1.
Cruet
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A cruet /ˈkruː. ᵻt/, also called a caster, is a small flat-bottomed vessel with a narrow neck. Cruets often have a lip or spout, and may also have a handle. Unlike a small carafe, a cruet has a stopper or lid, cruets are normally made from glass, ceramic, or stainless steel. Cruets today typically serve a function, holding liquid condiments such as olive oil. They often have a built into them to act as a strainer, so that vinegar containing herbs. Cruets also serve as decanters for lemon juice and other oils and they are also used for the serving of the wine and water in a Catholic mass. In Canada and the UK a small cruet can also hold previously ground salt or pepper, a few cruets dating from the Medieval ages still exist today. Its culinary use however was first introduced in the late 17th century, cardinal Mazarin had a pair of salad cruets on his dining table at his home in France, one for olive oil and the other for vinegar. The use of oil and vinegar cruets rapidly spread throughout Italy, oil and vinegar cruets are common on Italian and Portuguese tables to this day. Cruets range from nominal decanters to the decorative cut crystal. Some cruets are unusual, and can either be intended to be ornamental or functional, during some Christian religious ceremonies, cruets are used to keep wine and water for Eucharist. These cruets are usually made of glass, though sometimes they are made of metals such as gold or silver. Cruets specifically intended for religious ceremonies come in pairs, one to contain water, often marked A for Aqua and this was part of the product range for his Grot Shops, full of guaranteed totally useless stuff. Media related to Cruet sets at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Chalice
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A chalice is a goblet or footed cup intended to hold a drink. In general religious terms, it is intended for drinking during a ceremony, chalices are often made of precious metal, and they are sometimes richly enamelled and jewelled. The gold goblet was symbolic for family and tradition, the ancient Roman calix was a drinking vessel consisting of a bowl fixed atop a stand, and was in common use at banquets. Chalices have been used since the early church, because of Jesus command to his disciples to Do this in remembrance of me. And Pauls account of the Eucharistic rite in 1 Corinthians 11, 24-25, naturally, the vessels used in this important act of worship were highly decorated and treated with great respect. A number of examples of chalices have a large bowl. Over time, the size of the bowl diminished and the base became larger for better stability, over time, official church regulations dictated the construction, blessing, and treatment of chalices. Some religious traditions still require that the chalice, at least on the inside of the cup, in Western Christianity, chalices will often have a pommel or node where the stem meets the cup to make the elevation easier. In Roman Catholicism, chalices tend to be tulip-shaped, and the cups are quite narrow, Roman Catholic priests will often receive chalices from members of their families when first ordained. In Eastern Christianity, chalices will often have icons enameled or engraved on them, in Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism, all communicants receive both the Body of Christ and the Blood of Christ. To accomplish this, a portion of the Lamb is placed in the chalice, for this reason, eastern chalices tend to have larger, rounded cups. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the faithful will kiss the foot of the chalice after receiving Holy Communion. In other traditions, they kiss the cup. Although Orthodox monks are not permitted to hold personal possessions, the permit a hieromonk to keep a chalice. In the early and medieval church, when a deacon was ordained, early written accounts of the ordination of deaconesses also reflect this practice. In the West the deacon carries the chalice to the altar at the offertory, in the East, the priest carries the chalice and the deacon carries the paten. Only wine, water and a portion of the Host are permitted to be placed in the chalice, the chalice is considered to be one of the most sacred vessels in Christian liturgical worship, and it is often blessed before use. Among the Eastern Churches there are varying practices regarding blessing, in some traditions the very act of celebrating the Sacred Mysteries is the only blessing necessary, in others, there is a special rite of blessing
3.
Eucharist
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The Eucharist /ˈjuːkərɪst/ is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches. Through the Eucharistic celebration Christians remember Christs sacrifice of himself on the cross, the elements of the Eucharist, bread and wine, are consecrated on an altar and consumed thereafter. Communicants may speak of receiving the Eucharist, as well as celebrating the Eucharist, Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. While all agree there is no perceptible change in the elements, Catholics believe that they actually become the body. Some Protestants view the Eucharist as an ordinance in which the ceremony is not as a specific channel of divine grace. Do this in remembrance of me, the term Eucharist is that by which the rite is referred by the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr. Today, the Eucharist is the still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians. Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring either Communion, one remains hungry, another gets drunk. Communion or Holy Communion are used by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation to mean the entire Eucharistic rite. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio, which translates Greek κοινωνία in 1 Corinthians 10,16, the bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ. The phrase appears five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some and it is the term used by the Plymouth Brethren. The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans for the consecrated elements, Sacrament of the Altar is in common use also among Lutherans. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term The Sacrament is used of the rite. Among the many terms used in the Catholic Church are Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. The term Mass is probably derived from the fact that the Roman rite celebrates the Eucharist with unleavened bread and this explains why the Eastern Catholic Liturgies are never referred to as the Mass. Eastern rite Liturgies are celebrated with leavened bread, although the prevailing theory is that it is derived from the Latin word missa, a word used in the concluding formula of Mass in Latin, Ite, missa est. The reverse is more likely. The word dismissal probably came about because the Mass signaled the time for the Catechumens to leave, thus, the term Misa came to imply a mission, because at the end of the Mass the congregation are sent out to serve Christ
4.
Sacramental bread
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Sacramental bread, sometimes called altar bread, Communion bread, the Lamb or simply the host, is the bread which is used in the Christian ritual of the Eucharist. The word hostia is Latin for sacrificial animal, the sacrifice of Jesus according to Christian theology puts an end to the need for animal sacrifice as had been practiced in the Jerusalem Temple and all blood sacrifice once-for-all. The word was retained to describe the bread of Eucharist as a representation of the Christs sacrifice. The Orthodox Church and Eastern-rite Roman Catholic churches use leavened bread for the Eucharist, thus, the sacramental bread symbolizes the Resurrected Christ. The hostia or sacramental bread, known as prosphorá or a πρόσφορον may be out of only four ingredients, fine wheat flour, pure water, yeast. Sometimes holy water will be sprinkled into the dough or on the kneading trough at the beginning of the process. The baking may only be performed by a believing Orthodox Christian in good standing—having preferably been recently to Confession, before baking, each loaf is formed by placing two disks of dough, one on top of the other, and stamping it with a special liturgical seal. The prosphora should be fresh and not stale or moldy when presented at the altar for use in the Divine Liturgy, often several prosphora will be baked and offered by the faithful, and the priest chooses the best one for the Lamb that will be consecrated. The remaining loaves are blessed and offered back to the congregation after the end of the Divine Liturgy, a Hostia is a portion of bread used for Holy Communion in many Christian churches. In Western Christianity the host is often a thin, round unleavened wafer, the word host is derived from the Latin hostia, which means sacrificial victim. The term can be used to describe the bread both before and after consecration, though it is correct to use it after consecration—altar bread being preferred before consecration. Western theology teaches that at the Words of Institution the bread is changed or altered into the Body of Christ, hosts are often made by nuns as a means of supporting their religious communities. In the Latin Rite, unleavened bread is used as in the Jewish Passover or Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic Churches use leavened bread for Prosphora. The Armenian Catholic Church, the Syro-Malabar Church and the Maronite Church have adopted the use of unleavened bread, some traditions proscribe the use of spiced, flavored or sweetened hosts, while others allow it. However, both Eastern and Western traditions insist that the bread must be made from wheat, the Code of Canon Law, Canon 924 requires that the hosts be made from wheat flour and water only and recently made so that there is no danger of spoiling. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal §321 recommends that the eucharistic bread, be made in such a way that the priest at Mass with a congregation is able in practice to break it into parts for distribution to at least some of the faithful. In the varying Protestant denominations, there is a variety of practices concerning the sacramental bread used. Some, such as the Christian Congregation use leavened loaves of bread, others, such as Lutherans, continue to use unleavened wafers like the Roman Catholics, reformed Christians use rolls which are broken and distributed to symbolize their belief that Christ is not physically present in the bread
5.
