1.
Lawrence massacre
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By 1863, Kansas had long been the center of strife and warfare over the admission of slave versus free states. In the summer of 1856, the first sacking of Lawrence sparked a war in Kansas that lasted for months. John Brown might be the best known participant in the violence of the late 1850s participating on the abolitionist or Jayhawker side, initially, the town and surrounding area were extremely vigilant and reacted strongly to any rumors that enemy forces might be advancing on the town. However, by the summer of 1863, none of the threats had materialized, so citizen fears had declined, Quantrill himself said that his motivation for the attack was to plunder, and destroy the town in retaliation for Osceola. That was a reference to the Unions attack on Osceola, Missouri in September 1861, Osceola was plundered and nine men were given a drumhead court-martial trial and executed. Several other Missouri towns and large swaths of the Missouri countryside had been plundered and burned by Unionist forces from Kansas. Castel concludes that revenge was the motive, followed by a desire to plunder. The retaliatory nature of the attack on Lawrence was confirmed by the survivors, the purported objective of this group was to eliminate civilian support for the Confederate guerillas, but their tactics were employed rather indiscriminately. As one observer noted, “I believe the Red Legs will kill any man in this country for a good horse, Charles Robinson, first Governor of Kansas and eyewitness to the raid, characterized the raid as an act of vengeance. In a bid to put down the Missouri guerrilla raiders operating in Kansas, General Thomas Ewing,10, which ordered the arrest of anyone giving aid or comfort to Confederate guerrillas. This meant chiefly women or girls who were relatives of the guerrillas, Ewing confined those arrested in a series of makeshift prisons in Kansas City. The women were housed in two buildings which were considered either too small or too unsanitary, before being moved to an empty property at 1425 Grand. This structure was part of the estate of the deceased Robert S. Thomas, in 1861 Bingham and his family were living in the structure, but in early 1862 after being appointed treasurer of the state of Missouri, he and his family relocated to Jefferson City. Bingham had added a story to the existing structure to use as a studio. A few days later, Nannie Harris died from her wounds, survivors of the collapse included, Jenny Anderson, Susan Anne Mundy Womacks, Martha Mattie Mundy, Lucinda Lou Mundy Gray, Elizabeth Harris, and Mollie Grindstaff. Andersons 13-year-old sister, who was shackled to a ball-and-chain inside the jail, rumors circulated that the structure was undermined by the guards to cause its collapse. However, a 1995 study of the events and affidavits surrounding the collapse concludes this is the least plausible of the theories, instead, testimony indicated that alterations to the first floor of the adjoining Cockrell structure for use as a barracks caused the common wall to buckle. The weight of the story on the former Bingham residence contributed to the resultant collapse
2.
Bleeding Kansas
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The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 called for popular sovereignty—that is, the decision about slavery was to be made by the settlers. It would be decided by votes—or more exactly which side had more votes counted by officials, at the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state. Pro-slavery forces said every settler had the right to bring his own property, including slaves, anti-slavery free soil forces said the rich slaveholders would buy up all the good farmland and work it with black slaves, leaving little or no opportunity for non-slaveholders. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a conflict between forces in the North and pro-slavery forces from the South over the issue of slavery in the United States. The term Bleeding Kansas was coined by Republican Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, its indicated that compromise was unlikely. Through the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Congress kept a balance of political power between North and South. Immigrants supporting both sides of the arrived in Kansas to establish residency and gain the right to vote. They captured territorial elections, sometimes by fraud and intimidation, in response, Northern abolitionist elements flooded Kansas with free-soilers. Anti-slavery Kansas residents wrote the first Kansas Constitution and elected the Free State legislature in Topeka, the two Territorial governments increased as well as symbolized the strife of Bleeding Kansas. Among the first immigrants to Kansas Territory were citizens of states, notably neighboring Missouri. Pro-slavery forces settled towns including Leavenworth and Atchison, at the same time, citizens of the North, many aided by the New England Emigrant Aid Company, moved to Kansas to make it a free state and settled towns including Lawrence, Topeka and Manhattan. It was rumored in the South that thousands of Northerners were arriving in Kansas, the following year a Congressional committee investigating the election reported that 1729 fraudulent votes were cast compared to 1114 legal votes. In one location only 20 of the 604 voters were residents of the Kansas Territory, in another 35 were residents and 226 non-residents. On March 30,1855, Kansas Territory held the election for its first Territorial Legislature, crucially, this legislature would decide whether Kansas Territory would allow slavery. Due to questions about electoral fraud, Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder invalidated the results in five voting districts, eight of the eleven delegates elected in the special election were Free-State, but this still left the proslavery camp with an overwhelming 29–10 advantage. To help countermand the voting fraud, by the summer of 1855 around 1,200 New England Yankees had emigrated to Kansas Territory. The abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher armed many of them with Sharps rifles, in response to the disputed votes and rising tension, Congress sent a special committee to Kansas Territory in 1856. The committee report concluded that if the election on March 30,1855, had limited to actual settlers it would have elected a Free-State legislature
3.
Douglas County, Kansas
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Douglas County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 110,826 and its county seat and most populous city is Lawrence. For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans, from the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U. S. state, in 1855, Douglas County was established. Douglas County was opened for settlement on May 15,1854, and was named for Stephen A. Douglas, a senator from Illinois. Because of this, multiple events took place, including the drafting of the Lecompton Constitution admitting Kansas as a state, the sacking of Lawrence. The first railroad in Douglas County, the Union Pacific, was built through that territory in 1864. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 475 square miles. It is the fifth-smallest county in Kansas by land area, much of its northern boundary is defined by the Kansas River, which flows through Lawrence and provides hydropower at the Bowersock Dam. As of the 2000 census, there were 99,962 people,38,486 households, the population density was 219 people per square mile. There were 40,250 housing units at a density of 88 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 86. 1% White,4. 2% Black or African American,2. 6% Native American,3. 1% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,1. 2% from other races, and 2. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 3% of the population,28. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the family size was 2.97. In the county, the population was out with 20. 4% under the age of 18,26. 4% from 18 to 24,28. 3% from 25 to 44,16. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 27 years, for every 100 females there were 98.70 males
4.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
5.
