1.
Unicameralism
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In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015
2.
Occupation of the Baltic states
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On 22 June 1941 Nazi Germany attacked the USSR and within weeks occupied the Baltic territories. In July 1941, the Baltic territory was incorporated into the Reichskommissariat Ostland of the Third Reich, the Soviet annexation occupation of the Baltic states lasted until August 1991, when the Baltic states regained independence. In its reassessment of Soviet history that began during perestroika in 1989, however, Russia agreed to Europes demand to assist persons deported from the occupied Baltic states upon joining the Council of Europe. De facto independence was restored to the Baltic states in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia started to withdraw its troops from the Baltics in August 1993. The full withdrawal of troops deployed by Moscow was completed in August 1994, Russia officially ended its military presence in the Baltics in August 1998 by decommissioning the Skrunda-1 radar station in Latvia. The dismantled installations were repatriated to Russia and the returned to Latvian control. Early in the morning of August 24,1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed a ten-year non-aggression pact, the pact contained a secret protocol by which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet spheres of influence. In the north, Finland, Estonia and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere, Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its political rearrangement—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union while Germany would occupy the west. According to this protocol, Lithuania would regain its historical capital Vilnius. Following the end of Soviet invasion of Poland on 6 October, the Soviets pressured Finland, the Soviets questioned the neutrality of Estonia after the escape of an interned Polish submarine on 18 September. A week later on 24 September, the Estonian foreign minister was given an ultimatum in Moscow, the Soviets demanded the conclusion of a treaty of mutual assistance to establish military bases in Estonia. The Estonians had no choice but to accept naval, air, the corresponding agreement was signed on 28 September 1939. Latvia followed on 5 October 1939 and Lithuania shortly thereafter, on 10 October 1939, in September and October 1939, the Soviet government compelled the Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance pacts which gave it the right to establish Soviet military bases. In May 1940, the Soviets turned to the idea of military intervention. Their model was the Finnish Democratic Republic, a puppet regime set up by the Soviets on the first day of the Winter War, the Soviets organised a press campaign against the allegedly pro-Allied sympathies of the Baltic governments. In May 1940, the Germans invaded France, which was overrun, in late May and early June 1940, the Baltic states were accused of military collaboration against the Soviet Union by holding meetings the previous winter. On 15 June 1940, the Lithuanian government had no choice but to agree to the Soviet ultimatum, president Antanas Smetona proposed armed resistance to the Soviets but the government refused, proposing their own candidate to lead the regime. However, the Soviets refused this offer and sent Vladimir Dekanozov to take charge of affairs while the Red Army occupied the state, on 16 June 1940, Latvia and Estonia also received ultimata
3.
National Alliance (Latvia)
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The National Alliance, officially the National Alliance All For Latvia. – For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK, abbreviated to NA, is a political party in Latvia. With seventeen seats in the Saeima, the National Alliance is the fourth-largest party in the parliament, the party is a coalition of conservatives, Latvian ethnonationalists, and economic liberals. Formed as an alliance for the 2010 election, the National Alliance brought together For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK. It won eight seats, placing it fourth amongst all parties and it merged into a single political party in July 2011 under the leadership of Gaidis Bērziņš and Raivis Dzintars. The Party has participated in government of Latvia since the 2011 parliamentary election to avoid Harmony Center from entering leading coalition. It is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe and its one MEP, Roberts Zīle, sits in the European Conservatives and it was founded as an electoral alliance in 2010 by national-conservative For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK and far right All For Latvia. After the two parties were refused entry into the Unity alliance, the loose alliance was transformed into a unitary party on 23 July 2011. In the 2010 election to the Saeima, the alliance won 8 seats, in May 2011, the party supported the re-election of Valdis Zatlers as President of Latvia in the 2011 election. The alliance became a united party on 23 July 2011. At the 2011 parliamentary election, the National Alliance won fourteen seats – an increase of six on the previous year – making it the fourth-largest party, on 23 August 2013, All for Latvia. Wing of National Alliance signed the Declaration of Bauska together with Conservative Peoples Party of Estonia, the declaration calls for a new national awakening of the Baltic states and warns about threats posed by international globalism, multiculturalism and Russian imperial ambitions. The merging period of the two founding parties was ended on the National Alliances third congress on 7 December 2013, finally creating one unitary party. The Party was the one of the leading coalition partners. The Party took part in organizing the massive rally in Rīga. This anti-immigration position was accented in the annual foreign affair debates in Saeima, also turning against liberal immigration policy, conservatism portal Auers, Daunis, Kasekamp, Andres. Comparing Radical-Right Populism in Estonia and Latvia, right-Wing Populism in Europe, Politics and Discourse
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Unity (Latvian political party)
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Unity registered as Latvian, Partija VIENOTĪBA Party UNITY is a liberal-conservative political party in Latvia. It is currently the largest party of the centre-right in Latvian politics and was the party in the Dombrovskis. Unity is a member of the European Peoples Party and it remains the largest parliamentary party in the Kučinskis cabinet. The party was founded as an alliance of the New Era Party, Civic Union. On 6 August 2011 the alliance was transformed into a political party. Its president is Andris Piebalgs, former European Commissioner, the current Prime Minister is from the Union of Greens and Farmers, but Unity and ZZS each hold 5 ministerial portfolios in the 2016-2018 government. For the 2014 general election, Unity announced a pact with the Reform Party
5.