Divine Liturgy
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Divine Liturgy is the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine Rite which is the Rite of the The Great Church of Christ and was developed from the Antiochene Rite of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term. Some Oriental Orthodox employ the term holy offering for their Eucharistic liturgies instead, the term is sometimes applied also to Roman Rite Eucharistic liturgies, though the term Mass is more commonly used there. In Eastern traditions, those of the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Divine Liturgy is seen as transcending time, all believers are believed to be united in worship in the Kingdom of God along with departed Saints and the celestial Angels. To this end, everything in the Liturgy is seen as symbolic, yet also not just merely symbolic, according to Eastern tradition and belief, the Liturgys roots go back to Jewish worship and the adaptation of Jewish worship by Early Christians. This can be seen in the first parts of the Liturgy termed the Liturgy of the Catechumens that includes reading of scriptures and, the latter half was added based on the Last Supper and the first Eucharistic celebrations by Early Christians. Each Liturgy has its differences from others, but most are similar to each other with adaptations based on tradition, purpose, culture. The Divine Liturgy of St. Basil the Great, used on the 5 Sundays of Great Lent, on the eves of the Nativity and Theophany, and on Holy Thursday and Holy Saturday, it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy. In some traditions, Saint Basils Liturgy is also celebrated on the Exaltation of the Life-giving Cross on September 14, all together, St. Basils liturgy is celebrated 10 times out of the liturgical year. The Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, is used during Great Lent on Wednesdays, Fridays, and a handful of other occasions, and also on the first three days of Holy Week. Nowadays it is celebrated as a vesperal liturgy, the Liturgy of the Faithful has no Anaphora. It is traditionally attributed to St. Gregory the Dialogist, although some believe it originated with Patriarch Severus of Antioch. The Liturgy of Saint Mark was also observed in the Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria on at least that Saints day until recent times. As numbers in a diocese increased dramatically the bishop as presiding over the Eucharistic assembly appointed presbyters as celebrant in the local community, still, the Church is understood in Eastern Orthodoxy not in terms of the presbyter, but the diocesan bishop. When the latter is present, he is chief celebrant, phrases and hymns are also added. The hierarch commemorates his hierarch demonstrating unity with the greater Orthodox community, note, Psalms are numbered according to the Greek Septuagint. For the Hebrew Masoretic numbering that is familiar in the West. The format of Divine Liturgy is fixed, although the specific readings and hymns vary with season, in modern times, this restriction applies only to Holy Communion — reception of the sacrament of holy communion
6.
Divine Service (Lutheran)
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The Divine Service is a title given to the Eucharistic liturgy as used in the various Lutheran churches. It has its roots in the pre-Tridentine Mass as revised by Martin Luther in his Formula missae of 1523 and it was further developed through the Kirchenordnungen of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that followed in Luthers tradition. The term Divine Service is popularly used among the more conservative Lutheran churches and organizations of the United States, in the more progressive denominations, such as The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the terms Holy Communion or the Eucharist are much more commonly used. In the parts of North American Lutheranism that use it, the term Divine Service supplants more usual English-speaking Lutheran names for the Mass, the term is a calque of the German word Gottesdienst, the standard German word for worship. As in the English phrase service of God, the genitive in Gottesdienst is arguably ambiguous and it can be read as an objective genitive or a subjective genitive. While the objective genitive is etymologically more plausible, Lutheran writers frequently highlight the ambiguity, the Lutheran liturgy currently used in the United States traces its development back to the work of Beale M. Schmucker, George Wenner and Edward Horn. Their work took place in the context of a wider North American confessional revival, between 1876 and 1883, various Lutheran synods expressed an interest in creating a common worship service. This led to the creation of a Joint Committee in 1884 which included representatives of the General Synod and General Council and this committee appointed Schmucker, Wenner and Horn who began their work in April 1884. In 1887, the three men presented their final draft to the Joint Committee and this final draft used the King James Version language and Anglican translations of the Kyrie, Gloria, Creeds, Prefaces, Lord’s Prayer, and Collects. It also included the Nunc Dimittis as an option, during this hymn, the pastor and those assisting him process into the sanctuary from the narthex. The Invocation begins the Divine Service, for the Invocation and the Preparatory Service, the pastor is to stand at the foot of the altar steps, advancing to the altar at the Introit. He speaks the Trinitarian formula, as the Sign of the Cross is made by all, the Confession follows In the Confession, we kneel humbly before our God, acknowledging our sin and seeking purification of our Spirit. In the Declaration of Grace that follows, we receive from God Himself the assurance of Gods mercy and grace that enables us to focus on our loving God. Both the congregation and the pastor kneel as the following is said, Pastor, If we say we have no sin, we ourselves. Congregation, But if we confess our sins, God who is faithful and just will forgive our sins, Pastor, Let us then confess our sins to God our Father. All, Most merciful God, we confess that we are by nature sinful and we have sinned against you in thought, word, and deed, by what we have done and by what we have left undone. We have not loved You with our whole heart, we have not loved our neighbors as ourselves and we justly deserve Your present and eternal punishment. For the sake of Your Son, Jesus Christ, have mercy on us, forgive us, renew us, and lead us, so that we may delight in Your will and walk in Your ways to the glory of your Holy Name
7.
Mass (liturgy)
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Mass often refers to the entire church service in general, but is specifically the sacrament of the Eucharist. The term mass is called in the Catholic Church, Western Rite Orthodox churches and many Old Catholic, Anglican, as well as some Lutheran churches. Some Protestants employ terms such as Divine Service or service of worship, the English noun mass is derived from Middle Latin missa. The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse, and was sometimes glossed as sendnes, the Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century. It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est, historically, however, there have been other explanations of the noun missa, i. e. as not derived from the formula ite, missa est. Already Du Cange reports various opinions on the origin of the noun missa mass, including the derivation from Hebrew matzah, here attributed to Caesar Baronius. The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology, medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere, but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est. Thus, De divinis officiis explains the word as a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo, the Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, to which the other sacraments are oriented. The Catholic Church believes that the Mass is exactly the same sacrifice that Jesus Christ offered on the Cross at Calvary, after making the sign of the cross and greeting the people liturgically, he begins the Act of Penitence. This concludes with the prayer of absolution, which, however. The Kyrie, eleison, is sung or said, followed by the Gloria in excelsis Deo, the Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer. On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given, on other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament, or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide, the first reading is followed by a psalm, either sung responsorially or recited. The second reading is from the New Testament, typically one of the Pauline epistles. A Gospel Acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, the final reading and high point of the Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. At least on Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation, a homily, finally, the Creed is professed on Sundays and solemnities, and it is desirable that in Masses celebrated with the people the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful should usually follow. The congregation responds, May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of his name, for our good, the priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts. The Eucharistic Prayer, the centre and high point of the entire celebration, the priest continues with one of many Eucharistic Prayer thanksgiving prefaces, which lead to the reciting of the Sanctus acclamation
8.
Requiem
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It is frequently, but not necessarily, celebrated in the context of a funeral. The term is used for similar ceremonies outside the Roman Catholic Church, especially in the Anglo-Catholic tradition of Anglicanism. A comparable service, with a different ritual form and texts, exists in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches. The Mass and its settings draw their name from the introit of the liturgy, the Roman Missal as revised in 1970 employs this phrase as the first entrance antiphon among the formulas for Masses for the dead, and it remains in use to this day. In earlier forms of the Roman Rite, some of which are still in use, some parts that were of relatively recent origin, including some that have been excluded in the 1970 revision, are omitted. Examples are the psalm Iudica at the start of Mass, the prayer said by the priest before reading the Gospel, and the first of the two prayers of the priest for himself before receiving Communion. Other omissions include the use of incense at the Introit and the Gospel, the kiss of peace, lit candles held by acolytes when a deacon chants the Gospel, and blessings. There is no Gloria in excelsis Deo and no recitation of the Creed, the Alleluia chant before the Gospel is replaced by a Tract, as in Lent, ite missa est is replaced with Requiescant in pace, the Deo gratias response is replaced with Amen. The sequence Dies Irae, recited or sung between the Tract and the Gospel, is an part of the Requiem Mass in the earlier forms. As its opening words Dies irae indicate, this poetic composition speaks of the Day of Judgment in fearsome terms, it then appeals to Jesus for mercy. In the liturgical reforms of the century in the Roman Catholic Church following the Second Vatican Council. The term Requiem Mass was often replaced by the term Mass of the Resurrection or Mass of Christian Burial, in the official English ritual, Order of Christian Funerals, published by the Roman Catholic Bishops of England and Wales in 1990, the title is given as Funeral Mass. Requiem Mass remains a title for other Masses for the dead and for the Funeral Mass itself. The texts used for the service offered a change, with more options for the readings. The full requiem will last around three-and-a-half hours, in this format it more clearly represents the original concept of parastas, which means literally, standing throughout. Often, there will be a Divine Liturgy celebrated the next morning with further propers for the departed, because of their great length, a full Requiem is rarely served. However, at least in the Russian liturgical tradition, a Requiem will often be served on the eve before the Glorification of a saint, the Book of Common Prayer contained no Requiem Mass, but instead a service named The Order for the Burial of the Dead. Since the liturgical movement, provision has been made for a Eucharist to be celebrated at a funeral in various BCPs used in the 33 Provinces of the Anglican Communion
9.