Charles L. Robinson
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Charles Lawrence Robinson was the first Governor of Kansas. He was also the first governor of a US state to be impeached, to date he is the only governor of Kansas to be impeached. Robinson was educated at Hadley and Amherst academies, and at Amherst College and he studied medicine in Woodstock, Vermont, and later in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, where he earned his medical degree at the Berkshire Medical College in 1843. He practiced medicine in Belchertown, Springfield, and Fitchburg, in 1849, he traveled overland to California. He was subsequently discharged by the court without trial and he represented Californias 12th State Assembly district from 1851 to 1852. He married Sara Tappen Doolittle Lawrence in 1851, and they had two children and she later published Kansas, its Exterior and Interior Life, in which she describes the scenes, actors, and events of the struggle between the friends and foes of slavery in Kansas. In 1852, Charles returned to Massachusetts, and conducted in Fitchburg a weekly called the News. In June 1854, Robinson went to Kansas as confidential agent of the New England Emigrant Aid Society, during the Bleeding Kansas tragedy, Robinson angered many with his passionate support for the Free-Staters, who were promoting a fight against pro-slavery advocates. He was illegally elected Territorial Governor of Kansas under the Topeka Constitution in January 1856, from the spring of 1856 until September, Robinson and several other Free-State leaders, including the son of abolitionist John Brown, were held in custody in Camp Sackett. This United States military camp was located about 3.5 miles southwest of Lecompton, in 1861, Robinson took office as governor of the newly admitted State of Kansas. His impeachment was due to a rivalry with James H. Lane. He was found not guilty, but it hurt his political career, elected to the Kansas State Senate, Robinson served from 1873 to 1881. He was Superintendent of the Haskell Institute from 1887 to 1889, Robinson died on August 17,1894, and is buried in Oak Hill Cemetery in Lawrence. Kansas State Historical Society Impeachment of State Officials Charles L. Robinson at Find a Grave National Governors Association The Political Graveyard He was Also a huge part of Boston Company
6.
Free-Stater (Kansas)
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Free-Staters were those settlers in Kansas Territory during the Bleeding Kansas era in the 1850s who opposed the extension of slavery to Kansas. The name derives from the free state, that is. Other Free-Staters were abolitionists who came to Kansas Territory from Ohio, Iowa, Holton, Kansas was named for the Milwaukee, Wisconsin free-stater Edward Dwight Holton. What united the Free-Staters was a desire to defeat the proslavery Southern settlers in Kansas Territory on the question of whether Kansas would be admitted to the Union as a slave state, pro-slavery Southerners in Kansas Territory painted all Free-Staters as abolitionists in order to motivate the Souths opposition. As time passed and the violence in Bleeding Kansas escalated, abolitionists became ascendent in the Free-State movement, Kansas became a state in 1861 after a free state constitution was agreed upon
7.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
8.
Slave states and free states
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Historically, slavery had been practiced in all the British colonies. The division between slave and free states began during the American Revolution, slavery was a divisive issue and was the primary cause of the American Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery throughout the United States, slavery was legal and practiced in each of the Thirteen Colonies that became the US. During British colonization, the population expanded, primarily drawn from the Atlantic slave trade. Organized political and social movements to end slavery began in the mid-18th century, the sentiments of the American Revolution and the equality evoked by the Declaration of Independence stood in contrast to the status of most black Americans. Despite this, thousands of black Americans fought against the British in hopes of a new order, thousands also joined the British army, encouraged by British offers of freedom in exchange for military service. In the 1770s, blacks throughout New England began sending petitions to northern legislatures demanding freedom, five of the Northern self-declared states adopted policies to at least gradually abolish slavery, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Vermont abolished slavery in 1777, while it was independent. These state jurisdictions enacted the first abolition laws in the Americas. By 1804, all of the states had abolished slavery or set measures in place to gradually reduce it. In the south, Kentucky was created a state from Virginia. By 1804, before the creation of new states from the western territories. In popular usage, the divide between the slave and free states was called the Mason–Dixon line. The 1787, United States Constitutional Convention debated slavery and for a time slavery was an impediment to passage of the new constitution. As a compromise the institution was acknowledged though never mentioned directly in the constitution, in 1808, the United States outlawed the international slave import trade but the domestic trade in half the states continued. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, passed just before the U. S, Constitution was ratified, prohibited slavery in the federal Northwest Territory. The southern boundary of the territory was the Ohio River, which was regarded as a extension of the Mason–Dixon line. The territory was settled by New Englanders and American Revolutionary War veterans granted land there
9.
Samuel C. Pomeroy
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Samuel Clarke Pomeroy was an American Republican Senator from Kansas in the mid-19th century, serving in the United States Senate during the American Civil War. Pomeroy served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Pomeroy succeeded Cyrus K. Holliday as president of the railroad on January 13,1864. In 1864, Pomeroy was the chair of a committee supporting Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase for the Republican nomination for President of the United States over the incumbent, Pomeroy also spoke in support of Chases candidacy in the Senate. During the 1880 presidential election Pomeroy was John W. Phelps running mate on the revived Anti-Masonic Party, York publicly disclosed the alleged bribe was an attempt to pin a bribery charge against the senator. Pomeroy ultimately lost the election to John J. Ingalls, state Senator York was also one of the brothers of Dr. William York, one of the murder victims of the Bloody Benders Family. Pomeroy took to the Senate floor on February 10,1873 to deny the allegations as a conspiracy, for the purpose of accomplishing my defeat, and urged the creation of a special committee to investigate the allegations. Senator Allen G. However, Thurman chose not to pursue the matter further, as March 3 coincided with Senator Pomeroys last day in office
10.
