahmedabad, Belgaum, Karwar, Nipani, Indore, Gwalior, Adoni, Hyderabad, Marathi is also spoken by Maharashtrian emigrants worldwide, especially in the United States, United Kingdom, Israel, Mauritius, and Canada. Marathi is the language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. In Goa, Konkani is the official language, however. Marathi is included among the languages which stand a part of the Eight Schedule of the Constitution of India, the contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi. Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the rules give special status to tatsamas. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit and this practice provides Marathi with a large treasure of Sanskrit words to cope with demands of new technical words whenever needed. Jawaharlal Nehru University has announced plans to establish a department for Marathi. Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of poet Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar, Indian languages, including Marathi, that belong to the Indo-Aryan language family are derived from early forms of Prakrit. Marathi is one of languages that further descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Marathi literature began and grew owing to the rise of the Seuna dynasty of Devgiri, further growth and usage of the language was because of two religious sects – the Mahanubhava and Varkari panthans – who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi had attained a place in court life by the time of the Seuna kings
3.
Moodabidri
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Moodabidri, is a town in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the headquarters, Mangalore city, in Karnataka. Because of widely grown bamboo in ancient days, this place got named as Moodabidri, Moodabidri comes from two words, Moodu and Bidiru. Moodu means East and Bidiru means bamboo and its average elevation is 147 metres. As of 2001 India census, Mudbidri had a population of 25,710, males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. Moodabidri has an literacy rate of 88. 57%, Male literacy is 93. 13%. Moodabidri basically contains two villages, Pranthya and Marnad, Moodabidri is also called as Jaina Kashi of the South. Moodabidri is on National Highway 169 and it is accessible from Mangalore city by bus. Mangalore Airport is 23 km away from Moodabidri and it is 54 km from Udupi and 18 km from Karkala. Other nearby places are Venur, Belthangady, Kudremukh, Agumbe, Tulu spoken by majority of the population, followed by Konkani and Kannada. A small Muslim population speaks Beary and Urdu, visitors can manage with Hindi and English. Moodabidri has a health centre. The hospital has improved in the last few years, medicine supply to the hospital is stable and medicines are available for all common ailments. Well qualified doctors, including dentists, are available and PG interns practice, the hospital has an X-ray machine, dental chair, and an ambulance facility. A few of the hospitals are Alvas nursing home, Prabhu clinic, pai hospital, dental clinics like Dr Parveens Modern Dental Clinic Dr Hegdes Dental Speciality Clinic, and Dr Parveens, Janatha Clinic, Dr. Shinajs dental clinic. Alvas Health Centre is a centre for comforting patients. There is ayurvedic wing with all the rare plants in Shobavanna. In 2014, a new facility named Ever Care Clinic opened, focusing on management
4.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
7.
Deity
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A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
8.
Chandraprabha
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In Jainism, Chandraprabha was the eighth Tirthankara of Avasarpini. Chandraprabhu was born to King Mahasena and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri to the Ikshvaku dynasty, according to Jain texts, his birth-date was the twelfth day of the Posh Krishna month of the Indian calendar. He is said to have become a siddha, i. e. soul at its purest form or a liberated soul, Chandraprabha was the eighth Tirthankara of Avasarpini. He was born to King Mahasena and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri to the Ikshvaku dynasty, according to Jain texts, his birth-date was the twelfth day of the Posh Krishna month of the Indian calendar. He is said to have become a siddha, i. e. soul at its purest form or a liberated soul, Tijara Jain Temple - The temple was established in 1956 following the recovery of an idol of Chandraprabha. Prabhas Patan Sowcarpet, Chennai - This beautiful temple of white marble is located in Mint Street in the Sowcarpet locality of Channai and this temple though quite new derives inspiration from the famous Dilwara temples of Mount Abu. The Nagaraja Temple in Kanyakumari district after which the town Nagercoil got its name was a Jain temple, recently unearthed inscriptions establish that it was indeed a Jain temple until the mid 16th century AD. It was slowly transformed into a Hindu temple, nāga a famous local deity for all classes of society. The local deities were included in their ways of worship as devas. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, an eminent epigraphist and archaeologist, Chandraprabha is associated with Half Moon emblem, Naga tree, Vijaya or Syama & Vijaya Yaksha and Jvalamalini & Bhrikuti Yakshi. Arihant God in Jainism Jainism and non-creationism Tijara Jain Temple Tukol, tandon, Om Prakash, Jaina Shrines in India, New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 81-230-1013-3
9.
Mahavir Jayanti
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Mahavir Jayanti, also known as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, is the most important religious festival for Jains. It celebrates the birth of Mahavira, twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī, on the Gregorian calendar, the holiday occurs either in March or April. Most modern historians consider Vasokund as Mahaviras birthplace, according to Jain texts, Mahavira was born on the thirteenth day of the bright half of the moon in the month of Chaitra in the year 599 BCE. Mahavira was born in a kingdom, Vajji, where the king was chosen by votes. As a child, Mahavira was called with the name Vardhamana, in Vasokund, Mahavira is much revered by the villagers. A place called Ahalya bhumi has not been ploughed for hundreds of years by the family that owns it, Mahavira was born into Ikshvaku dynasty as the son of King Siddhartha of Kundagrama and Queen Trishala. During her pregnancy, Trishala was believed to have had a number of auspicious dreams, the exact number of dreams differs according to the school of Jainism, Svetambaras generally believe that the actual number is fourteen while Digambaras claim sixteen instead. Regardless, the astrologers who interpreted these dreams claimed that the child would become either a Chakravartin or a Tirthankara, the idol of Mahavira is carried out on a chariot, in a procession called rath yatra. On the way bhajans are recited, local statues of Mahavira are given a ceremonial bath called the abhisheka. During the day, most members of the Jain community engage in some sort of charitable act, many devotees visit temples dedicated to Mahavira to meditate and offer prayers. Lectures by monks and nuns are held in temples to preach the path of virtue as defined by Jainism, donations are collected in order to promote charitable missions like saving cows from slaughter or helping to feed poor people. Ancient Jain temples across India typically see a high volume of practitioners come to pay their respects. Ahimsa runs and rallies preaching the Mahaviras message of Ahiṃsā are taken out on this day, many political leaders and government officials extend their greetings on this occasion. Jalaj, Dr. Jaykumar Jalaj History of Jainism Lord Mahavira Sayings Mahavira Jayanti
10.