Solemn Mass
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The term High Mass is also used in the United States to describe the less elaborate Missa Cantata, which lacks deacon and subdeacon and some of the ceremonies connected with them. This article deals with Solemn Mass as celebrated according to the Tridentine use and these terms distinguish the form in question from that of Low Mass and Missa Cantata. The parts assigned to the deacon and subdeacon are often done by priests in vestments proper to those roles, a Solemn Mass celebrated by a bishop has its own particular ceremonies and is referred to as a Solemn Pontifical Mass. Lutherans sometimes use the term High Mass to describe a more form of their Divine Service. Examples of similarities include vestments, chanting, and incense, lutheran congregations in North America commonly celebrate High Mass in essence, but rarely use the term Mass. Thus, the rubrics of the Ordinary of the Mass always suppose that the Mass is high, Low Mass, said by a priest alone with one server, is a shortened and simplified form of the same thing. Its ritual can be explained only by a reference to high Mass, the distinction between High and Low Mass is necessarily observed where the Tridentine form of the Roman Rite continues to be used. The term High Mass is sometimes encountered also, both in Anglican and certain Roman Catholic circles, to describe any Mass celebrated with greater solemnity, in the sacristy, before vesting, all three sacred ministers wash their hands. The sacred ministers recite certain prayers while they place on each vestment, first, the amice is kissed and then placed on top of the head briefly while reciting one of the prayers during vesting. Then it is tied around the shoulders on top of the cassock, the cincture, a long cloth cord also called a girdle, is then tied around the waist. The subdeacon then completes his vesting by placing the maniple on his arm, securing it either with pins or with the ribbons or elastic inside. The deacon places his stole over his shoulder and binds it in place, at his right hip. He then puts on the maniple and his dalmatic, the priest celebrant does the same except that he crosses his stole in front of him at the waist, binding it with the girdle or cincture. After the maniple he puts on a cope if the Mass is preceded by the Asperges, following the Asperges, the celebrant, assisted by the acolytes, removes the cope and puts on the chasuble. The servers of the Mass and the sitting in the liturgical choir stalls are vested in cassock and surplice or cotta, though in some places acolytes wore simple albs. Anyone ordained to the subdiaconate or above also wears the biretta while sitting, members of religious orders in habit have on a surplice over the habit. If it is part of their dress, they also use the biretta. If not, then use their hood in the same fashion as one uses a biretta
10.
Consecration
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Consecration is the solemn dedication to a special purpose or service, usually religious. The word consecration literally means association with the sacred, persons, places, or things can be consecrated, and the term is used in various ways by different groups. A synonym for to consecrate is to sanctify, a distinct antonym is to desecrate, consecration is used in the Catholic Church as the setting apart for the service of God of both persons and objects. The ordination of a new bishop is called a consecration. While the term episcopal ordination is now common, consecration was the preferred term from the Middle Ages through the period including the Second Vatican Council. The Vatican II document Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy n.76 states, Both the ceremonies, the address given by the bishop at the beginning of each ordination or consecration may be in the mother tongue. When a bishop is consecrated, the laying of hands may be done by all the bishops present, the life of those who enter religious institutes and similar institutes is also described as Consecrated life. The rite of consecration of virgins can be traced back at least to the fourth century, by the time of the Second Vatican Council, the bestowal of the consecration was limited to cloistered nuns only. The Council directed that this should be revised, two similar versions were prepared, one for women living in monastic orders, another for consecrated virgins living in the world. An English translation of the rite for those living in the world is available on the web site of the United States Association of Consecrated Virgins, Chrism, an anointing oil, is olive oil consecrated by a bishop. Objects such as patens and chalices, used for the Sacrament of the Eucharist, also used to be consecrated by a bishop, using chrism. Before a new priest is ordained, the day there is a vigil. A more solemn rite exists for what used to be called the consecration of an altar, the rite is now called the dedication. Since it would be contradictory to dedicate to the service of God a mortgage-burdened building, to consecrate the bread and wine, the priest speaks the Words of Institution. It can also be used to describe the change of the bread and wine into the Body, the Chrism used at Chrismation and the Antimension placed on the Holy Table are also said to be consecrated. A person may be consecrated for a role within a religious hierarchy. In particular, the ordination of a bishop is called a consecration. In churches that follow the doctrine of succession, the bishops who consecrate a new bishop are known as the consecrators
11.
Anaphora (liturgy)
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The Anaphora is the most solemn part of the Divine Liturgy, or the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, during which the offerings of bread and wine are consecrated as the body and blood of Christ. This is the name for this part of the Liturgy in Greek-speaking Eastern Christianity. In western Christian traditions which have a comparable rite, the Anaphora is more called the Eucharistic Prayer. When the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church had a single Eucharistic Prayer it was referred to as the Canon of the Mass, Anaphora is a Greek word meaning a carrying back or a carrying up, and so an offering. Classic call and response ties together the response of the priest, then the priest exhorts those participating in the liturgy to lift up their hearts. When they express their agreement, he introduces the great theme of thanksgiving, in Greek εὐχαριστία, saying. It can be short or resume the great theme of thanksgiving, giving ground for the following requests. Institution narrative, is an account of the Last Supper, in which are pronounced the Words of Institution spoken by Jesus Christ, changing the bread and wine into his Body and Blood. Anamnesis, is the statement in which the Church refers to the character of the Eucharist itself and/or to the Passion, Resurrection and Ascension of Christ. Oblation, is the offering to the Lord of the sacrifice of the Eucharistic bread and wine and of the prayers, in this section there is usually the request to God to grant to the believers the same glory given to Mary and to the saints. An Epiclesis can be found before the Institution narrative in the Alexandrian Rite, sometime, particularly in the past, in both East and West the main celebrant said a part of his prayers inaudibly or covered by the choir. The Eastern Rites know many anaphoras, but each of them is almost completely invariable, on the contrary the Western Church had for centuries only one anaphora, the Roman Canon, but it has variable parts according to the liturgical year, mainly the Preface. In other Latin rites, as in the Mozarabic Rite or the Gallican rite also the post-sanctus and the prayer after the Institution narrative till the doxology are completely variable. Many ancient texts of anaphoras have survived, and even if no more in use, they are useful to trace the history of the anaphoras, most of these texts became parts of anaphoras still in use. John Chrysostom, through the lost Greek version of the Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles, the present Byzantine text of the Anaphora included in the Liturgy of Saint Basil is the final development of this anaphoric family. In the East the more ancient text is probably the ancient form of the Anaphora of Addai and Mari, followed by the Maronite Third Anaphora of St. Peter, another important source is the anaphora described in the Mystagogical Cathecheses of Theodore of Mopsuestia. Before the reform of the Catholic Mass undertaken in 1969 the only used in the Roman Rite was the Roman Canon. For the history of the Roman Canon see also articles Canon of the Mass, Pre-Tridentine Mass and Tridentine Mass
12.
Closed communion
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Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of Holy Communion to those who are members in good standing of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation. A closed-communion church is one that excludes non-members from receiving communion and this is the practice of all churches dating from before the Protestant Reformation and also of some Protestant church such as some Lutherans and Baptists. The Catholic Church practices closed communion, western Christians who do not share the Catholic theology of the Eucharist are absolutely excluded. The Catholic Church does not practise open communion, holding that reception of Holy Communion is reserved for those who are baptized, in general it permits access to its Eucharistic communion only to those who share its oneness in faith, worship and ecclesial life. For other baptized Christians the conditions are more severe, the Catholic Church thus clearly distinguishes between Churches whose celebration of the Eucharist it recognizes as valid and other Christian communities. It applies this rule also to the Anglican Communion, pursuant to Apostolicae curae, failing to do so is condemned by these Lutherans as the sin of unionism. This teaching comes from 1 Corinthians 10, 16-17 which says, and is not the bread that we break a participation in the body of Christ. A man ought to examine himself before he eats of the bread, for anyone who eats and drinks without recognizing the body of the Lord eats and drinks judgment on himself. Therefore, the belief is that, inviting those forward who have not been first instructed would be unloving on the churchs part and this is described as akin to letting someone drink poison without stopping him. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran Church in America, however, does not practice closed communion, but rather eucharistic hospitality. In terms of receiving the Sacrament, according to this practice, the burden of decision of admittance to the Sacrament is not on the host congregation. The invitation to the Sacrament is extended to all baptized persons, the Eastern Orthodox Church, comprising 14 or 15 autocephalous Orthodox hierarchical churches, is even more strictly a closed-communion Church. In the strictest sense, non-Orthodox may be present at the Divine Liturgy only up to the exclamation The doors, and ought to leave the church after that. However, this attitude has been relaxed in most Orthodox churches, non-Orthodox present at the Liturgy are not only permitted but even encouraged to receive the blessed bread as an expression of Christian fellowship and love. Some Baptists practice closed communion even more strictly than the Catholic Church, Lutheran Church and they restrict communion to members of the local church observing the ordinance. So thus, members from other churches, even members of local churches of the same Baptist group are excluded from participating in the communion. The Strict Baptists in the United Kingdom derive their name from this practice, in the United States, it is usually, but not exclusively, associated with Landmark ecclesiology. For a similar practice by others, see Close Communion
13.