Battle of Black Jack
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The Battle of Black Jack took place on June 2,1856, when anti-slavery forces, led by the noted abolitionist John Brown, attacked the encampment of Henry C. Pate near Baldwin City, Kansas. The battle is cited as one incident of Bleeding Kansas and a factor leading up to the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865. In 1854, the U. S. Congress had passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act which stipulated that the residents of territories would decide whether they wished to enter the Union as a slave or free state. This doctrine became known as popular sovereignty, as a result, pro- and anti-slavery groups had frequent clashes culminating in the Battle of Black Jack. They also looted throughout the village, the next day, Congressman Preston Brooks from South Carolina physically attacked Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts in the Senate chambers with a cane. He continued hitting after the senator was bleeding and unconscious, after that, a band of men, led by John Brown and comrade Captain Shore, executed five proslavery men with broadswords at Pottawatomie Creek. Browns men let Jerome Glanville and James Harris return home to the cabin of Harris and this incident became known as the Pottawatomie massacre. Following the massacre, three men were taken prisoner, including two of John Browns sons. On June 2,1856 Brown and 29 others met Henry Pate and this started after Browns two sons were captured and held prisoner by Pate. The five-hour battle went in Browns favor and Pate and 22 of his followers were captured, Brown agreed to release them as long as they released Browns sons. The town of Black Jack was established in 1855 as a town on the Santa Fe Trail. The town became incorporated in 1857 and the threat of warfare was still a problem in Black Jack. The event that is cited as the beginning of the war is the attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, the site of the battle is located near U. S. Signs are placed throughout the site pointed out where the battle started and ended. Efforts are underway to both the Pearson Memorial Park and the Ivan Boyd Prairie Preserve across the road. The Ballad Of Black Jack played as part of the citys Maple Leaf Festival from 1970–83 and it also played in nearby Lawrence in 1986 and in 2006 and 2007 as a part of Lawrences Civil War On The Western Frontier program. In 2012 the National Park Service decided to designate the battlefield a National Historic Landmark, list of battles fought in Kansas The Black Jack Battlefield and Nature Trust Santa Fe Trail Site View From USGS Aerial Photographs
11.
Battle of Fort Titus
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Walkers men captured the fort, forcing Titus and his men to surrender, resulting in a Free-state victory. The following was written by a correspondent of the New York Times dated Lawrence, Sunday, list of battles fought in Kansas http, //www. lecomptonkansas. com/fort-titus/
12.
Marais des Cygnes massacre
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The Marais des Cygnes massacre is considered the last significant act of violence in Bleeding Kansas prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War. On May 19,1858, approximately 30 men led by Charles Hamilton and they arrived at Trading Post, Kansas in the morning and then headed back to Missouri. Along the way they captured 11 Free-Staters, none of whom were armed and, it is said, most of the men knew Hamilton and apparently did not realize he meant them harm. These prisoners were led into a defile, where Hamilton ordered the men to shoot and he even shot and fired the first bullet himself. Hamilton and his gang returned to Missouri, only one man was ever prosecuted for the crime. William Griffith of Bates County, Missouri, was arrested in the spring of 1863, Charles Hamilton returned to Georgia, where he died in 1880. The incident horrified the U. S. and inspired John Greenleaf Whittier to write a poem on the murders, Le Marais du Cygne, which appeared in the September 1858 Atlantic Monthly
13.
Lawrence, Kansas
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Lawrence is the sixth largest city in the state of Kansas and the county seat of Douglas County, Kansas. It is in northeastern Kansas next to Interstate 70, along the banks of the Kansas, as of the 2010 census, the citys population was 87,643. Lawrence is a town and the home to the University of Kansas. Lawrence was founded by the New England Emigrant Aid Company and was named for Amos Adams Lawrence who offered financial aid, Lawrence was central to the Bleeding Kansas era and was the site of the Wakarusa War, the sacking of Lawrence, and the Lawrence Massacre. Lawrence began as a center of Kansas politics, prior to Kansas Territory being opened to settlement in May 1854, most of Douglas County was part of the Shawnee Indian Reservation. The Oregon Trail followed the Kansas River through what would become Lawrence and Mount Oread was used as a landmark, dr. Charles Robinson and Charles Branscomb were sent by the New England Emigrant Aid Company to scout for a location for a city. They arrived in the vicinity of Lawrence in July 1854 and noted the beauty of the area, the original “pioneer party” left Massachusetts on July 17,1854 and consisted of 29 men. They arrived at the site Robinson and Branscomb selected on August 1, the second party arrived in Lawrence on September 9 after leaving near the end of August. The town was officially named Lawrence City on October 6, the main street of the town was named Massachusetts to commemorate the origins of the pioneer party. The first post office in Lawrence was established in January 1855, in March 1857, the Quincy School was started in the Emigrant Aid office before moving to the basement of the Unitarian Church in April. The Plymouth Congregational Church was started in September 1854 by Reverend S. Y, lum, a missionary sent to Kansas. Shortly after Lawrence’s founding, two newspapers were started, The Kansas Pioneer and the Herald of Freedom, both touted the Free State mission which caused problems from the people of Lecompton, then the pro-slavery headquarters, about ten miles northwest of Lawrence, and land squatters from Missouri. The Kansas Free State began in early January 1855, on November 21,1855, Charles Dow was shot and killed by Franklin Coleman in Hickory Point about fourteen miles south of Lawrence. Shortly after, an army of Missourians led by Douglas County Sheriff Samuel L. Jones entered Kansas to attack Lawrence. John Brown and James Lane had hustled Lawrence citizens into an army and erected barricades, a treaty was signed and the Missouri army reluctantly left. Harassment by Sheriff Jones and other Southern sympathizers continued unabated, the Herald of Freedom, the Kansas Free State and the Free State Hotel were indicted as “nuisances. ”On April 23,1856 Sheriff Jones was shot while trying to arrest free-state settlers. On May 21, Sheriff Jones and a posse of 800 Southern sympathizers converged on Lawrence, dr. Robinson’s house on Mount Oread was taken by the federal marshal as headquarters and the newspaper printing presses were damaged and thrown in the river. The Free State Hotel was also destroyed, despite the constant presence of impending war, Lawrence continued to grow
14.