Matha
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A matha is a Sanskrit word that means cloister, institute or college, and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism. Monastic life, for studies or the pursuit of moksha traces it roots to the 1st millennium BCE. The matha tradition in Hinduism was likely established in the second half of 1st millennium CE. Mathas grew over time, with the most famous and still surviving centers of Vedanta studies being those started by Adi Shankara, other major and influential mathas belong to various schools of Hindu philosophy, such as those of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The monastery host and feed students, sannyasis, gurus and are led by Acharyas and these monasteries are sometimes attached to Hindu temples and have their codes of conduct, initiation and election ceremonies. The mathas in the Hindu tradition have not been limited to religious studies, the term matha is also used for monastery in Jainism, and the earliest monasteries near Jain temples are dated to be from about the 5th-century CE. A matha refers to cloister, institute or college, and in some contexts refers to hut of an ascetic, the root of the word is math, which means inhabit or to grind. The roots of monastic life are traceable in the Vedic literature, the asceticism and monastic practices possibly emerged in India in the early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. Scholars such as Patrick Olivelle state that the history of Hindu monasteries played a role in the composition of the Sannyasa Upanishads of Hinduism, six of these Upanishads were composed before the 3rd-century CE, probably starting sometime in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. These six Sannyasa Upanishads are Aruni Upanishad, Kundika Upanishad, Kathashruti Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Jabala Upanishad, the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook, and these pre-date Adi Shankara. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism Vedanta philosophy and this may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu monasteries belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition. Almost all medieval Sannyasa Upanishads are also Advaita Vedantin because of these monasteries, the only significant exception is the 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism philosophy and is likely linked to a Vaishnavism monastery. In addition to the Upanishads, evidence of matha tradition in Hinduism is found in genre of its literature, such as chapter 12.139 of the Mahabharata. Matha-s were regionally known by terms, such as Ghatika-s and Khandika-s. The oldest verifiable Ghatika for Vedic studies, from inscription evidence is in Kanchi, the mathas and attached temples routinely hosted debating, Vedic recital and student competitions, and these were part of community festivals in the history of South Asia. Some Hindu monasteries offered hospice care for pilgrims and various forms of assistance to their local communities, the matha is a monastery, often with numerous students, many teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its daily operations. Their organization is more sophisticated than an Ashrama or Gurukul which is usually boutique, a matha, like a college, designates teaching, administrative and community interaction functions, with prefix or suffix to names, with titles such as Guru, Acharya, Swami and others. In Lingayat Shaiva mathas for example, teachers are Gurus, the functions the responsibilities of Acharyas
11.
Bhattaraka
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A Bhaṭṭāraka heads traditional Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies, the term bhaṭṭāraka was used for Virasena, Bhadrabahu and other notables. It was in the past used for leaders of religious orders in Shaivism, Buddhism and other groups, unlike a Digambara monk, a bhaṭṭāraka wears an orange robe, stays in a single place and is involved in management of assets of the institution. Thus a bhaṭṭāraka illuminates both dharmas, is an expert in all scriptures, has the authority to recite the suri-mantra and he is also responsible for preserving the order. He is the head of the six limbs of the sangha, shravaka, shravika, pandita, muni, many of the bhattarakas were prolific authors. They wrote hundreds of books and commentaries on various subjects, in Sanskrit. All existing Jain manuscripts available today owe their preservation to the libraries maintained by Bhattarakas, until modern times, all pratishthas were supervised by them or pandits designated by them. Once bhaṭṭārakas were common all over India, but currently, they are present only in South India, famous bhaṭṭāraka seats include, Shravanabelagola, seat of the Desiya Gana, Pustaka Order. This is where the Siddhanta Granthas were once preserved in the library, moodabidri, also a very important great holy seat of the Desiya Gana, Pustaka Order. The original manuscripts of the Siddhanta Granthas like Dhavala are preserved here, the present swamiji is very much experienced most popular India and abroad scholar, masters degree, doctorate holder in various subjects. On 29 August 1999 swamiji took charge of holy bhattarak seat, humbaj, seat of Balatkara Gana, Sarasvati Order. Acharya Shantisagar belonged to this tradition, kumbhoj Kolhapur Bhattaraka Lakshmisena of the Jinakanchi Jain Math, who heads the Tamil Jains. Still many Bhaṭṭāraka seats in North India existed until the beginning of the 20th century, in some locations disputes arose and the reformists opposed existing Bhattarakas because they did not display the scholarship expected, or disapproval of their spending of the institutional funds. Many Bhattarakas were unable to find suitable disciples to take their place after them, a new Bhattaraka seat has again come into existence at Hastinapur presided by Bhattaraka Ravindra Kirti. There are several theories of how the modern Bhattarka institution originated and he was invited by the ruler of Delhi, who is identified as Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. However Shrutasagara, in his commentary on Shatprabhrita, mentioned Prabhachandras predecessor Vasantakirti has having adopted body coverage first, until recent time, many Bhattarakas used to discard clothing within the monastery on specific occasions like eating, image consecretion or initiating another Bhattaraka. Mula Sangh Kashtha Sangh Yati Mahatma
12.
Bhaktamara Stotra
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Bhaktamara Stotra is a famous Jain sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Acharya Manatunga, the name Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two sanskrit names, Bhakta and Amar. The prayer praises Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, there are forty-eight verses in total. The last verse gives the name of the author Manatunga, Bhaktamar verses have been recited as a stotra, and sung as a stavan, somewhat interchangeably. Other Jain prayers have taken after these, additional verses here praise the omniscience of Adinatha, according to legends, the Jain monk Manatunga was chained and imprisoned by the local King Bhoja. The shasandevi yakshi Chakreshvari of Bhagwan Adinath appeared before Acharya Manatunga, mantungacharya composed this stotra in the prison. With the completion of each verse, a broke, or a door opened. Manatunga was free all the verses were finished. Legends associate Manatunga with a ruler named Bhoja, however Manatunga probably lived a few centuries before Raja Bhoja of Dhara. He is identified by scholars as Kshapanaka, one of the Navaratnas in the court of legendary Vikramaditya. An unidentified Sanskrit poet Matanga, composer of Brahaddeshi on music theory, Bhaktamara stotra was composed sometime in the Gupta or the post-Gupta period, making Manatunga approximately contemporary with other navaratnas like Kalidasa and Varahamihira. Several spots near Bhopal and Dhar are traditionally associated with Manatunga, Bhaktamara Stotra is believed to be at least a thousand years old, though many believe it to be still older. Bhaktamara Stotra has been passed down generation to generation. The importance and effectiveness is believed to have increased with the passage of time, Bhaktamara Stotra is recited by many with religious regularity. The original Stotra is in Sanskrit and written in Devnagiri script, the Bhaktamar Stotra has 48 stanzas. The complete panegyric is formed by 2888 letters and it is said that some specific stanzas are miraculously effective for fulfilment of different purposes. Bhaktamara stotra is widely illustrated in paintings, at the Sanghiji temple at Sanganer, there is a panel illustrating each verse. The verses of Bhaktamar are thought to possess magical properties, a mystical diagram, yantra, is associated with each verse
13.