Communion under both kinds
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Communion under both kinds in Christianity is the reception under both species of the Eucharist. This is mentioned implicitly by the Council of Trent, and the General Instruction of the Roman Missal states that the people. should share the cup when it is permitted, then, Communion is a clearer sign of sharing in the sacrifice that is actually being celebrated. In modern Catholic practice in Europe and much of the English-speaking world, Ireland excluded, however, Catholicism teaches that Christ is sacramentally present under each species, and therefore if a person receives only one species, Christ is fully present and nothing is lacking. In the Early Church, Communion was ordinarily administered and received under both kinds and that such was the practice mentioned by Paul in I Corinthians 11,28. By the Middle Ages, the Church had become, like most of European society, there was much stress on being holy when receiving Communion, and a greatly heightened appreciation of the sufferings of Christ. This meant that all who approached the altar were to be as pure as possible and this practice was challenged by the Bohemian reformer, Jacob of Mies, who in 1414 began to offer Communion under both kinds to his congregation. The matter was reviewed by the 13th Session of the Council of Constance, in 1415 and this became the most emblematic issue of the Hussite Wars, which resulted in the permission of the communion under both kinds for Utraquists in Bohemia in 1433. In the following century, this was challenged again by the Protestant Reformers, including Martin Luther, John Calvin, however, his concession was withdrawn in the following year. In the 20th century, Catholic liturgical reformers began to press for a return to Communion under both kinds, citing the practice of the church before the thirteenth century, there were spirited debates over the issue at the Second Vatican Council, resulting in a compromise. The following text was issued by the bishops. Regular use of Communion under both kinds requires the permission of the bishop, but bishops in many countries have given blanket authorisation to administer Holy Communion in this way. In the United States, the Notre Dame Study of Catholic Parish Life showed that by 1989, the Eastern Orthodox Church has consistently practised communion under both kinds. Both the clergy and the people normally receive in both kinds, Communion of only the Eucharistic Bread is seen as imperfect by the Orthodox churches, who do not normally follow this practice, even in extremis. The clergy will receive first the Body of Christ, taking it in their hands. After the communion of the clergy, the portions of the consecrated Lamb for the faithful are cut into tiny portions and placed in the chalice. When the faithful come forward to receive Communion, they cross their hands over their chest, when the priest takes Holy Communion to the sick, he transfers a portion to a vessel which is worn around the neck. Inside the vessel are compartments for a box to contain the Mysteries, a tiny chalice, a bottle for wine. Once at the sick persons bedside he uses the tweezers to take a particle of the Mysteries from the box and he then pours a small amount of unconsecrated red wine into the chalice which softens the dried particle as he hears the sick persons confession
14.
Eucharistic adoration
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Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the Roman Catholic, Anglo-Catholic and some Lutheran traditions, in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed and adored by the faithful. As a devotion, Eucharistic adoration, prayer, and meditation are more than merely looking at the Blessed Host, from a theological perspective, the adoration is a form of latria, based on the tenet of the real presence of Christ in the Blessed Host. Christian meditation performed in the presence of the Eucharist outside of Mass is called Eucharistic meditation and it has been practiced by such as Peter Julian Eymard, Jean Vianney and Thérèse of Lisieux. Authors such as the Venerable Concepcion Cabrera de Armida and Blessed Maria Candida of the Eucharist have produced large volumes of text based on their Eucharistic meditations, when the exposure and adoration of the Eucharist is constant, it is called Perpetual adoration. In a monastery or convent, it is done by the resident monks or nuns and, in a parish, in the opening prayer of the Perpetual chapel in St. Peter Basilica, Pope John Paul II prayed for a perpetual adoration chapel in every parish in the world. Pope Benedict XVI instituted perpetual adoration for the laity in each of the five sectors of the diocese of Rome, Eucharistic adoration may be performed both when the Eucharist is exposed for viewing and when it is not. In Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, the Eucharist is displayed in a monstrance, typically placed on an altar, at times with a focused on it. The exposition usually occurs in the context of a service of Benediction or similar service of devotions to the Blessed Sacrament, Exposition also takes place in the context of perpetual adoration, where specific people attend the exposition for a certain period of time,24 hours a day. On 10 January 1969 Blessed Pope Paul VI issued a Letter to the Superior General, Father Roland Huot, S. S. S. Https, //www. ewtn. com/library/PAPALDOC/P6ADORE. HTM This concession is included in the revised Roman Ritual, Holy Communion, in many cases Eucharistic adoration is performed by each person for an uninterrupted hour known as the Holy Hour. The inspiration for the Holy Hour is Matthew 26,40 when in the Garden of Gethsemane the night before his crucifixion, Jesus asks Peter, So, could you men not keep watch with me for one hour. Pope John Paul II spent many hours in silent Eucharistic adoration, since the Protestant Reformation, some Christian denominations have criticized Eucharistic adoration, even considering it a form of idolatry. Many Anglicans, Catholics and Lutherans contend that it cannot be idolatry because Christ, whole, while the keeping of the Blessed Sacrament outside of Mass seems to have been part of the Eucharistic Christian practice from the beginning, the practice of adoration began somewhat later. One of the first possible references to reserving the Blessed Sacrament for adoration is found in a life of St. Basil, Basil is said to have divided the Eucharistic bread into three parts when he celebrated the Divine Liturgy in the monastery. One part he consumed, the part he gave to the monks. This is befitting the Eastern custom of veiling those things deemed sacred from human eyes, the Franciscan archives credit Saint Francis of Assisi for starting Eucharistic Adoration in Italy. This process then spread from Umbria to other parts of Italy by the Franciscans, Francis had a deep devotion to the Eucharist and Saint Bonaventure commented that Francis would be swept in ecstasy after receiving Communion. For Francis, the adoration of the Eucharist amounted to seeing Christ, the theological basis for the adoration was prepared in the 11th century by Pope Gregory VII, who was instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Host
15.
Thanksgiving after Communion
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This practice was and is highly recommended by saints, theologians, and Doctors of the Church. According to Catholic doctrine, bread is transubstantiated into the Body and Blood, Soul, the same holds true for the wine, which in Catholic doctrine is also the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Jesus Christ. Inaestimabile Donum emphasizes the importance of adoration and prayer after Holy Communion, the faithful are to be recommended not to omit to make a proper thanksgiving after Communion. They may do this during the celebration with a period of silence, with a hymn, psalm or other song of praise, or also after the celebration, reverence is that virtue which inclines a person to show honor and respect to God. The missal and the breviary even suggest prayers for the priest before, there is no reason to believe that this is no longer needed. Indeed in our world of today, such moments of reflective. He recommended that during this time it can also be most helpful to remain recollected in silence, I heartily recommend to the Churchs pastors and to the People of God the practice of eucharistic adoration, both individually and in community. Now, in Holy Communion, it is the Lord Himself that comes to us, I pray that this Holy Communion be not a condemnation to punishment for me, but a saving plea to forgiveness. May it be to me the armor of faith and the shield of a good will, through the same Christ our Lord. After receiving Communion, many of the saints would spend a time of thanksgiving. Magdalena de Pazzi wrote, The minutes that follow Communion are the most precious we have in our lives, St. St. Louis de Montfort wrote, I would not give up this hour of Thanksgiving even for an hour of Paradise. Philip Neri once sent two acolytes with candles to accompany a member of his congregation who had left the church without any adoration after Mass, the man returned to the church to find out St. Philips purpose. The Saint answered, We have to pay respect to Our Lord. Since you neglect to adore Him, I sent two acolytes to take your place, through the years, the saints have varied in their recommendation as regards the amount of time to be spent in thanksgiving. A number of saints referred to an hour of thanksgiving, St. Alphonsus specifically advises everyone to devote at least half an hour to it, if it is at all possible. There is no prayer more agreeable to God, or more profitable to the soul, said another Doctor of the Church, St. Alphonsus Liguori, josemaría Escrivá said, Surely you have nothing so important on that you cannot give Our Lord 10 minutes to say thanks. Thanksgiving after Holy Communion always supposes a, traditional post-communion prayers include the Adoro te by Thomas Aquinas, the Anima Christi, the Prayer Before a Crucifix, and the Prayer of Saint Francis. Sometimes, acts of faith, hope, and charity addressed to the three divine Persons will spurt from our soul, at other times, we will maintain an intimate dialogue with Jesus, our divine Friend who will purify and transform us
16.