Kansas Territory
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The territory extended from the Missouri border west to the summit of the Rocky Mountains and from the 37th parallel north to the 40th parallel north. Much of the region of what is now the State of Colorado was part of Kansas Territory. The Territory of Colorado was created to govern this western region of the former Kansas Territory on February 28,1861, Kansas Territory was established by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Kansas–Nebraska Act became a law on May 30,1854, establishing the Nebraska Territory, the provisions relating to Kansas Territory were embodied in the last eighteen sections. Section 28 Declares the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 to be in force in the Territory. Section 31 Locates the seat of government of the Territory, temporarily at Fort Leavenworth, and authorizes the use for public purposes of the government buildings. As early as June 10,1854, the Missourians held a meeting at Salt Creek Valley and they said they were in favor of making Kansas a slave state if it should require half the citizens of Missouri, musket in hand, to emigrate there. The desire to facilitate the colonization of the Territory took practical shape while the bill was still under debate in the United States Congress, the largest organization created for this purpose was the New England Emigrant Aid Company, organized by Eli Thayer. Emigration from the states, including New England, Iowa, Ohio. These emigrants were known as Free-Staters, because Missourians had claimed much of the land closest to the border, the Free-Staters were forced to establish settlements further into Kansas Territory. Among these were Lawrence, Topeka, and Manhattan, to protect themselves against the encroachments of non-residents, the Actual Settlers Association of Kansas Territory was formed. The first territorial appointments, looking to the inauguration of a government, under the provisions of the organic law, were made in June. The officers appointed by President Pierce, whose appointments were confirmed by the United States Senate, the first governor was Andrew Horatio Reeder was appointed June 29,1854 and removed July 28,1858. On March 30,1855 Border Ruffians from Missouri entered Kansas during the territorys first legislative election, antislavery candidates prevailed in one election district, the future Riley County. The first session of the legislature was held in Pawnee, Kansas at the request of Governor Reeder, the two-story stone building still stands and is open to the public as the First Territorial Capitol of Kansas. The building remained as the seat of the legislature for five days from July 2–6,1855, the last legislative act of the Territorial Legislature was the approval of the charter for the College of the Sisters of Bethany. This was February 2, 1861—four days after James Buchanan signed the act of Congress that officially brought Kansas into the Union, James H. Lane joined the Free-State movement in 1855 and became president the Topeka Constitutional Convention from October 23 to November 11,1855. He was later a leader of Jayhawkers and it was claimed that some Missourians had used violence toward the persons and property of the inhabitants of the Kansas Territory
15.
New England Emigrant Aid Company
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This in turn further galvanized Free-Staters and enemies of The Slave Power. Thayers intention was to capitalize on antislavery sentiment in the Northern United States and send settlers to Kansas to purchase land and build houses, shops and they could then sell the land at a significant profit and send the proceeds back to Thayer and his investors. While the Company achieved neither a profit nor a significant impact on the population of Kansas, the Company was formed in the midst of the sectional crisis that preceded the American Civil War. His primary partners in the venture were Alexander H. Bullock and Edward Everett Hale, Thayer announced the Company at a rally against the impending passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in Worcester on March 11. Shortly thereafter, the Companys charter was approved by the Massachusetts Legislature for up to $5,000,000 in capital, officially, the Company was a profit-making venture, and how the settlers voted was of no consequence to the company. Although Thayer personally disagreed with such hesitations, in 1855, the Company reorganized as a benevolent society, the success of the endeavor prompted other aid assistance companies to form back East, in New York or Ohio, with new companies such as the Worchester Country Emigrant Aid Society. The company was responsible for creating the Kansas towns of Lawrence and Manhattan. Lawrence was named after the Company secretary, Amos Lawrence, multiple politicians were found in the emigrants who left for Kansas, such as Daniel Read Anthony, Charles L. Robinson, Samuel C. Pomeroy, and Martin F. Conway, who would later be Kansass first U. S. Representative, the exact number of people who left for Kansas is unknown. James Rawley puts the numbers somewhere around 2000, of whom about a third returned home, Kansas entered the United States as a free state in 1861. Prelude to Civil War, Kansas-Missouri, 1854-61, New York, W. W. Norton & Company. Bleeding Kansas, Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era, War to the Knife, Bleeding Kansas, 1854-1861. Olson, Kevin G. W. Frontier Manhattan, Yankee Settlement to Kansas Town, race & Politics, Bleeding Kansas and the Coming of the Civil War. History of the Kansas Crusade, Its Friends and its Foes, Kansas State Historical Society article on the New English Emigrant Aid Company
16.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
17.
David Rice Atchison
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David Rice Atchison was a mid-19th century Democratic United States Senator from Missouri. He served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate for six years and he is best known for the questionable claim that for one day he may have been Acting President of the United States. This belief, however, is dismissed by all historians, scholars. Atchison was born to William Atchison in Frogtown, which is now part of Lexington and he was educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, where his classmates included five future Democratic senators. Atchison was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1829, in 1830 he moved to Liberty in Clay County in western Missouri, and set up practice there, where he also farmed. Atchisons law practice flourished, and his client was Latter Day Saint Movement founder Joseph Smith. Atchison represented Smith in land disputes with settlers in Caldwell County. Alexander William Doniphan joined Atchisons law practice in Liberty in May 1833, the two became fast friends and spent many leisure time hours playing cards, going to the horse races, hunting, fishing, attending social functions and political events. Atchison, already a member of the Liberty Blues, a militia in Missouri. Atchison was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 1834 and he worked hard for the Platte Purchase, which extended the northwestern boundary of Missouri to the Missouri River in 1837. When the earlier disputes broke out into the so-called Mormon War of 1838, Atchison was appointed a general in the state militia. In 1838 he was re-elected to the Missouri State House of Representatives, three years later, he appointed a circuit court judge for the six-county area of the Platte Purchase. In 1843 he was named a county commissioner in Platte County, in October 1843, Atchison was appointed to the U. S. Senate to fill the vacancy left by the death of Lewis F. Linn. He thus became the first senator from western Missouri, at age 36, he was the youngest senator from Missouri up to that time. Later in 1843, Atchison was appointed to serve the remainder of Linns term and was re-elected in 1849, Atchison was very popular with his fellow Senate Democrats. He was then only 38 years old and had served in the Senate just two years, in 1849 Atchison stepped down as President pro tempore in favor of William R. King. King in turn yielded the office back to Atchison in December 1852, Atchison continued as President pro tempore until December 1854. As a Senator, Atchison was a fervent advocate of slavery and he supported the annexation of Texas and the U. S. -Mexican War
18.