Namokar Mantra
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Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most significant mantra in Jainism. This is the first prayer recited by the Jains while meditating, the mantra is also variously referred to as the Pancha Namaskāra Mantra, Navakāra Mantra or Namaskāra Mantra. The prayer is done towards the guṇa of the gods, teachers, Jains do not ask for any favors or material benefits from the tirthankaras or monastics. This mantra simply serves as a gesture of respect towards beings whom they believe are spiritually ahead. Navkar Mantra consists of 68 /69 alphabets A162 BCE inscription and it was inscribed by the Jain monarch Kharavela. Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the Preceptor
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Anekantavada
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It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah, which can be illustrated through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant. According to the Jains, only the Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, consequently, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth. The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra, the dialectical concepts of syādvāda conditioned viewpoints and nayavāda partial viewpoints arose from anekāntavāda, providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression. The Sanskrit compound an-eka-anta-vāda literally means doctrine of uncertainty (an- not, ekānta certainty or single-natured, vāda, an-ekānta uncertainty, non-exclusivity is the opposite of ekānta exclusiveness, absoluteness, necessity. Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals, the principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahiṃsā and satyagraha. The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words, anekānta and vāda, the word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an, eka, and anta. Hence, anekānta means not of solitary attribute, the Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva, that is, rationality and logic. According to Jains, the principle should always be logical. Thus, the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject, whether they are constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning. The other two are, syādvāda—the theory of conditioned predication and, nayavāda—the theory of partial standpoints and these Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. -, i. e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt, the optative conveys uncertainty, questioning or conditionality. According to Jain texts, a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters, each individual character is called a naya. Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality, a synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance. Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda, Acharya Samantabhadra asserts, Affirmation, only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non-conflicting situation, one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion. This is how the doctrine of conditional predications establishes the truth. ”Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology, as reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus syāt should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a point of view
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Jain cosmology
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Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe and its constituents according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe, as an entity, existing since infinity. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and this Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. It is characterised by chetana and upayoga, though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, ajīva Pudgala - Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i. e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible, Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed, dharma-dravya and Adharma-dravya - Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe, dharma and Adharma are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe, Ākāśa - Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points, Kāla - Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha, Conventional time is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances, real time, however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes that go on incessantly in all substances. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on natural laws. The existence of a deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajju high and its breadth is seven Rajjus at the bottom and decreases gradually till the middle where it is one Rajju. The width then increases gradually till it is five Rajju and again till it is one Rajju. The apex of the universe is one Rajju long, one Rajju wide, the total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajju. The svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is constant increase and decrease in the breadth, apart from the apex which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts
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Ahimsa in Jainism
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Ahimsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term ahimsa means nonviolence, non-injury or absence of desire to harm any life forms, vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. The Jain concept of ahimsa is very different from the concept of found in other philosophies. Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others, but according to the Jain philosophy, violence refers primarily to injuring ones own self – behaviour which inhibits the souls own ability to attain moksha. At the same time it also means violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms ones own soul. Furthermore, the Jains extend the concept of not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms. All life is sacred and everyone has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential, the living beings do not have any fear from those who have taken the vow of ahimsa. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known as abhayadānam, is the charity that a person can make. Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence. Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages, Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy, Jain Ācāryas have produced, through ages, quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects. According to Aidan Rankin, the concept of ahimsa is very much intertwined with Jainism, Jain texts expound that there are ten vitalities or life-principles, these are, the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Living beings are classified on the basis of their sensory organs, According to Jain texts, The one-sensed lives possess four vitalities – sense organ of touch, strength of body or energy, respiration, and life-duration. The two-sensed beings have six, namely the sense of taste, the three-sensed beings have seven with the addition of the sense of smell. The four-sensed beings have eight with the addition of the sense of sight, the five- sensed beings without mind have nine life-principles with the addition of the sense of hearing. Those endowed with mind are said to have ten vitalities with the addition of the mind, According to Tattvarthasutra, a major Jain text, the severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Therefore, the higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has, out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest. But, the ascetic is required to avoid injuring the one-sensed form of life to the best of his ability. Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher-sensed beings, in Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five major vows
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Karma in Jainism
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Karma is the basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. Human moral actions form the basis of the transmigration of the soul, the soul is constrained to a cycle of rebirth, trapped within the temporal world, until it finally achieves liberation. Liberation is achieved by following a path of purification, Karma not only encompasses the causality of transmigration, but is also conceived of as an extremely subtle matter, which infiltrates the soul—obscuring its natural, transparent and pure qualities. Karma is thought of as a kind of pollution, that taints the soul with various colours, based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of karma, various types of karma are classified according to their effects on the potency of the soul. The Jain theory seeks to explain the process by specifying the various causes of karmic influx and bondage, placing equal emphasis on deeds themselves. The Jain karmic theory attaches great responsibility to individual actions, the Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities and purity of conduct. According to Jains, all souls are pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss. However, in experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time and this bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further, Jainism speaks of karmic dirt, as karma is thought to be manifest as very subtle and microscopically imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe. They are so small that one space-point—the smallest possible extent of space—contains an infinite number of karmic particles and it is these karmic particles that adhere to the soul and affect its natural potency. This material karma is called dravya karma, and the resultant emotions—pleasure, pain, love, hatred, the relationship between the material and psychic karma is that of cause and effect. The material karma gives rise to the feelings and emotions in worldly souls, which—in turn—give rise to psychic karma and these emotions, yet again, result in influx and bondage of fresh material karma. Jains hold that the matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are the carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world. When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in an interactive karmic field called kārmaṇa śarīra, thus, karma is a subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul
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Moksha (Jainism)
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Sanskrit moksha or Prakrit mokkha means liberation or salvation. It is a state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from saṃsāra. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge, such a soul is called siddha and is revered in Jainism. In Jainism, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve, in fact, it is the only objective that a person should have, other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With the right view, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state and that is why Jainism is also known as mokṣamārga or the path to liberation. According to the Sacred Jain Text, Tattvartha sutra, Owing to the absence of the cause of bondage, from the point of view of potentiality of mokṣa, Jain texts bifurcates the souls in two categories–bhavya and abhavya. Bhavya souls are those souls who have faith in mokṣa and hence will make some efforts to achieve liberation and this potentiality or quality is called bhavyata. However, bhavyata itself does not guarantee mokṣa, as the needs to expend necessary efforts to attain it. On the other hand, abhavya souls are those souls who cannot attain liberation as they do not have faith in mokṣa, according to Jainism, the Ratnatraya or three Gems, samyagdarśana, samyagjñāna and samyakcāritra, together constitute the mokṣamarga or the path to liberation. According to Acharya KundaKundas Samayasara, Belief in the nine substances as they are is right faith, Knowledge of these substances without doubt, delusion or misapprehension, is right knowledge. Being free from attachment etc. is right conduct and these three, together, constitute the path to liberation. Samyak Darsana or rational perception is the faith in the true nature of every substance of the universe. Samyak Caritra or rational conduct is the conduct of a living being. It consists in following austerities, engaging in activities and observance of vows, carefulness. Once a soul secures samyaktva, mokṣa is assured within a few lifetimes, the fourteen stages on the path to liberation are called Gunasthāna. These are, Those who pass the last stage are called siddha and become established in Right Faith, Right Knowledge. Nirvāna means final release from the karmic bondage, when an enlightened human, such as an Arhat or a Tirthankara, extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called nirvāna. Technically, the death of an Arhat is called their nirvāṇa, as he has ended his worldly existence, however, the terms moksa and nirvana are often used interchangeably in the Jain texts
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Kevala Jnana
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Kevala jñāna means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as absolute knowledge or supreme knowledge. Kevala jnana is believed to be a quality of all souls. This quality is masked by karmic particles that surround the soul, every soul has the potential to obtain omniscience by shedding off these karmic particles. Jain scriptures speak of stages through which the soul achieves this goal. A soul who has attained kevala jnana is called a kevalin According to the Jains, only kevalins can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, the views of two sects of Jainism, Digambara and Śvētāmbara Jains differ on the subject of kevalins. According to Digambaras, a kevalin does not experience hunger or thirst, whereas according to Svetambaras, According to both traditions, the last kevalin was a disciple of one of the eleven chief disciples of the last tirthankara, Mahāvīra, his name is recorded as Jambuswami. It is also believed that no one after Jambuswami will have the ability to obtain kevala jnana, the claim of existence of omniscience by Jains, who deny the existence of a creator god, is a unique phenomenon. The Sutrakritanga text of the Svetambara school, elaborates the concept as all-knowing, immediately after the death of Mahavira, his disciple Indrabhuti Gautama became a kevalin. As per the tradition, the teachings of the tirthankara were memorized and preserved over many centuries, in the second Upanga Agama, the Rājapraśnīya, there is a dialogue between Kesi, a disciple of Pārśva, and Payasi, a materialist king. In this dialogue, Kesi proves the existence of jiva and its ability to obtain kevala jñana to the king, the Jains have a long debate with Hindus and Buddhists regarding omniscience. Bhikkhu Dhamakriti criticized the Jain notion of omniscience in his Pramanavartika, the Hindu philosopher Kumarila argued that only Veda had the authority to define human moral values since they were beginningless, authorless and of self-sufficient validity. In response, the Jain monk Haribhadra wrote that already had knowledge of everything knowable. It only had to be illuminated or uncovered, omniscience was, according to Haribhadra, inherent to living beings. The one who perceives directly the objects of knowledge that are minute, past, and distant is the Omniscient, akalanka put forward the concept of suniscita-asambhavad-badhaka-pramana as a reason for the existence of omniscience. This concept is a fact which is we have no valid methods of knowing to deny the existence of omniscience. Hemacandra combined Samantabhadra and Akalankas ideas of sarvajña in his Pramanamimasa to establish the existence of omniscience, in Jain epistemology, there are two kinds of valid methods of knowledge, pratyakṣa or direct knowledge and parokṣa or indirect knowledge. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with Anekantavada, which can be explained through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant
20.
Ethics of Jainism
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Jain ethical code prescribes two dharmas or rules of conduct. One for those who wish to become ascetic and another for the śrāvaka, five fundamental vows are prescribed for both votaries. These vows are observed by śrāvakas partially and are termed as anuvratas, ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly and therefore observe complete abstinence. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned only to make the disciple understand through illustrations. Apart from five main vows, a householder is expected to observe seven supplementary vows, mahavrata are the five fundamental observed by the Jain ascetics. Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow, according to the Jain text, Tattvarthsutra, The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Not to lie or speak what is not commendable, the underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore, it is said to cause hiṃsā. According to the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi, that causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable. The fourth great vow of asceticism is concerned with abrahma, brahmacharya refers to the self-control in respect of sex-function. It means avoiding all the kinds of natural and unnatural sex-gratification, according to Tattvarthsutra, Infatuation is attachment to possessions. Jain texts mentions that attachment to possessions is of two kinds, attachment to internal possessions, and attachment to external possessions, according to Jain texts, both internal and external possessions are proved to be hiṃsā. Apart from five fundamental vows seven supplementary vows are prescribed for a śrāvaka and these include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas. The vow of sallekhanâ is observed by the votary at the end of his life and it is prescribed both for the ascetics and householders. Digvrata- restriction on movement with regard to directions, bhogopabhogaparimana- vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things Anartha-dandaviramana- refraining from harmful occupations and activities. Samayika- vow to meditate and concentrate periodically, desavrata- limiting movement to certain places for a fixed period of time. Atihti samvibhag- Vow of offering food to the ascetic and needy people, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the prescribed vows to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhanā at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, there are five, five transgressions respectively for the vows and the supplementary vows. Institute of Indology, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain
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Sallekhana
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Sallekhana is the last vow prescribed by the Jain ethical code of conduct. The vow of sallekhana is observed by the Jain ascetics and lay votaries at the end of their life by reducing the intake of food. Sallekhana is allowed when normal life according to religion is not possible due to old age and it is a highly respected practice among the members of the Jain community. According to Jain texts, sallekhana leads to ahimsā, as a person observing sallekhana subjugates the passions, in 2015, the Rajasthan High Court banned the practice, calling it suicide. On 31 August 2015, the Supreme Court of India stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court, Sallekhana is made up from two words sal and lekhana, which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is sallekhana, Sallekhana is prescribed both for householders and ascetics. In Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five fundamental vows, ascetics must observe complete abstinence and their vows are thus called mahavratas, the vows of the laity are called anuvratas. Jain ethical code also prescribes seven supplementary vows, which include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the vows prescribed to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhana at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, Sallekhana is treated as a supplementary to the twelve vows taken by Jains. However, some Jain Acharyas such as Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin and Vasunandin have included it under the last vow, according to famous Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the sallekhana can be observed only on the arrival of unavoidable calamity, distress, senescence and disease. The duration of the practice could be up to years or more. Sixth part of the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is on sallekhana, the procedure expounded is as follows— Giving up solid food by degrees, one should take to milk and whey, then giving them up, to hot or spiced water. Giving up hot water also, and observing fasting with full determination, he should give up his body, the purpose is to purge old karmas and prevent the creation of new ones. The vow of Sallekhana can not be taken by a lay person on his own without being permitted by a monk, in around 300 BC, Chandragupta Maurya undertook sallekhana atop Chandragiri Hill, Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa, Karnataka. Chandragupta basadi at Shravanabelagola marks the place where the saint Chandragupta died, the Doddahundi nishidhi inscription, a hero stone from Doddahundi,18 km from Tirumakudalu Narasipura in the Mysore district, Karnataka state, India. It has an undated old Kannada language inscription which historians J. F. Fleet, I. K. Sarma, rice have dated by context to 840 or 869 C. E. The hero stone has a depiction in frieze of the ritual death of the Western Ganga Dynasty king Ereganga Nitimarga I. The memorial was raised by the kings son Satyavakya, such nishidhis were raised in medieval India in honor of important Jain personalities who ended their life voluntarily after following severe ritual vow
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Tirthankara
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In Jainism, a tirthankara is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the dharma. The word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which is a passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. According to Jains, a tirthankara is an individual who has conquered the saṃsāra. After understanding the nature of the Self or soul, the Tīrthaṅkara attains Kevala Jnana. Tirthankara provides a bridge for others to follow the new teacher from saṃsāra to moksha, according to Jain cosmology, in each half of the cosmic time cycle, exactly twenty-four tirthankaras grace this part of the universe. The first tirthankara was Rishabhanatha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously, the 24th and last tirthankara of present half-cycle was Mahavira. History records the existence of Mahavira and his predecessor, Parshvanatha, a tirthankara organises the sangha, a fourfold order of male and female monastics, srāvakas and śrāvikās. The tirthankaras teachings form the basis for the Jain canons, the inner knowledge of tirthankara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement, the higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required. While tirthankaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to all living beings, Tīrthaṅkaras are arihants who after attaining kevalajñāna preach the true dharma. An Arihant is also called Jina, that is one who has conquered inner enemies such as anger, attachment, pride and they dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they help others in attaining kevalajñana, the word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Tirthankaras are variously called Teaching Gods, Ford-Makers, Crossing Makers and Makers of the River-Crossing, Jain texts propound that a special type of karma, the tīrthaṅkara nama-karma, raises a soul to the supreme status of a Tīrthaṅkara. Five auspicious events called, Pañca kalyāṇaka marks the life of tirthankara, Gārbha kalyāṇaka. Janma kalyāṇaka, Birth of a tirthankara, indra performs a ceremonial bath on tirthankara on Mount Meru. Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara renounces all worldly possessions and become an ascetic, jñāna kalyāṇaka, The event when a tirthankara attains kevalajñāna. A samavasarana is erected from where he delivers sermons and restores sangha after that, nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara leaves his mortal body, it is known as nirvana
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Rishabhanatha
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Rishabhanatha also Ṛṣabhadeva, Rishabhadeva, or Ṛṣabha is the first Tirthankara of the present half cycle of time in Jainism. The word Tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a sea, the Tirthankara shows the fordable path across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is also known as Ādinātha which translates into First Lord and he was born to King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi in Ayodhya. He is associated with his Bull emblem, the Nyagrodha tree, Gomukha Yaksha and he had two wives, Sunanda and Sumangala. Sumangala was the mother of sons and one daughter, Brahmi. Sunanda was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari, the sudden fatal death of Nilanjana, one of the dancers of Indra, reminded him of the worlds transitory nature and he developed a desire for renunciation. After being initiated as a Digambara monk, he is said to have wandered without food for a whole year, the day on which he got his first ahara, is celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya by Jains. He is said to have attained Moksha from Mount Kailash, adi Purana contains the information over legends related to Rishabhanatha. His colossal statues include Statue of Ahimsa, Bawangaja and those erected in Gopachal hill, Jain cosmology divides the Worldly Time cycle into two halves with six aras in each half. Twenty-four Tirthankaras grace this part of the universe in the period, known as duşamā-suşamā. The present half cycle being a case, Rishabhanatha, the first tīrthaṅkara was born at the end of the third period itself. This cycle will start reversing at the onset of utsarpinī kāl with the Dukhama-dukhamā being the first period, according to Jain texts, Rishabhanatha was born in the age when there was happiness all around with no work for men to do. Gradually as the cycle moved, and Kalpavriksha disappeared, people rushed to their King for help, Rishabhanatha is then said to have taught the men six main professions. These were, Asi, Masi, Krishi, Vidya, Vanijya, in other words, he is credited with introducing karma-bhumi by teaching these professions to householders to enable them to earn a livelihood. The institution of marriage is said to have come into existence after he married to set an example for humans to follow. In total, Rishabhanatha is said to have taught seventy-two sciences which include, arithmetic, the plastic and visual arts, Jain chronology places the date of Rishabhanatha at an almost immeasurable antiquity in the past. Rishabhanatha is said to be the founder of Jainism in the present half cycle, there is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārśvanātha. The Yajurveda mentions the name of three Tīrthaṅkaras - Ṛṣabha, Ajitnātha and Ariṣṭanemi, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa endorses the view that Ṛṣabha was the founder of Jainism
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Parshvanatha