Reserved sacrament
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During the Liturgy of the Eucharist, the second part of the Mass, the elements of bread and wine are considered to have been changed into the veritable Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. The manner in which this occurs is referred to by the term transubstantiation, in many Christian churches some portion of the consecrated elements is set aside and reserved after the reception of the Holy Eucharist, referred to as the reserved sacrament. The reserved sacrament is usually stored in a tabernacle, a cabinet made of precious materials and usually located on. In Western Christianity usually only the Host, from Latin, hostia, the Blessed Sacrament is then returned to the tabernacle at the end of the first Mass of the Resurrection. The first mention of reservation also describes the original and, arguably, reservation for distribution of the Communion to the sick is mentioned subsequently in the writings of Tertullian, St. Cyprian and St. Basil. People kept the sacrament in their homes and carried about their person as being a safe place, after the conversion of Constantine in the early 4th century, the more common place for reservation was in a church. This custom seems to have originated in the desire to allow the Blessed Sacrament to be seen by the faithful without exactly contravening the synodal decrees which forbade any continuous exposition. In the sacrament house, the door was made of metal lattice work. A second purpose of reservation is that it might be a focus of prayer, in the 3rd century, catechumens baptized at Easter or Pentecost would spend eight days in meditation before the Blessed Sacrment, reserved in a home-church, before Christianity was legalized. However, before the year 1000, or even later, the Blessed Sacrament was kept in churches in order that the faithful might visit It or pray before It. Public Exposition, formerly permitted only on the feast of Corpus Christi, reservation was prohibited in many Protestant churches in the 16th century. In England it was permitted in the First Book of Common Prayer of 1549, the Thirty-Nine Articles stated, The Sacrament of the Lords Supper was not by Christs ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped. In 1662, the prayer book rubric was altered to the effect that after the communion any remains were to be reverently consumed. The practice of reservation died out among Anglicans until the 19th century when, under the influence of the Tractarians, members of the Oxford Movement, in Tract 90, John Henry Newman argued for a permissive interpretation of Article XXVIII. Nevertheless, this caused energetic debate amongst Anglican theologians of the time, there is then no celebration until the Easter Vigil in the night leading to Easter Sunday. This celebration is never called Mass, because it lacks the consecration of the Eucharist, the structure of the celebration is the following, Introductory rites, similar in aim and structure to the Introductory rites of the Mass, though the greeting, The Lord be with you. Is reserved to the priest or deacon- another format is used when a layperson presides at the service, Liturgy of the Word, similar in aim, the readings are the same of the Mass of the same day. It shall not to be similar to the thanksgiving of the Eucharistic prayers, Communion rites, the ritual of the Roman Ritual for communion outside Mass shall be used
17.
Corpus Christi (feast)
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The Feast of Corpus Christi is a Latin Rite liturgical solemnity celebrating the belief in the body and blood of Jesus Christs Real Presence in the Eucharist. It emphasizes the joy of the institution of the Eucharist, the latter had previously been observed only on Maundy Thursday, in the somber atmosphere leading to Good Friday. It was reported in 2017, however, that Pope Francis had moved the feast from Thursday to the following Sunday, when it is celebrated in Italy. At the end of Holy Mass, there is often a procession of the Blessed Sacrament, the procession is followed by Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. The celebration of the feast was suppressed in Protestant churches during the Reformation, the Church of England abolished it in 1548 as the English Reformation progressed, but later reintroduced it. Guided by exemplary priests, they lived together, devoted to prayer and she always longed for a feast day outside of Lent in its honour. Her vita reports that this desire was enhanced by a vision of the Church under the appearance of the moon having one dark spot. In 1208, she reported her first vision of Christ in which she was instructed to plead for the institution of the feast of Corpus Christi, the vision was repeated for the next 20 years but she kept it a secret. When she eventually relayed it to her confessor, he relayed it to the bishop, juliana also petitioned the learned Dominican Hugh of St-Cher, and Robert de Thorete, Bishop of Liège. Hugh of St-Cher travelled to Liège as Cardinal-Legate in 1251 and, jacques Pantaléon of Troyes was also won over to the cause of the Feast of Corpus Christi during his ministry as Archdeacon in Liège. So many other functions took place on this day that the event was almost lost sight of. This is mentioned as the reason for the introduction of the new feast. For this reason, the Feast of Corpus Christi was established to create a feast focused solely on the Holy Eucharist. E. I,7 and represents the work of St. Thomas Aquinas following or during his residency at Orvieto from 1259 to 1265. The office can also be found in the 1343 codex Regimen Animarum and this liturgy may be used as a votive Mass of the Blessed Sacrament on weekdays in ordinary time. The hymn Aquinas composed for Vespers of Corpus Christi, Pange Lingua or another eucharistic hymn, is used on Holy Thursday during the procession of the Blessed Sacrament to the altar of repose. The last two verses of Pange Lingua are also used as a hymn, Tantum Ergo, which is sung at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. O Salutaris Hostia, another hymn sung at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, Aquinas also composed the propers for the Mass of Corpus Christi, including the sequence Lauda Sion Salvatorem. The epistle reading for the Mass was taken from Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians, when Pope Pius V revised the General Roman Calendar, Corpus Christi was one of only two feasts of devotion that he kept, the other being Trinity Sunday
18.
First Communion
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First Communion is a ceremony in some Christian traditions during which a person first receives the Eucharist. It is most common in the Latin Church tradition of the Catholic Church, as well as in parts of the Lutheran Church. In churches that celebrate First Communion, it occurs between the ages of seven and thirteen, often acting as a rite of passage. Catholics believe this event to be important, as the Eucharist occupies a central role in Catholic theology. First Communion is not celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches, or the Assyrian Church of the East, some Anglicans allow infant communion, while others require the previous reception of confirmation, usually during the teenage years. Celebration of this ceremony is typically less elaborate in many Protestant churches. Roman Catholics and some Protestants believe that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist, other denominations have varying understandings, ranging from the Eucharist being a symbolic meal to a meal of remembering Christs last supper. The sacrament of First Communion is an important tradition for Catholic families, for Catholics, Holy Communion is the third of seven sacraments received. It occurs only after receiving Baptism, and once the person has reached the age of reason first confession must precede the first reception of the Eucharist, traditions of celebration surrounding First Communion usually include large family gatherings and parties to celebrate the event. The first communicant wears special clothing, the clothing is often white to symbolize purity, but not in all cultures. Girls often wear fancy dresses and an attached to a wreath of flowers or hair ornament. In other communities, girls commonly wear dresses passed down to them from sisters or mothers, boys may wear a suit, or tuxedo, or their Sunday best, or national dress. In many Latin American countries, boys wear military-style dress uniforms with gold braid aiguillettes, in Switzerland both boys and girls wear plain white robes with brown wooden crosses around their necks. In Spain, Germany, Luxembourg and Austria, girls are dressed up as, so to speak, in Scotland, boys traditionally wear kilts and other traditional Scottish dress which accompany the kilt. Gifts of a nature are usually given, such as rosaries and prayer books, in addition to religious statues, icons. Many families have formal professional photographs taken in addition to candid snapshots in order to commemorate the event, some churches arrange for a professional photographer after the ceremony. During the communist era, dominant societies initiation into the movement in communist countries that had large Catholic populations was an overt attempt to supplant the Catholic ritual. In all cases, a child at the age of seven to ten is initiated as a member of a group within which the individuals share certain values and culture
19.
Viaticum
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Viaticum is a term used especially in the Catholic Church for the Eucharist administered, with or without anointing of the sick, to a person who is dying, and is thus a part of the last rites. According to Cardinal Javier Lozano Barragán, The Catholic tradition of giving the Eucharist to the dying ensures that instead of dying alone they die with Christ who promises them eternal life. For Communion as Viaticum, the Eucharist is given in the form, with the added words May the Lord Jesus Christ protect you. The word viaticum is a Latin word meaning provision for a journey, from via, or way. The Eucharist is seen as the spiritual food to strengthen a dying person for the journey from this world to life after death. ”If the dying person cannot take solid food. The sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is often administered immediately before giving Viaticum if a priest is available to do so, unlike the Anointing of the Sick, Viaticum may be administered by a priest, deacon or by an extraordinary minister, using the reserved Blessed Sacrament. Finally, viaticum can also refer to the enlistment bonus received by a Roman legionary, auxiliary soldier or seaman in the Roman Imperial Navy, rubin, Miri, Corpus Christi, The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1991. Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist, A Process of Mutual Interaction, Leiden, Brill,1995
20.
Paten
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A paten, or diskos, is a small plate, usually made of silver or gold, used to hold Eucharistic bread which is to be consecrated. It is generally used during the service itself, while the reserved sacrament are stored in the tabernacle in a ciborium, in many Western liturgical denominations, the paten is typically either a simple saucer-like plate or a low bowl. A smaller style paten will often have a depression that allows it to sit on top of the chalice. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal lays down rules for patens, if they are made from metal that rusts or from a metal less precious than gold, they should generally be gilded on the inside. Patens are also used among Anglicans and Lutherans, in the Byzantine Rite Orthodox and Byzantine Rite Catholic Churches, the paten is called a diskos and is elevated by a stand permanently attached underneath. The diskos is usually more ornate than its Latin Rite counterpart, the diskos may be engraved with an icon of Jesus Christ, the Nativity of Christ, the Cross, or most frequently the Theotokos. When a diskos is made, it is accompanied by a matching asterisk, a spoon. During the Divine Liturgy it is not only the Lamb that is placed on the diskos, but also particles to commemorate the Theotokos, the Saints, the living and the departed. Thus, on the diskos is represented the entire Church, the Church Militant, at the Great Entrance the deacon carries the Diskos, holding the foot of the diskos at his forehead. He then kneels at the side of the Holy Table, during the Anaphora, only the Lamb is consecrated. After Communion, the Deacon holds the diskos above the holy chalice and recites hymns of the Resurrection. Then he wipes the remaining particles into the saying the words, Wash away, O Lord. During the Consecration of a Church, a diskos is used to hold the relics of the saints which will be sealed in the Holy Table and antimension by the bishop. When a priest is ordained, a portion of the Lamb will be placed on a small diskos and given to him, in the Russian tradition, there is a special service of blessing used to sanctify a diskos before its first use at Liturgy. The diskos may be blessed separately or together in a set with the sacred vessels. Up until the first time a diskos is used in the Divine Liturgy it is considered to be an ordinary vessel, however, after having been used in the Divine Liturgy, a diskos may be touched only by a deacon, priest or bishop. A subdeacon may touch the sacred vessels, but only if they are wrapped in cloth. In the usage of the Coptic Orthodox Church, the diskos usually has a bottom with no foot
21.