Liberty Arsenal
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The Liberty Arsenal, known by Federal authorities as the Missouri Depot was a United States Army arsenal at Liberty, Missouri in Clay County, Missouri. The depot was seized twice by Southern partisans, once during the Kansas troubles in 1855 and it was located generally west of the junction of Missouri Route 291 and old 210 Highway. At that time the amount, expended for the Liberty Arsenal from its first establishment amounted to $26,435.96. On December 4,1855 during the Wakarusa War, a company of over 100 armed Clay County volunteers, led by Missouri Maj. Ebenezer Price, seized the arsenal. The custodian of the facility, U. S. Maj. Luther Leonard and his six employees were placed under arrest while many of the arms and equipment were removed. The arsenal at that time contained, three brass six pounder cannon,55 rifles,67 cavalry sabres,100 dragoon pistols,20 Colt revolvers, accoutrements, equipment, and ammunition. On December 10,1855, Captain William N. R. Beall of the 1st U. S. Cavalry moved to the arsenal with a company to prevent another raid. The pro-slavery forces had concluded their foray against Lawrence, Kansas, therefore, after Capt. Beall discussed the matter of the arsenal weapons with prominent local citizens, most of the material was returned. After states began seceding from the Union, the Missouri Constitutional Convention of 1861 voted 98-1 on March 21,1861 to stay in the Union, on April 12,1861, the Civil War officially began with the firing on Fort Sumter. Ardent secessionists in western Missouri again eyed the Liberty Arsenal, the depots caretaker, Major Nathaniel Grant, with only two employees, could do nothing but protest the forcible takeover. The event has sometimes called the Missouri Fort Sumter. This left the St. Louis Arsenal as the only other Federal military arsenal in the entire state, while substantial, this pales compared to the 37,000 muskets and rifles believed to have been kept at St. Louis. A portion of the secessionist force held the depot for a week as they removed the materials, Some was taken to Routts home near what is now William Jewell College. His ice-house was converted into an armoury for distributing weapons to Missouri Militiamen, the brass field pieces became Capt. Henry Guibors State Guard battery. The kegs of powder were hidden throughout the countryside, a portion of the arms were shipped upriver to the charge of St. Joseph mayor M. Jeff Thompson. Maj. Grant continued as custodian of the depot until it was sold in 1869 On October 6,2012, none of the buildings remain and the land is privately owned. History of Clay and Platte Counties, Missouri, borgedalen, Angie Anaya, Some hope Liberty Arsenal will someday become a park, Liberty Tribune, Oct.18,2012 Shoemaker, Floyd C. Federal Arsenal at Liberty, Missouri, Sikeston Herald, April 24,1941, p.16
19.
Flag of Alabama
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The bars forming the cross shall be not less than six inches broad, and must extend diagonally across the flag from side to side. – The cross of St. Patrick referred to in the law is a diagonal cross, because the bars must be at least six inches wide, small representations of the Alabama flag do not meet the legal definition. On January 11,1861, the Alabama Secession Convention passed a resolution designating an official flag, designed by several women from Montgomery, final touches were made by Francis Corra of that city. One side of the flag displayed the Goddess of Liberty holding a sword in her right hand. Above the gold star appears the text Alabama in all capital letters, in an arch above this figure were the words Independent Now and Forever. The reverse side of the flag had a plant with a coiled rattlesnake. The text Noli Me Tangere, was placed below the cotton plant and this flag was sent to the governors office on February 10,1861. Due to damage from weather, the flag was never flown again. Alabamas current flag was adopted in 1895, the legislation introduced by Representative John W. A. Sanford Jr. stipulates that he flag of the state of Alabama shall be a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white. The bars forming the cross shall be not less than six inches broad, and must extend diagonally across the flag from side to side. Sanfords father, John W. A. Sanford, had commanded the 60th Alabama Infantry Regiment during the U. S. Civil War, the design of that regimental flag was a white saltire over a blue field with a circle of white stars surrounding the crossing. The regimental flag accompanied them through the end of the war and was surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, the saltire of Alabamas flag most closely resembles the saltire of the flag of Florida, which has its heritage in the Spanish Cross of Burgundy. Southern Alabama was originally part of Spanish Florida and subsequently West Florida, Alabamas flag is officially a St. Andrews cross as described in its legislation, and so is the Cross of Burgundy, representing the cross on which St. Andrew was crucified. It is sometimes believed that the saltire of the current flag of Alabama was designed to resemble the blue saltire of the Confederate Battle Flag. Many battle flags were square, and the flag of Alabama is sometimes depicted as square. The legislation that created the flag did not specify that the flag was to be square. The authors of a 1917 article in National Geographic expressed their opinion that because the Alabama flag was based on the Battle Flag, another remote, but possible inspiration was the flag carried by Co. The regiment was the only Alabama regiment in Ruckers Brigade, commanded by Col. Edmund Rucker of Tennessee, the flag of Ruckers brigade utilized a white background with a red saltire charged with 13 blue/green stars
20.