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Parshvanatha, also known as Parshva, was the twenty-third Tirthankara of Jainism. He is the earliest Jain leader for whom there is evidence of having been a historical figure. Circumstantial evidence including a description of the teachings of Parshvanatha in the Sayings of the Seers, Parshvanatha was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush to King Asvasena and Queen Vamadevi of Benaras. He belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty and he assumed and began to practice the twelve basic vows of the adult Jain householder when he reached the age of eight. Parshvanatha lived as formal prince of Benaras and at the age of thirty and he meditated for eighty-four days before attaining Kevala Jnana under a Dhaataki tree near Benaras. His first disciples were his mother and wife, after preaching for 70 years, he achieved moksha at the age of one hundred atop Shikharji, which is known today as the Parasnath Hills after him. Parshvanatha was called purisādāṇīya, a name which shows that he must have been a genial personality, Marubhuti - Visvabhuti, the prime minister of King Aravinda had two sons, elder one named Kamath and younger one named Marubhuti. Kamath killed Marubhuti and died as a criminal, elephant - He was then reborn as an elephant in the forests of Vindyachal. Meanwhile, King Aravinda, after death of his minister Marubhuti, when the elephant came near Aravinda, he recalled his previous human life by the blessings of Aravinda and became calm. Kamath was reborn as a serpent this time, one day, when the elephant went to a river to quench his thirst, the serpent attacked him and he died the peaceful death of absolute renunciation. Sasi-prabha - Vajraghosha was reborn as Sasi-prabha in the twelfth heaven, Agnivega - After spending a luxurious life in heaven, he was reborn as prince Agnivega. He ascended the throne of his father which he renounced to lead an ascetic life. Kamath was reborn as a serpent again after hell and again killed the ascetic in Himalayas during penance, when he was a prince he saved two snakes that had been trapped in a log in an Kamath’s fire. Later, the snakes were reborn as Dharnendra, the lord of the kingdom of the nāgas. Dharnendra and Padmavati sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by a Meghmali, according to the Kalpa Sūtra, Parshvanatha had 164,000 śrāvakas and 327,000 śrāvikās and 16,000 sādhus and 38,000 sādhvīs. He had eight ganadharas, Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra, after his death, the ganadhara Śubhadatta became the head of the monastic order. He was then succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and Keśī, one of the question as mentioned in Śvētāmbara text was The Law taught by Parsva, recognizes but four vows, whilst that of Vardhamana enjoins five. Therefore, according to texts, Parshvanatha taught four vows instead of the presently famous five vows
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Mahavira
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Mahavira, also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara. Mahavira was born into a family in what is now Bihar, India. At the age of 30, he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, and abandoned worldly things, including his clothes, for the next twelve-and-a-half years, Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance, after which he became kevalī. For the next 30 years, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent to teach Jain philosophy, Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha is necessary to elevate the quality of life. He gave the principle of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada, the teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami and were called Jain Agamas. Most of these Agamas are not available today, jains believe Mahavira attained moksha at the age of 72. In Jainism, a Tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths, according to the Jain texts, twenty-four Tirthankaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpani, Samantabhadra, an illustrious Digambara monk, who lived in the 2nd century A. D. called the tīrtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya. Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors, in addition to that, Parshvanatha is accepted as a historical figure. According to Jain texts, Mahaviras childhood name was Vardhamāna, because of the prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth. He was called Mahavira because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood, Mahavira was given the title Jīnā, which later became synonymous with Tirthankara. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta, Nigaṇṭha means without knot, tie, or string and Jñātaputta, refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya. He is also known as Sramana, in the Gregorian calendar, this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti. Traditionally, Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace, in the present-day Sikandra Division of Jamui district, according to Jainism, after his birth, anointment and abhisheka —carried out by Indra on Mount Meru. Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama, now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar, Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B. C. to 527 B. C. Western historians date Mahavira as living from 480 BC to 408 BC, some Western scholars suggest Mahavira died around 425 BC. His height was seven cubits as per the description given in Aupapatika Sutra, as the son of a king, Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal. According to the chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra
26.
Arihant (Jainism)
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Arihant or jina, is a soul who has conquered inner passions such as attachment, anger, pride and greed. Arihant are also called kevalins as they possess Kevala Jnana, an arihant is also called a Jina conqueror. At the end of their life, arihants destroy all four gathiya karmas and attain moksha, the Ṇamōkāra mantra, fundamental prayer dedicated to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi begin with, Ṇnamō arihantāṇnamṁ--Obeisance to the arihants. Kevalī are said to be of two kinds- Tirthankara kevalī-24 human spiritual guides who after attaining omniscience teach the path to salvation, sāmānya kevalī- Kevalī who are concerned with their own liberation. According to Jains, every soul has the potential to become arihant, a soul which destroys all kashayas or inner enemies like anger, ego, deception, and greed - responsible for the perpetuation of ignorance - becomes an Arihant. According to Jain texts, omniscience is attained on the destruction of the deluding, the knowledge-obscuring, the perception-obscuring, according to Jain texts, omniscience is the natural attribute of the pure souls. The Self attaining omniscience becomes a kevalī, the four infinitudes are, ananta jñāna, infinite knowledge ananta darśana, perfect perception due to the destruction of all darshanavarniya karmas. Ananta sukha, infinite bliss, and ananta vīrya – infinite energy and those Arihants who re-establish Jain faith are called Tirthankaras. Tirthankaras revitalize the sangha, the order consisting of male saints, female saints, male householders. The first Tirthankara of the current time cycle was R̥ṣabhadēva, and the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara was Mahavira, Jain texts mention forty-six attributes of arihants or tirthankaras. These attributes comprise four infinitudes, thirty-four miraculous happenings, and eight splendours, at the time of nirvana, the arihant sheds off the remaining four aghati karmas, Nam Karma Gotra Karma, Vedniya Karma, Ayushya Karma. These four karmas do not affect the nature of the soul and are therefore called aghati karmas. After attaining salvation from these arihants become siddhas, since siddhas have attained ultimate liberation, they are not accessible. However arihants are accessible for spiritual guidance to human society until their nirvana, Jains Jainism and Jainness, Living Jainism, An Ethical Science, John Hunt Publishing, ISBN 978-1780999111 Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha
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Kundakunda
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Acharya Kundakunda is a revered Digambara Jain monk and philosopher. He authored many Jain texts such as, Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pancastikayasara, Pravachanasara, Atthapahuda and he occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas. Modern scholarship has found it difficult to locate him chronologically, with a possible low date in the 2nd-3rd centuries CE and a late date in 8th century. His proper name was Padmanandin, he is referred to as Kundakunda possibly because the modern village of Kondakunde in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh might represent his native home. Upadhye has shown that possibly apart from the name Elacarya, all the other names ascribed to Kundakunda go against the tradition of the epigraphic records. Acharya Kundakunda belonged to the Mula Sangh order and he is closely associated with the Digambara sect, also in recent decades, his books have become popular among Śvētāmbaras also. He is dated to have flourished around second century CE by Natubhai Shah, for Digambaras, his name has auspicious significance and occupies third place after Lord Mahavira and Gautama Ganadhara in the sacred litany. This would make him the first significant and independent thinker of the period whose views are accepted as representing the Jain thought. The mundane aspect is associated with the qualities of the soul mainly the influx of karmic particles. The ultimate perspective meanwhile, is that of the soul or atman, the jiva, which is blissful, energetic, perceptive. According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, the works attributed to Kundakunda, all of them in Prakrit, can be divided in three groups. The first group comprises four original works described as The Essence — namely, the Niyamasara, the Pancastikayasara, the Samayasara, and the Pravachanasara. The second group is a collection of ten bhaktis, short compositions in praise of the acharya, the scriptures, the mendicant conduct, and so forth. The last group consists of eight short texts called Prabhrta, probably compilations from some sources, on such topics as the right view, right conduct, the scripture. Various Jain texts mention that Acharya Kundkunda wrote 84 Pahurs, simandhar Swami Jain, Vijay K. Essays in Jaina Philosophy and Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1977-2 Cort, John E