Origin of the Eucharist
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Paul considers that in celebrating the rite they were fulfilling a mandate to do so. The Acts of the Apostles presents the early Christians as meeting for “the breaking of bread” as some sort of ceremony, writing around the middle of the second century, Justin Martyr gives the oldest description of something that can be recognised as the rite that is in use today. Earlier sources, the Didache,1 Clement and Ignatius of Antioch provide glimpses of what Christians were doing in their eucharists, later sources, Tertullian and the Apostolic Tradition, offer some details from around the year 200. Lukes version differs at so many points from the Markan that some believe it stems from another source. John, although he does not include an Institution Narrative, includes an account of a supper on the night Jesus was betrayed, including a footwashing scene. Chapters 13-17 of the Gospel of John attribute to Jesus a series of teachings and prayers at his Last Supper, on the other hand, John 6, in particular verses such as 6, 55-56, is widely interpreted as an allusion to the Eucharist. Peculiarities in phrasing as compared to the Synoptics are thought to reflect the tradition of the Johannine community. The text of the Lucan version is uncertain, a number of commentators conclude that the second half of 22,19 and all of 22,20 are later interpolations. Jones writing in 1978 comments Many scholars have returned to the support of the longer text, and the same position was taken by the majority of editors of the United Bible Societies Greek New Testament. The attribution to Jesus of the words This do in memory of Me. is therefore possible, Jeremias says Do this in remembrance of me would better be translated That God may remember me. But Richardson objects that the presence of one particular meaning must not be taken to other shades of meaning. The New Testament recounts a number of practices of religious table fellowship that would later be considered eucharistic, Paul the Apostle responded to abuses at a meal that the Corinthian Christians had at their meetings and that he did not deem worthy to be called a Supper of the Lord. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons, Paul had first evangelized the inhabitants of Corinth, in Greece, in 51/52 CE. Pauls nascent congregation there was made up of pagan, not Jewish, all first-generation Christians were necessarily converts, either pagan or Jewish. They had written him regarding numerous matters of concern, the ambiguities some find in that wording has generated reams of books, articles and opinions about the Origins of Eucharist. The Last Supper and the eucharist are not the same thing, clearly the religious table fellowship tradition had been going on in the Early Christian Church, antedating Pauls conversion, unless the contention is made that Paul invented it. Eugene LaVerdiere wrote, That is how Paul introduced the tradition and he received the tradition of Eucharist in the early 40s while in the community at Antioch. He handed it on to the Corinthians in the year 51 when first proclaiming the gospel to them, like Paul, the Corinthians also were to become a link in the chain of Eucharistic tradition, handing on to others what Paul handed on to them
22.
Eucharistic theology
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Eucharistic theology is a branch of Christian theology which treats doctrines concerning the Holy Eucharist, also commonly known as the Lords Supper. It exists exclusively in Christianity and related religions, as others generally do not contain a Eucharistic ceremony, the aforementioned Bread of Life Discourse occurs in the Gospel of John,6, 30-59. Therein, Jesus promises to give His Flesh and Blood, which will give life to all who receive It. In John 6,53, Jesus says, I tell you the truth, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. And continues, Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, for my flesh is real food and my blood is real drink. Every year, the nation of Israel celebrated the Passover Meal and it was at the Passover that Jesus Christ celebrated the Last Supper with his Apostles. The Gospel of John, on the hand, makes no mention of this. One explanation offered is that he wrote his Gospel to supplement what the other evangelists had already written, because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicants personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the aspects of Christs presence. The opposing views are summarized below, the substance of the bread and wine is changed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the accidents of the bread and wine remain. This view is taught by the Roman Catholic Church, and is held by some Anglicans in Anglo-Catholic circles, the terminology of transubstantiation was adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church by the Synod of Jerusalem. It is not recognized as having the authority of an Ecumenical Council and has criticized for a perceived tendency toward Latinization. They prefer simply to use the change, as in the epiclesis of the Divine Liturgy, to describe the change of the bread and wine into the actual Body. The Church of the East and those of Oriental Orthodoxy also believe in Real Presence, the bread retains its substance and. This is the position of the Lutheran Church that echoes the view with its pious silence about technicalities in that it objects to philosophical terms like consubstantiation. Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities is the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, as well as of many Anglicans and it is also known as the mystical presence view, and is held by some Low Church Reformed Anglicans. This understanding is often called receptionism, the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. Christ is not present in the sacrament, except in the minds and this view is also known as memorialism and Zwinglianism after Huldrych Zwingli and is held by several Protestant and Latter-day Saint denominations, including most Baptists
23.
Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist
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By contrast, the doctrine is rejected by the Radical Reformers and their followers. Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of beliefs led in the 1980s to consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and these consultations included the Catholic Church. Contrary positions were taken by Paschasius Radbertus and Ratramnus, Ratramnus held that the body of Christ was present spiritually but not physically, while Paschasius emphasized the true presence of the body of Christ. This caused a controversy which led to the clarification of the doctrine of the Eucharist. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council used the word transubstantiated in its profession of faith, scholasticism cast Christian theology in the terms of Aristotelianism. Medieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms, for Aristotle, a substance is an individual thing, which may possess accidental forms as non-essential properties. During the later period, the question was debated within the Western Church. Following the Protestant Reformation, it became a topic of division between the various emerging confessions. The Lutheran doctrine of the presence, known as the Sacramental Union, was formulated in the Augsburg Confession of 1530. Luther decidedly supported the doctrine, publishing The Sacrament of the Body, zwinglis view became associated with the term Memorialism, suggesting an understanding of the Eucharist held purely in memory of Christ. Eastern Orthodoxy did not become involved in the prior to the 17th century. It became virulent in 1629, when Cyril Lucaris denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, to counter the teaching of Lucaris, Metropolitan Petro Mohyla of Kiev drew up in Latin an Orthodox Confession in defense of transubstantiation. This Confession was approved by all the Greek-speaking Patriarchs in 1643, and again by the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem. One hymn of the Church, Ave Verum Corpus, greets Christ in the Eucharist as follows, Hail, true body, born of Mary Virgin, nor does its use in the Orthodox Church commit theologians to the acceptance of Aristotelian philosophical concepts. 10.16,11. 23-29 or the discourse in John 6. 26-58, in light of this fact, it teaches that the gifts should be treated with reverence throughout the entirety of the service. We dont know the time in which the change takes place. The Eastern Orthodox Church Synod of Jerusalem declared, We believe the Lord Jesus Christ to be present, not typically, nor figuratively, nor by superabundant grace, the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence is more accurately and formally known as the Sacramental Union. For Lutherans, there is no Sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christs institution and this was first articulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula, Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum
24.
Sacramental union
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In Protestant sacramental theology, sacramental union is the relationship between the outward substance or sign of a sacrament and the thing signified by the sacrament. Lutherans believe the sign and thing signified to be locally united, Reformed Christians believe the sign and thing signified to be inseparable, but to be united spiritually rather than locally and bodily. Lutherans maintain that what they believe to be the doctrine of the manducatio indignorum supports this doctrine as well as any other doctrine affirming the Real Presence. The manducatio indignorum is the contention that even unbelievers eating and drinking in the Eucharist really eat and drink the body and blood of Christ. Here, too, out of two kinds of objects a union has taken place, which I shall call a sacramental union, because Christ’s body and this is not a natural or personal union, as is the case with God and Christ. It is also perhaps a different union from that which the dove has with the Holy Spirit, and the flame with the angel and it is asserted in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 and in the Formula of Concord. The Formula of Concord couples the term with the circumlocution used among Lutherans to further define their view, For the reason why, in addition to the expressions of Christ and St. The term consubstantiation has been associated with such a local inclusion of the Body and Blood of Christ in the sacramental bread, Martin Luther distinguished this doctrine from that of transubstantiation and impanation in this way. We do not make Christs body out of the bread, nor do we say that his body comes into existence out of the bread. We say that his body, which long ago was made and came into existence, is present when we say, for Christ commands us to say not, Let this become my body, or, Make my body there, but, This is my body. The Lutheran doctrine of the union is also distinct from the Reformed view. The Calvinistic view of Christs presence in the Lords Supper is that Christ is truly present at the meal and this is in line with their general belief that the finite is not capacious for the infinite. Lutherans, on the hand, describe the Personal Union of the two natures in Christ as sharing their predicates or attributes more fully. The doctrine of the union is more consistent with this type of Christology. Confession Concerning Christs Supper Crypto-Calvinism Eucharistic theologies contrasted Marburg Colloquy Martin Luther Real Presence Luther, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nochfolger, 1883-, pelikan, and Helmut T. Lehmann, gen. eds.55 vols. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, triglot Concordia, The Symbolical Books of the Ev
25.