Flag of South Carolina
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The flag of the U. S. state of South Carolina has existed in some form since 1775, being based on one of the first Revolutionary War flags. South Carolinas flag was ranked as the 10th best designed state or provincial flag in North America by a poll on the website of the North American Vexillological Association in 2001. In 1775, Colonel William Moultrie was asked by the Revolutionary Council of Safety to design a flag for the South Carolina troops to use during the American Revolutionary War, moultries design had the blue of the militias uniforms and the crescent. It was first flown at Fort Johnson and this flag was flown in the defense of a new fortress on Sullivans Island, when Moultrie faced off against a British fleet that had not lost a battle in a century. However, there is debate about the significance of the crescent. This gesture was so heroic, saving Charleston, South Carolina, from conquest for four years, that the flag came to be the symbol of the Revolution, and liberty, in the state and the new nation. Greene described it as having been the first American flag to fly over the South, on January 26,1861, the South Carolina General Assembly adopted a new flag by adding a golden palmetto encircled with a white background. However, this flag has become known as the 2-day flag because the golden palmetto was changed on January 28 to a white palmetto on the blue background. It then spread to cities as a symbol of secession. A similar flag was flown by Cadets from The Citadel in 1861 as they manned defenses at Morris Island against Union supply ships and this flag featured a white palmetto on a red field with a reversed crescent. After its recovery from storage in an Iowa warehouse, the flag is now flown by the Citadels Corps of Cadets as their official spirit flag and it is also common for alumni and supporters of the states main universities to display the state flag in their school colors. South Carolina List of South Carolina state symbols Seal of South Carolina Netstate. com, South Carolina State Flag
21.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
22.
Sort (typesetting)
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When the form was no longer needed all of the type had to be sorted back into the correct slots in the type case in a very time-consuming process called distributing. This sorting process led to the pieces being called sorts. It is often claimed to be the root of such as out of sorts and wrong sort. During the hot metal typesetting era, printing equipment used matrices to cast type as needed during the typesetting process, the popular Linotype cast entire lines of text at once rather than individual sorts, while the less popular competitor Monotype still cast the sorts individually. Later, when phototypesetting replaced hot metal typesetting, sorts disappeared entirely from the printing process. History of western typography Matrix Typeface Typography Typeface anatomy Nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering 1957, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20427-8, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number, 57-13116. Typowiki, a wiki at typophile. com Metal Type - For Those who Remember Hot Metal Typesetting
23.
William Quantrill
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William Clarke Quantrill was a Confederate leader during the American Civil War. After a knockabout youth, he joined a group of bandits who roamed Missouri and Kansas and this apparently confirmed his pro-slavery views, and his group became Confederate bushwhackers, feared for their terror tactics, which used effective Native American field skills. They included Jesse James and his brother, in August 1863, the bandits murdered nearly 200 civilians in Lawrence, Kansas, a stronghold of anti-slavery sentiment. In May 1865, Quantrill was mortally wounded by Union troops in Western Kentucky, Quantrill was the oldest of twelve children, four of whom died in infancy. He was born at Canal Dover, Ohio, on July 31,1837 and his father was Thomas Henry Quantrill, formerly of Hagerstown, Maryland. His mother, Caroline Cornelia Clark, was a native of Chambersburg and they were married on October 11,1836 and moved to Canal Dover the following December. Quantrill was well-educated and followed in his fathers footsteps, becoming a schoolteacher at the age of sixteen, in 1854, his abusive father died of tuberculosis, leaving the family with a huge financial debt. Quantrills mother had to turn her home into a house in order to survive. Quantrill helped support the family by working as a schoolteacher but left home a year later and headed to Mendota, here, Quantrill took up a job in the lumberyards, unloading timber from rail cars. One night while working the shift, he shot a man dead. Authorities briefly arrested Quantrill, who claimed self-defense, since there were no eyewitnesses and the victim was a stranger who knew no one in town, William was set free. But police strongly urged him to leave Mendota, Quantrill continued his career as a teacher, moving to Fort Wayne, Indiana in February 1856. And although the district was impressed with Quantrills teaching abilities, the wages remained meager, Quantrill journeyed back home to Canal Dover that fall, with no more money in his pockets than when he had left. Quantrill spent the winter in his familys dumpy shack in the impoverished town and it was around this time that many Ohioans began to migrate to Kansas Territory in search of cheap land and opportunity. This included Henry Torrey and Harmon Beeson, two local men hoping to build a farm for their families out west. Although they didnt trust the 19-year-old William, Bills mothers pleadings persuaded them to let her son accompany them to Kansas in an effort to get him to turn his life around, the party of three departed in late February 1857. Torrey and Beeson agreed to pay for Quantrills land in exchange for a couple of months worth of work and they settled at Marais des Cygnes, but things did not go as well as planned. After about two months, Quantrill began to slack off when it came to working the land, a dispute arose over the claim, and he went to court with Torrey and Beeson
24.
Norman, Oklahoma
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Norman /ˈnɔːrmən/ is a city in the U. S. state of Oklahoma 20 miles south of downtown Oklahoma City in its metropolitan area. The population was 110,925 at the 2010 census, Normans estimated population of 120,284 in 2015 makes it the third-largest city in Oklahoma, and the city serves as the county seat of Cleveland County. Norman was settled during the Land Run of 1889, which opened the former Unassigned Lands of Indian Territory to American pioneer settlement, the city was named in honor of Abner Norman, the areas initial land surveyor, and was formally incorporated on May 13,1891. The university is known for its sporting events by teams under the banner of the nickname Sooners. The university is home to museums, including the Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art, which contains the largest collection of French Impressionist art ever given to an American university, Norman lies within Tornado Alley, a geographic region where tornadic activity is particularly frequent and intense. The Oklahoma City metropolitan area, including Norman, is the most tornado-prone area in the world, the Storm Prediction Center, a branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is located at the NWC. SPC forecasts severe storm and tornado outbreaks nationwide, additionally, research is conducted at the co-located National Severe Storms Laboratory, which includes field research and operates various experimental weather radars. In 2008, CNNs Money Magazine ranked Norman as the sixth best small city within the United States to live in, the Oklahoma region became part of the United States with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Treaties of 1832 and 1833 assigned the area today as Norman to the Creek Nation. Following the Civil War, the Creeks were accused of aiding the Confederacy, in the early 1870s, the federal government undertook a survey of these unassigned lands. Abner Ernest Norman, a 23-year-old surveyor from Kentucky, was hired to oversee part of this project. In 1887, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway began service to the area, which was later opened to settlement as part of the Land Run of 1889, early settlers decided to keep the name Norman. On April 22,1889, the Land Run saw the founding of Norman, with at least 150 residents spending the night in makeshift campsites, by the next morning a downtown was already being constructed. On December 19,1890, Larsh and Waggoner were successful with the passage of Council Bill 114, the City of Norman was formally incorporated on May 13,1891. The city has continued to grow throughout the decades, the rail lines eventually transitioned to freight during the 1940s as the United States Numbered Highway system developed. The city population reached 11,429 in 1940, in 1941, the University of Oklahoma and Norman city officials established Max Westheimer Field, a university airstrip, and then leased it to the U. S. Navy as a Naval Flight Training Center in 1942. The training center was used for training combat pilots during World War II, a second training center, known as Naval Air Technical Training Center, and a naval hospital were later established to the south
25.