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Siddhasena
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Siddhasēna Divākara was an Digambara monk in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the lamp of the Jain order and therefore came to be known as Divākara Lamp-Maker. He is credited with the authorship of books, most of which are not available. Sanmatitarka is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit, Siddhasena Divakara is said to have lived from 500 CE to 610 CE. He was a Brahmin by birth and a scholar and he was initiated by Acharya Vruddhavadi. According to the tradition, Siddhasena Divakara once planned to all the Jaina works from prakrit to Sanskrit. He was asked by his master to all the Jain temples as a punishment. He thus visited the Jain temples for twelve years and he then came upon a Linga temple in Ujjain. He slept at the temple with his feet towards the Linga, king Vikramaditya had him beaten for the sin on request of the devotees. However, with powers, Siddhasena Divakara made that the Kings wife received the beating instead of him. He broke the Linga by raising his hand and an idol of Parshvanatha emerged from there, siddhasenas main contribution in the Sanmatitarka is his analysis of the Jain theory of Anekantavada. This view sees the best account of reality as one which includes permanence and impermanence, identity, Siddhasena also argued that the number of possible nayas or viewpoints of reality is potentially limitless. He then goes on to each of the nayas with the positions of Indian philosophical schools, showing how each view is only a partial. He was the author of Sammati-tarka-prakarana and is said to have written the Nyāyāvatāra, Sanmati sutra, shrotri, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1376-6
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Digambara
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Digambara is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being Śvētāmbara. The word Digambara is a combination of two words, dig and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space, Digambara monks do not wear any clothes. The monks carry picchi, a made up of fallen peacock feathers, kamandalu. One of the most important scholar-monks of Digambara tradition was Kundakunda and he authored Prakrit texts such as the Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra. Other prominent Acharyas of this tradition were, Virasena, Samantabhadra, the Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda have major significance in the Digambara tradition. The word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words, dik and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be parigraha, a Digambara monk has 28 mūla guņas. These are, five mahāvratas, five samitis, pañcendriya nirodha, Şadāvaśyakas, the monks carry picchi, a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects without causing them injury, Kamandalu and shastra. The head of all monastics is called Āchārya, while the saintly preceptor of saints is the upādhyāya, the Āchārya has 36 primary attributes in addition to the 28 mentioned above. The monks perform kayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as aryikas. According to Digambara texts, after liberation of the Lord Mahavira, during the next hundred years, five Āchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called Śruta Kevalīs, the last of them being Āchārya Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of orders is known as Pattavali. Relics found from Harrapan excavations like seals depicting Kayotsarga posture, idols in Padmasana, the presence of gymnosophists in Greek records as early as the fourth century BC, supports the claim of the Digambaras that they have preserved the ancient Śramaṇa practice. The Digambara Jains worship completely nude idols of tirthankaras and siddha, the tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. The truly sky-clad Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of the one who has stripped off every bond and his is an absolute abiding in itself, a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction. The Digambara sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the texts accepted by the other major sect, according to the Digambaras, Āchārya Dharasena guided two Āchāryas, Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in written form,683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama on palm leaves which is considered to be among the oldest known Digambara texts, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original Jain Agamas. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira
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Jain Agamas
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Agamas are original texts of Jainism based on the discourses of the tirthankara. The discourse delivered in a samavasarana is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas, the discourse is recorded by Ganadharas, and is composed of twelve angas. It is generally represented by a tree with twelve branches and this forms the basis of the Jaina Agamas or canons. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, the earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were composed in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language. Agama is a Sanskrit word which signifies the coming of a body of doctrine by means of transmission through a lineage of authoritative teachers and these scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of learning that one needs to know. According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had knowledge of the original canon. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira. Āchārya Dharasen, in first century CE, guided two Āchāryas, Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali, to put these teachings in the written form, the two Āchāryas wrote, on palm leaves, Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama- among the oldest known Digambara Jaina texts. This was about 683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira, the general consensus amongst western scholars, like Ian Whicher and David Carpenter is that the earliest portions of Jain siddhanta were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BC. However, with time, it became difficult to keep the entire Jain literature committed to memory, chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu, was the head of Jain community. Predicting a 12 year long famine, Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, during this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled, due to the twelve years of famine it was extremely difficult for the Jain ascetics to preserve the entire canonical literature. The Purvas or the ancient texts were already forgotten and lost after the famine, the existing Svetambara texts are based on the Vallabhi council texts. Digambaras reject the authority of the Agamas compiled at Valabhi, the knowledge of Shruta-Jnana, may be of things which are contained in the Angas or of things outside the Angas. The most authoritative Jain text accepted both by Digambara and Svetamberas is Tattvartha Sutra and it is the first Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language. Other Sanskrit Jain literature includes śrāvakācāras such as the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, Digambaras group texts into four literary categories called exposition. The Jain literature includes both religious texts and books on generally secular topics such as sciences, history, and grammar, the Jains have used several languages at different times and in different regions of India. The earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language, Prakrit Prakrit literature includes the Aagams, Aagam-tulya texts, and Siddhanta texts
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Tattvartha Sutra