Transubstantiation
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The Catholic Church teaches that the substance, or essence, of the Eucharistic offering is changed into both the body and blood of Christ. All that is accessible to the senses remains unchanged, what remains unaltered is also referred to as the accidents of the bread and wine, but the term accidents is not used in the official definition of the doctrine by the Council of Trent. The manner in which the change occurs, the Catholic Church teaches, is a mystery, The signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ. The precise terminology to be used to refer to the nature Eucharist, in the Greek Orthodox Church, the doctrine has been discussed under the term of metousiosis, coined as a direct loan-translation of transsubstantiatio in the 17th century. In Eastern Orthodoxy in general, the Mystery of the Eucharist is more commonly discussed using alternative terms such as trans-elementation, re-ordination, or simply change. The early Christians who use these terms also speak of it as the flesh and blood of Christ, the same flesh and blood which suffered and died on the cross. Matthew 7,6 A letter by Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans, written in AD106 says, I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ. In about 200 AD, Tertullian wrote, Taking bread and distributing it to his disciples he made it his own body by saying, This is my body, on the other hand, there would not have been a figure unless there was a true body. The Apostolic Constitutions says, Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ, and let him that receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup, and when he gives it, say, The blood of Christ, the cup of life, and let him that drinketh say, Amen. Saint Ambrose of Milan wrote, Perhaps you will say, I see something else, how is it that you assert that I receive the Body of Christ. Let us prove that this is not what nature made, but what the blessing consecrated, for that sacrament which you receive is made what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such power as to bring fire from heaven. Why do you seek the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing that the Lord Jesus Himself was born of a Virgin and it is the true Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the Sacrament of His Body. The Lord Jesus Himself proclaims, This Is My Body, before the blessing of the heavenly words another nature is spoken of, after the consecration the Body is signified. He Himself speaks of His Blood, before the consecration it has another name, after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true, Let the heart within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what the voice speaks. Other fourth-century Christian writers say that in the Eucharist there occurs a change, transelementation, transformation, transposing, by the end of the 12th century the term was in widespread use
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Sacrament
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A sacrament is a Christian rite recognised as of particular importance and significance. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites, many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible symbol of the reality of God, as well as a means by which God enacts his grace. Sacraments signify Gods grace in a way that is observable to the participant. The Catholic Church recognises seven sacraments, Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Marriage, many Protestant denominations, such as those within the Reformed tradition, identify two sacraments instituted by Christ, the Eucharist and Baptism. The Lutheran sacraments include these two, often adding Confession as a third sacrament, the English word sacrament is derived indirectly from the Ecclesiastical Latin sacrāmentum, from Latin sacrō, from sacer. This in turn is derived from the Greek New Testament word mysterion and these seven sacraments were codified in the documents of the Council of Trent, which stated, CANON I. During the Middle Ages, sacraments were recorded in Latin, even after the Reformation, many ecclesiastical leaders continued using this practice into the 20th century. On occasion, Protestant ministers followed the same practice, since W was not part of the Latin alphabet, scribes only used it when dealing with names or places. In addition, names were modified to fit a Latin mold, for instance, the name Joseph would be rendered as Iosephus or Josephus. The Catholic Church indicates that the sacraments are necessary for salvation, the Church applies this teaching even to the sacrament of baptism, the gateway to the other sacraments. It states that Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed, catechumens and all those who, even without knowing Christ and the Church, still sincerely seek God and strive to do his will can also be saved without Baptism. The Church in her liturgy entrusts children who die without Baptism to the mercy of God, in the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the sacraments are efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them with the required dispositions, the Church teaches that the effect of the sacraments comes ex opere operato, by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it. The sacraments presuppose faith and through their words and ritual elements, nourish, strengthen, through each of them, Christ bestows that sacraments particular grace, such as incorporation into Christ and the Church, forgiveness of sins, or consecration for a particular service. The Eastern Orthodox tradition does not limit the number of sacraments to seven, however it recognizes these seven as the major sacraments, which are completed by many other blessings and special services. Some lists of the sacraments taken from the Church Fathers include the consecration of a church, monastic tonsure, more specifically, for the Eastern Orthodox the term sacrament is a term which seeks to classify something that may, according to Orthodox thought, be impossible to classify. According to Orthodox thinking God touches mankind through material means such as water, wine, bread, oil, incense, candles, altars, icons, how God does this is a mystery
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Anglican eucharistic theology
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Anglican eucharistic theology is diverse in practice, reflecting the comprehensiveness of Anglicanism. Its sources include prayer book rubrics, writings on sacramental theology by Anglican divines, the principal source material is the Book of Common Prayer, specifically, its eucharistic prayers, and Article XXVIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles. In one interpretation, those who receive the form or sign of the body and blood in faith, receive also the spiritual body and blood of Christ. In another interpretation, there exists the real presence of Christ the Eucharist. Luthers analogy of Christs presence was that of the heat of a horseshoe thrust into a fire until it is glowing. In the same way, Christ is considered present in the bread, with the Eucharist, as with other aspects of theology, Anglicans are largely directed by the principle of lex orandi, lex credendi which means the law of prayer is the law of belief. In other words, sacramental theology as it pertains to the Eucharist is sufficiently and fully articulated by the Book of Common Prayer of a given jurisdiction and it thus has the effect of conveying sanctification in the individual participating in the sacrament. Sacraments have both form and matter, form is the verbal and physical liturgical action, while the matter refers to material objects used. In an Anglican Eucharist the form is contained in the rite and its rubrics, central to the rite is the Eucharistic Prayer or Great Thanksgiving. For the vast majority of Anglicans, the Eucharist, is the act of gathered worship. In this sacrament, Christ is both encountered and incorporated, Anglican doctrine concerning the Eucharist is contained in Article XXVIII - Of the Lords Supper and XXIX - Of the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ of the Thirty-Nine Articles. The outward sign, in this instance, is the bread and wine, because of the various theological movements which have influenced Anglicanism throughout history, there is no one sacramental theory accepted by all Anglicans. Early Anglican theologians, such as Thomas Cranmer and Richard Hooker, the 19th century Oxford Movement sought to give the Eucharist a more prominent place and upheld belief in the real objective presence of Christ in the sacrament. Anglicans now hold a variety of sacramental theologies, representing a spectrum of theories found in other Christian traditions, holding this view, the Tractarians were concerned. to exalt the importance of the sacrament, but were generally hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation. Article XXVIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles declares that Transubstantiation, cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions. Romanists point to the words of institution, low-church Anglicans reject belief in a real objective presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and accordingly, usually any belief in the reservation and adoration of the sacrament. Instead, they hold to a spiritual view of the Eucharist similar to the views held by Reformed Protestant denominations. Low-church parishes and ministers tend to celebrate the Eucharist less frequently, during the seminal years of the English Reformation, Thomas Cranmer was in correspondence with many continental Reformers, several of whom came to England at his request to aid in reforms there
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Eucharist in Lutheranism
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The Eucharist in the Lutheran Church refers to the liturgical commemoration of the Last Supper. Martin Luther saw the main basis for the Eucharist to be found in Matthew 26, 26–28, Mark 14, 22–24, Luke 22, 19-20, the Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is also known as the sacramental union. This theology was first formally and publicly confessed in the Wittenberg Concord and it has also been called consubstantiation but most Lutheran theologians reject the use of this term as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name. Some Lutherans do believe in consubstantiation, for Lutherans the Eucharist is not considered to be a valid sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christs mandate and institution. This was first formulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula, to remove any scruple of doubt or superstition, the reliquiæ traditionally are either consumed, poured into the earth, or reserved. Today, many Lutheran churches offer the Eucharist weekly, while others offer it less often, weddings and funerals sometimes include the celebration of the Eucharist in Lutheran churches. At the ordinations of pastors/priests and the consecration of bishops, the Eucharist is always offered, for Lutherans in general, confession and absolution are considered proper preparation for receiving the sacrament. However, the practice among Lutherans of preparation by private confession and absolution is rarely found in American Lutheran congregations. For this reason, often an order or corporate rite of confession and absolution is included at the beginning of Lutheran liturgies. Most other ELCA congregations offer First Communion instruction to children in the 5th grade, in other Lutheran churches, the person must have receive confirmation before receiving the Eucharist. Infants and children who havent received the instruction may be brought to the Eucharistic distribution by their parents to be blessed by the pastor. The manner of receiving the Eucharist differs throughout the world, the congregation departs and may make the sign of the cross. In other Lutheran churches, the process is much like the Post-Vatican II revised rite of the Roman Catholic Church, the eucharistic minister and his assistants line up, with the eucharistic minister in the center holding the hosts and the two assistants on either side holding the chalices. The people process to the front in lines and receive the Eucharist standing, following this, the people make the sign of the cross and return to their places in the congregation. The bread is commonly a thin unleavened wafer, but leavened wafers may also be used, some parishes use intinction, the dipping of the host into the chalice. Placing the host in the hand of the communicant is commonly practiced, the wine is commonly administered via a chalice, but many congregations use individual cups. These may be either prefilled or filled from the chalice during the distribution of the Eucharist, some ELCA congregations make grape juice available for children and those who are abstaining from alcohol and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat or grapes. Lutheran Eucharistic adoration is not commonly practiced, but when it occurs it is only from the moment of consecration to reception