Topeka, Kansas
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Topeka is the capital city of the U. S. state of Kansas and the seat of Shawnee County. It is situated along the Kansas River in the part of Shawnee County, located in northeast Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 127,473, the Topeka Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Shawnee, Jackson, Jefferson, Osage, and Wabaunsee counties, had a population of 233,870 in the 2010 census. The name Topeka is a Kansa-Osage sentence that means place where we dug potatoes, as a placename, Topeka was first recorded in 1826 as the Kansa name for what is now called the Kansas River. Topekas founders chose the name in 1855 because it was novel, of Indian origin, the mixed-blood Kansa Native American, Joseph James, called Jojim, is credited with suggesting the name of Topeka. The city, laid out in 1854, was one of the Free-State towns founded by Eastern antislavery men immediately after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Bill, in 1857, Topeka was chartered as a city. Three ships of the U. S. Navy have been named USS Topeka after the city, for many millennia, the Great Plains of North America were inhabited by Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In the 1840s, wagon trains made their way west from Independence, Missouri, on a journey of 2,000 miles, during the 1840s and into the 1850s, travelers could reliably find a way across the river, but little else was in the area. In the early 1850s, traffic along the Oregon Trail was supplemented by trade on a new military road stretching from Fort Leavenworth through Topeka to the newly established Fort Riley, in 1854, after completion of the first cabin, nine men established the Topeka Town Association. Included among them was Cyrus K. Holliday, an man who would become mayor of Topeka and founder of the Atchison. Soon, steamboats were regularly docking at the Topeka landing, depositing meat, lumber, and flour and returning eastward with potatoes, corn, by the late 1860s, Topeka had become a commercial hub providing many Victorian era comforts. Topeka was a free-state center during the problems in Kansas Territory between free-staters and southerners, who for a period controlled the legal government of Kansas. After southern forces barricaded Topeka in 1856, Topeka’s leaders took actions to defend the town from invasion. A militia was organized and fortifications were built on Quincy Street, the fortifications seemed to consist of low-lying earthwork levies strengthened by the presence of at least one cannon. There was stone in the fortifications, the militia manned the fortifications until at least September 1856, when the siege around the town was lifted
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Lincoln, Nebraska
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Lincoln is the capital of the U. S. state of Nebraska and the county seat of Lancaster County. The city covers 92.81 square miles with a population of 277,348 in 2015 and it is the second-most populous city in Nebraska and the 72nd-largest in the United States. The statistical area is home to 345,478 people, making it the 105th-largest combined statistical area in the United States, the city was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster on the wild salt marshes of what was to become Lancaster County. In 1867, the village of Lancaster became Nebraskas state capital and was renamed Lincoln, bertram G. Goodhue designed state capitol building was completed in 1932 and is the second tallest capitol in the United States. As the city is the seat of government for the state of Nebraska, the state, the University of Nebraska was founded in Lincoln in 1867. The university is the largest in Nebraska with 25,006 students enrolled and is the citys third-largest employer, other primary employers fall within the service and manufacturing industries, including a growing high-tech sector. The region makes up a part of what is known as the greater Midwest Silicon Prairie, designated as a refugee-friendly city by the U. S. Department of State in the 1970s, the city was the twelfth-largest resettlement site per capita in the United States by 2000. Refugee Vietnamese, Karen, Sudanese, and Yazidi people have resettled in the city. Lincoln Public Schools during the year of 2016–17 provided support for approximately 3,200 students from 118 countries. Prior to the westward of settlers, the prairie was covered with buffalo grass. Plains Indians, descendants of peoples who occupied the area for thousands of years, lived in. The Pawnee, which included four tribes, lived in villages along the Platte River, an occasional buffalo could still be seen in the plat of Lincoln in the 1860s. Lincoln was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster and became the county seat of the newly created Lancaster County in 1859, the village was sited on the east bank of Salt Creek. The first settlers were attracted to the due to the abundance of salt. Once J. Sterling Morton developed his salt mines in Kansas, Captain W. T. Donovan, a former steamer captain, and his family settled on Salt Creek in 1856. In the fall of 1859, the settlers met to form a county. A caucus was formed and the committee, which included Captain Donovan, after the passage of the 1862 Homestead Act, homesteaders began to inhabit the area. The first plat was dated August 6,1864, by the close of 1868, Lancaster had a population of approximately 500 people
28.
Baldwin City, Kansas
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Baldwin City is a city in Douglas County, Kansas, United States about 12 miles south of Lawrence and 15 miles west of Gardner. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 4,515, the city is home to Baker University, the states oldest four-year university. Baldwin City began as a stop on the Santa Fe Trail named Palmyra. The small town consisted of a shop, blacksmith, hotel, lawyer, drug store. In 1858, a group of Methodist ministers gathered at Kibbee Cabin, the town of Palmyra bought land to the south for the university and surrounding city. A main benefactor was John Baldwin and the town was named in his honor, Baldwin built a saw mill which was at present-day Fifth and Indiana Streets. The first post office in the town, then called Palmyra, was established in June,1857, Baldwin was incorporated on September 22,1870. Baldwin City unwittingly found themselves surrounded by the events led up to the American Civil War. Three miles east of Baldwin was the site of Black Jack where the Battle of Black Jack took place on June 2,1856. The night before that battle, John Brown stayed in Prairie City, in 1863, Quantrills raiders passed within three miles of Baldwin after the burning of Lawrence. In 1867, the Leavenworth, Lawrence and Fort Gibson railroad laid tracks, in 1906, the Santa Fe Depot was built and today the Midland Railway offers over 20-mile round trip excursion rides to Ottawa via Nowhere and Norwood. Midlands Scout program is one of the few in the country to offer a railroading merit badge, every year since 1957, Baldwin City has hosted the Maple Leaf Festival during the third full weekend in October. It began as a way to celebrate a successful harvest and to view the fall foliage. Today, it is the largest fall family event in the area and features a parade, arts and crafts, quilt show, theatrical performances, history tours, train rides, annually it draws crowds of 30,000 or more. Baldwin City is located at 38°46′39″N 95°11′15″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.64 square miles, of which,2.62 square miles is land and 0.02 square miles is water. The areas climate is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Baldwin City has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. Baldwin City is part of the Lawrence Metropolitan Statistical Area, as of the census of 2010, there were 4,515 people,1,501 households, and 1,011 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,723.3 inhabitants per square mile, there were 1,665 housing units at an average density of 635.5 per square mile
29.