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Tattvartha Sutra is an ancient Jain text written by Acharya Umaswati, sometime between the 2nd- and 5th-century AD. It is the one of the Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language, Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra. The Tattvartha Sutra is regarded as one of the earliest, most authoritative books on Jainism, and its importance in Jainism is comparable with that of the Brahma Sutras and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in Hinduism. It is a text in sutra or aphorisms, and presents the complete Jainism philosophy in 350 sutras over 10 chapters, the term Tattvartha is composed of the Sanskrit words tattva which means reality, truth and artha which means nature, meaning, together meaning nature of reality. One of its sutra, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism and its meaning is interpreted as of souls is to help one another, or Souls render service to one another. Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra, the first verse of Tattvārthsūtra, सम्यग्दर्शनज्ञानचारित्राणि मोक्षमार्ग, summarizes the Jaina path to liberation. It means that the Ratnatraya collectively constitutes the path to liberation or moksha, the next three chapters deal with the Jīva, lower worlds, naraka, and celestial abodes, deva. The fifth chapter discusses the Non-soul, the next three chapters deal with the karmas and their manifestations and the influx, asrava, good and bad karma, shubha-ashubha karma and the bondage of the karmas. The ninth chapter describes the blocking, samvara and shedding of the karmas, the final chapter discusses moksha or the liberation of the soul. The theology in Tattvartha Sutra presents seven categories of truth in sutra 1 and he adds that knowledge is also acquired through literature, clairvoyance, and omniscience. In chapter 2, Umaswati presents sutras on soul, in chapter 3 through 6, Umaswati presents sutras for his first three categories of truth. In chapter 7, Umaswati presents the Jaina vows and explains their value in stopping karmic particle inflow to the soul, the vows, translates Nathmal Tatia, are ahimsa, anirta, asteya, brahmacharya, and aparigraha. Umaswati, in chapter 8 of Tattvartha Sutra presents his sutras on how karma affects rebirths. He asserts that accumulated karma in life determine the length of life and realm of rebirth for each soul in each of four states – infernal beings, plants and animals, human beings and as gods. Further, states Umaswati, karma also affects the body, the shape, the accumulated and new karma are material particles, states Umaswati, which stick to the soul and these travel with the soul from one life to the next as bondage, where each ripens. Once ripened, the particles fall off, states Umaswati. The chapter 9 of Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati describe how karmic particles can be stopped from attaching to the soul and he asserts that gupti, dharma, contemplation, endurance in hardship, and with good character towards others, a soul stops karmic accumulations. The state of liberation is presented in Chapter 10 by Umaswati and it is achieved when deluding and obstructive karmas have been destroyed
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Dravyasamgraha
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Dravyasaṃgraha is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition. It is a composition of 58 gathas giving an exposition of the six dravyas that characterize the Jain view of the world, sentient, non-sentient, principle of motion, principle of rest, space and it is one of the most important Jain works and has gained widespread popularity. Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness as well as brevity, 10th century Jain Acarya, Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravartin is regarded as the author of Dravyasaṃgraha. He was the teacher of Camundaraya—the general of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka, Nemicandra was a prolific author and a specialist in summarizing and giving lucidly the essence of teachings in various fields, saṃgrahas and sāras were his specialty. He also wrote Trilokasāra, Labdhisāra, Kṣapaṇasāra, and Gommaṭasāra, although not much is known about him from his own works, at the end of the Trilokasāra and of the Gommaṭasāra, he introduces himself as a pupil of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, Indranandi and Kanakanandi. He is said to have inspired Camundaraya to build the famous Bāhubali statue at Shravanabelagola, vahuvali Charitra notes that Nemicandra belonged to the monastic order of Desiya gana. After establishing the statue of Bāhubali, Camundaraya offered villages yielding a revenue of 96,000 gold coins to Nemicandra for daily worship of, Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness and brevity. According to Nalini Balbir, the Dravyasaṃgraha is largely a work of definitions of concepts with mnemonic perspective, in its 58 verses, the author makes skillful use of āryā metre. Nemicandra’s presentation is often articulated around the opposition between the conventional and the points of view, or around the contrast between the material and the spiritual angles. In tine opening verse, along with the usual mangalacharana, it is mentioned that dravya consists of jiva and ajiva. In the second verse Jiva is defined, The sentient substance is characterized by the function of understanding, is incorporeal and it is the enjoyer, located in the world of rebirth emancipated has the intrinsic movement upwards. The various characteristics of Jiva mentioned in the definition are taken up one by one in verses 3–14, Dravyasaṃgraha classifies the embodied souls on the basis of the number of senses possessed by it, from one to five senses. After this detailed description of Jivas the author proceeds to describe Ajivas—Pudgala, Dharma, adharma, Akasa and Kala, among these, as per verse 23, the Jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharma, and akasa are called astikayas, the extensibles or conglomerates. The second part deals with the seven tattvas, jīva, ajīva, āsrava, bandha, saṃvara, nirjarā, together with puṇya and pāpa they form nine padartha. Some call all nine as navatattava or nine tattvas, the third part of Dravyasaṃgraha begins with verse 39 describing the means to attain liberation from conventional and real point of views. Do not act, do not talk, do not think at all, verses 49 to 54 of the Dravyasaṃgraha, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings and their characteristics. One of the most popular commentaries of Dravyasaṃgraha is that by Brahmadeva from around the 14th century, ramacandra – Commentary on Nemicandras Dravyasamgraha. Jain Agamas Jainism List of Jain texts Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha, ISBN9788190363952, Non-copyright Acarya Nemicandra, Brahmadeva, Ghoshal, Sarat Chandra, ed
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History of Jainism
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Jainism is an ancient religion of India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara, the last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are historical figures. There is limited evidence for the 22nd tirthankara Neminatha who was the cousin of Krishna. Jainism is a philosophy of eternity and Jains consider their religion to be eternal, according to Heinrich Zimmer, Jainism can be traced back as far as third or fourth millennium BC, due to the discovery of a series of great late Stone Age cities in the Indus Valley. Of the two sects of Jainism, the Digambara sect is the oldest, and the Śvētāmbara sect was formed in the 3rd century BC as a separate division from the Digambara sect. They were later subdivided into several sub-sects, Jainism faced a period of decline in medieval India till 19th century due to attacks from Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam, after which it was revived by various Jain saints. The origins of Jainism are obscure, the Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-cycle. Different scholars have had different views on the origin, the archeological evidence does not support traditional Jain view of antiquity. According to Glasenapp, the first century after the year 1000 BCE would be the limit to the origin of Jainism. Regarding the antiquity of Jainism, Dr. C, in the first volume of The Cultural Heritage of India, The Jains claim a great antiquity for their religion. Their earliest tirthankar of present cycle was Rishabhdeva, who is mentioned even in the Vishnu, in the earliest Brahmanic literature are found traces of the existence of a religious Order. Similar to Buddhism, the concept of earlier teachers existed as early as the 3rd century, the number gradually increased to seven and then to twenty four. By the first or second century CE, the tradition of 24 Tirthankaras was well established, in Buddhist sources, Mahavira is not mentioned as a founder of new tradition so he mught have been reformer of tradition already established by his predecessor Parsvanatha. During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism, Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of present cosmic age. Though, Mahavira is sometimes regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who. There is reasonable evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. Neminatha was the predecessor of Parshvanatha,84,000 years earlier, in 1890–91, Kankali Tila at Mathura was excavated by Dr. Fuhrer. After studying the findings of excavation, Dr. Fuhrer was of the view that Neminatha was a historical figure
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