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Black Mass
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A Black Mass is a ritual characterized by the inversion of the Traditional Latin Mass celebrated by the Roman Catholic Church. The reality of any such celebrations in medieval times is unclear, with the sources being lurid manuals for witch-hunters, such as the Malleus Maleficarum. Modern revivals began with H. T. F. Rhodes book, The Satanic Mass published in London in 1954, the Catholic Church regards the Mass as its most important sacrament, going back to apostolic times. In general its various liturgies followed the outline of Liturgy of the Word, Offertory, Liturgy of the Eucharist, and Benediction, which developed into what is known as the Mass. In the Middle Ages, beginning with the Latin writings of the Goliards, thus, there was a Mass parody called The Feast of Asses, in which Balaams Ass would begin talking and saying parts of the Mass. A similar parody was the Feast of Fools, some of these Latin parody works are found in the medieval Latin collection of poetry, Carmina Burana, written around 1230. The Catholic Church, however, eventually reacted by condemning them as sacrilegious and blasphemous and these practices became especially prevalent in France. However, such practices were condemned by the Church as sacrilegious, the witch-hunters manuals such as the Malleus Maleficarum and the Compendium Maleficarum give details relating to these supposed practices. Between the 16th and the 19th centuries, many examples of interest in the Black Mass come from France. 16th century, Catherine de Medici, the Queen of France, was said by Jean Bodin to have performed a Black Mass, in spite of its lurid details, there is little outside evidence to back up his story. 17th century, Catherine Monvoisin and the priest Étienne Guibourg performed Black Masses for Madame de Montespan, since a criminal investigation — Laffaire des poisons — was launched many details of their Black Mass have come down to us. The Host was consecrated on her body, and then used in love potions designed to gain the love of the King, from these images of the Guibourg mass, further developments of the Black Mass derived. 18th century, The Marquis de Sade, in many of his writings, places the host and the Mass, monks, priests, 19th century, Joris-Karl Huysmans wrote the classic novel of French Satanism, Là-bas. Although a work of fiction, Huysmans description of the Black Mass remained influential simply because no other book went into as much detail. However, the text which Huysmans satanic priest recites is nothing more than a long diatribe in French, praising Satan as the god of reason. In this way, it resembles the French poetry of Charles Baudelaire, more than it resembles an inversion of the Roman Catholic Mass. J. G. Frazer included a description of the Mass of Saint-Sécaire, Frazer was recounting material already found in an 1883 French book entitled Quatorze superstitions populaires de la Gascogne, by Jean-François Bladé. This Mass was said to be employed as a method of assassination by supernatural means, montague Summers discussed many classic portrayals of the Black Mass in a number of his works
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Christian views on alcohol
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Christian views on alcohol are varied. They held that both the Bible and Christian tradition taught that alcohol is a gift from God that makes life more joyous, many Protestant churches, particularly Methodists and Evangelical groups, advocated abstentionism and were early leaders in the temperance movement of the 19th and 20th centuries. Alcoholic beverages appear in the Bible, both in usage and in poetic expression, the Bible is ambivalent toward alcohol, considering it both a blessing from God that brings merriment and a potential danger that can be unwisely and sinfully abused. Christian views on alcohol come from what the Bible says about it, along with Jewish, the commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many positive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible. Positively, for example, wine is used as a symbol of abundance, negatively, wine is personified as a mocker and beer a brawler, and drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of Gods judgment and wrath. The Bible also speaks of wine in terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment. Wine was commonly drunk at meals, and the Old Testament prescribed it for use in sacrificial rituals, the Gospel of John recorded the first miracle of Jesus, making copious amounts of wine at the wedding feast at Cana. Alcohol was also used for purposes in biblical times, and it appears in that context in several passages—as an oral anesthetic, a topical cleanser and soother. Kings and priests in the Old Testament were forbidden to partake of wine at various times, John the Baptist was a Nazarite from birth. Nazarite vows excluded not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, (Jesus evidently did not take such a vow during the three years of ministry depicted in the gospels, but in fact was even accused by the Pharisees of eating and drinking with sinners. St. Paul further instructs Christians regarding their duty toward immature Christians, even today, priests may not bless the congregation after having even a single glass of wine. Virtually all Christian traditions hold that the Bible condemns ordinary drunkenness in many passages, must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible. Additionally, the consequences of the drunkenness of Noah and Lot were intended to serve as examples of the dangers, St. Paul later chides the Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their attempted celebrations of the Eucharist. Trade with Egypt was quite extensive, Jews were a wine-drinking culture well before the foundation of Rome. Vintage wines were found in the tomb of King Scorpion in Hierakonpolis, archaeological evidence suggests that Semitic predecessors were thought to be responsible for the vintages that were found in the tomb. Vineyards were protected from robbers and animals by walls, hedges, and manned watchtowers. The harvest time brought much joy and play, as en, women and children took to the vineyard, often accompanied by the sound of music and song, some grapes were eaten immediately, while others were turned into raisins. Most of them, however, were put into the press where the men and boys trampled them
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Host desecration
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In Catholicism, where the host is held to have been transubstantiated into the body of Jesus Christ, host desecration is among the gravest of sins. Intentional host desecration is not only a sin but also incurs the penalty of excommunication latae sententiae. Throughout history, a number of groups have been accused of desecrating the Eucharist, accusations against Jews were a common pretext for massacres and expulsions throughout the Middle Ages in Europe. Similar accusations were made in witchcraft trials, witch-hunters guides such as the Malleus Maleficarum refer to hosts as being objects of desecration by witches and it is part of many descriptions of the Black Mass, both in ostensibly historical works and in fiction. During the Middle Ages, Roman Catholic theology offered the concept of transubstantiation to explain this change of substance which was believed to be actual and not merely symbolic. The concept, defined as a dogma at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, holds that the substances of the offerings are literally transformed, while the appearance of bread, many Christians believe Jesus to be true God and true man. In the Catholic Church, therefore, his body, blood, soul and they are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The Methodist Church similarly holds that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist through the elements of bread and wine, Host desecration has been associated with groups identified as inimical to Christianity. It is a belief that desecration of the host is part of Satanic practice. LaVeyan Satanists do not typically perform Black Mass as a regular ritual, communion in the hand is now widespread in many parts of the world. The practice means that access to consecrated Hosts is easier than in the past, however, recent statements and practices of Pope Benedict XVI have caused a recent shift in Catholic practice of receiving on the tongue while kneeling, which is also an ancient practice. Accusations of host desecration leveled against Jews were a pretext for massacres. The libel of Jewish deicide, that the Jewish people were responsible for the killing of Jesus and it was spuriously claimed that Jews stole hosts, and further spuriously claimed that they abused these hosts to re-enact the crucifixion of Jesus by stabbing or burning them. It has been asserted by modern scholars, such as the Catholic priest Gavin Langmuir, Catholics were being told, in the transubstantiation doctrine, that they, by consuming the host, were eating human flesh and drinking human blood. Jews in the Middle Ages were frequently victims of similar accusations, considered more serious desecration of other revered items, such as relics or images of Jesus and the saints. The accusations were supported only by the testimony of the accuser. Despite this, some alleged perpetrators were tried and found guilty, the penalties for Jews accused of defiling hosts were severe. According to William Nichol in Christian Antisemitism, over 100 instances of the charge have been recorded, as mentioned above, the first recorded accusation was made in 1247 at Beelitz, south of Potsdam
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Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
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Paul the Apostle
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Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul, and also known by his native name Saul of Tarsus was an apostle who taught the gospel of the Christ to the first century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, in the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul took advantage of his status as both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences, according to writings in the New Testament, Paul was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. He was struck blind but, after three days, his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah, approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Pauls life and works. Fourteen of the books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by scholars to have come from followers writing in his name. Other scholars argue that the idea of an author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Pauls epistles continue to be roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Catholic and Protestant traditions of the West. Augustine of Hippo developed Pauls idea that salvation is based on faith, martin Luthers interpretation of Pauls writings influenced Luthers doctrine of sola fide. The main source for information about Pauls life is the material found in his epistles, however, the epistles contain little information about Pauls past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Pauls life out of its narrative, such as his probable, some scholars believe Acts also contradicts Pauls epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Pauls visits to the church in Jerusalem. It has been assumed that Sauls name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity. His Jewish name was Saul, perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite, according to the Book of Acts, he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he bore the Latin name of Paul—in biblical Greek, Παῦλος. It was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him Saul, Saul in the Hebrew tongue in the book of Acts, later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, the Lord referred to him as Saul, of Tarsus
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Early Christianity
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Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