Oakland, California
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Oakland /ˈoʊklənd/ is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. The city was incorporated in 1852, Oaklands territory covers what was once a mosaic of California coastal terrace prairie, oak woodland, and north coastal scrub. Its land served as a resource when its hillside oak and redwood timber were logged to build San Francisco. In the late 1860s, Oakland was selected as the terminal of the Transcontinental Railroad. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, many San Francisco citizens moved to Oakland, enlarging the citys population, increasing its housing stock and it continued to grow in the 20th century with its busy port, shipyards, and a thriving automobile manufacturing industry. Oakland is known for its sustainability practices, including a top-ranking for usage of electricity from renewable resources, in addition, due to a steady influx of immigrants during the 20th century, along with thousands of African-American war-industry workers who relocated from the Deep South during the 1940s. Oakland is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. The earliest known inhabitants were the Huchiun Indians, who lived there for thousands of years, the Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone. In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek, in 1772, the area that later became Oakland was claimed, with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers for the King of Spain. In the early 19th century, the Spanish crown granted the East Bay area to Luis María Peralta for his Rancho San Antonio, the grant was confirmed by the successor Mexican republic upon its independence from Spain. Upon his death in 1842, Peralta divided his land among his four sons, Most of Oakland fell within the shares given to Antonio Maria and Vicente. The portion of the parcel that is now Oakland was called encinal—Spanish for oak grove—due to the oak forest that covered the area. In 1851, three men—Horace Carpentier, Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland, on May 4,1852, the Town of Oakland incorporated. Two years later, on March 25,1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland, with Horace Carpentier elected the first mayor, the city and its environs quickly grew with the railroads, becoming a major rail terminal in the late 1860s and 1870s. In 1868, the Central Pacific constructed the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point, a number of horsecar and cable car lines were constructed in Oakland during the latter half of the 19th century. The first electric streetcar set out from Oakland to Berkeley in 1891, at the time of incorporation, Oakland consisted of the territory that lay south of todays major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north, Oaklands rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in the town of Alameda being made an island
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University of California Press
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University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish books and papers for the faculty of the University of California and its headquarters are located in Oakland, California. It also distributes titles published by the Huntington Library, Watershed Media, each year it publishes approximately 180 new books and 31 journals in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences and keeps about 3,500 book titles in print. The Press commissioned as its corporate typeface University of California Old Style from type designer Frederic Goudy from 1936-8, finley Joan of Arc, The Image of Female Heroism, Marina Warner Strong Democracy, Participatory Politics for a New Age, Benjamin R. These titles were selected for their merit and for their illumination of California history. The Ford by Mary Austin Thieves Market by A. I, by Al Young Official University of California Press website California Digital Library - University of California Libraries Free Online - UC Press E-Books Collection Mark Twain Project Online
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Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
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Harvard University Press
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Harvard University Press is a publishing house established on January 13,1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. In 2005, it published 220 new titles and it is a member of the Association of American University Presses. Its current director is William P. Sisler and the editor-in-chief is Susan Wallace Boehmer, the press maintains offices in Cambridge, Massachusetts, near Harvard Square, in New York City, and in London, England. The Display Room in Harvard Square, dedicated to selling HUP publications, HUP owns the Belknap Press imprint, which it inaugurated in May 1954 with the publication of the Harvard Guide to American History. The John Harvard Library book series is published under the Belknap imprint, Harvard University Press distributes the Loeb Classical Library and is the publisher of the I Tatti Renaissance Library, the Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, and the Murty Classical Library of India. It is distinct from Harvard Business Press, which is part of Harvard Business Publishing, category, Harvard University Press books Hall, Max. Official website Blog of Harvard University Press
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Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Jane Smiley
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Jane Smiley is an American novelist. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1992 for her novel A Thousand Acres, born in Los Angeles, California, Smiley grew up in Webster Groves, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, and graduated from Community School and from John Burroughs School. She obtained a BA in literature at Vassar College, then earned an MA, MFA, while working towards her doctorate, she also spent a year studying in Iceland as a Fulbright Scholar. Smiley published her first novel, Barn Blind, in 1980, and won a 1985 O. Henry Award for her short story Lily and her best-selling A Thousand Acres, a story based on William Shakespeares King Lear, received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1992. It was adapted into a film of the title in 1997. In 1995 she wrote her sole television script, produced for an episode of Homicide and her novella The Age of Grief was made into the 2002 film The Secret Lives of Dentists. Her essay Feminism Meets the Free Market was included in the 2006 anthology Mommy Wars by Washington Post writer Leslie Morgan Steiner, appears in the anthology Knitting Yarns, Writers on Knitting, published by W. W. Norton & Company in 2013. In 2001, Smiley was elected a member of The American Academy of Arts and she participates in the annual Los Angeles Times Festival of Books in association with UCLA. She won the PEN USA Lifetime Achievement Award in 2006, jonathan Franzen, author of The Corrections, considers Smileys book The Greenlanders to be greatly underappreciated and among the best works of contemporary American fiction. Smiley is currently at work on a trilogy of novels about an Iowa family over the course of generations, the first novel of the trilogy, Some Luck, was published in 2014 by Random House. Jane Smiley collected news and commentary
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