Union of Greens and Farmers
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Union of Greens and Farmers is a green and agrarian political alliance in Latvia. It consists of two parties, the Latvian Farmers Union and the Latvian Green Party. It is the third largest bloc in the Saeima, the Union of Greens and Farmers also cooperates closely with two regional parties, For Latvia and Ventspils and the Liepāja Party. Although the ZZS encompasses green politics, usually considered centre-left in the context of Western and Central Europe, while the alliances formal leader is Armands Krauze, its leading figure and chief financial supporter is the oligarch Aivars Lembergs. In 2015 the then leader Raimonds Vējonis became President of Latvia, the alliance was established before the 2002 parliamentary election. It ran on an ideologically amorphous agenda and won 12 out of 100 seats in the parliament, in March 2004, Indulis Emsis from the LZP became the Prime Minister of Latvia until December of that year. On a European level, the LZP cooperates with the European Green Party while the LZS has no formal affiliation. Before the 2004 European Parliament election, ZZS announced that if its representative was elected, the alliance continued for the 2006 parliamentary election, and won 18 seats. It became part of the coalition, and LZP chairman Indulis Emsis. On 14 March 2007, Lembergs was detained by the Latvian authorities in relation to a criminal investigation, at the 2014 European Parliament election, the ZZS won 8. 3% of the vote and for the first time one of Latvias European Parliament seats. Its MEP is Iveta Grigule who initially sat with the Europe of Freedom, on 16 October 2014 Grigule defected from the EFDD to sit as an independent. This move required EFDD to co-opt a member of Polands Congress of the New Right to remain eligible for parliamentary group status, in April 2015 she joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe group. The alliance of greens and farmers is based on similar sentimental feelings shared by the voters of the two gropus, for example, after the restoration of independence Latvia broke down Soviet-era collective farms and returned land to its original owners. This perception has resulted in an alliance between green and farmers parties, which is rare in other countries, the alliance is eurosceptic, although not opposed to Latvian membership of the European Union. The ZZS opposed the adoption of the euro by Latvia, the party opposes granting non-citizens Latvian citizenship or voting rights in local elections. Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union Union of Greens and Farmers Official Website
6.
Social Democratic Party "Harmony"
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The Social Democratic Party Harmony, also commonly referred to as Harmony, is a social-democratic political party in Latvia. It is the major party of the centre-left in Latvian politics. The party was founded in 2010 as the merger of the National Harmony Party with New Centre and the Social Democratic Party, at that time, all three were members of the former electoral alliance Harmony Centre. The alliance also included the communist Socialist Party of Latvia, the Daugavpils City Party merged into the party in 2011. The chairman of the party, Nils Ušakovs is the current Mayor of Riga and was the Harmony candidate for the office of Prime Minister of Latvia in 2014. In the Saeima the party has 24 out of 100 seats after polling 23% of the vote at the 2014 parliamentary election and its parliamentary group is therefore the largest among the six groups in the Latvian Parliament, and the leading opposition group. Internationally, Harmony is a member of the Progressive Alliance and has status in the Party of European Socialists. Its sole MEP, Andrejs Mamikins, sits in the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats group in the European Parliament. Harmony is currently the party on the Riga City Council in coalition with Proud to serve Riga. Harmony is the largest party seeking to represent the Russian-speaking population of Latvia
7.
Latvian Association of Regions
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The Latvian Association of Regions is a centrist political alliance in Latvia. It was founded on 13 March 2014 and is headed by Mārtiņš Bondars and it won 8 seats in the Saeima at the 2014 parliamentary election. The LRA is an alliance of several smaller and regionalist parties including the Regional Alliance, the LSDSP, the Christian Democratic Union
8.
For Latvia from the Heart
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For Latvia from the Heart is a conservative political party in Latvia founded in May 2014 by former State Auditor Inguna Sudraba. The party was established on 5 May by Inguna Sudraba, a former State Auditor, although Sudraba had a clean image amongst the Latvian public, the 2014 election campaign saw her being filmed having lunch with an oligarch. In addition, she has refused to answer questions about the partys funding. The party campaigned on a platform of fair wages and pensions. In the parliamentary elections in October 2014 the party passed the electoral threshold, ensuring representation in the Saeima
9.
Open list
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Open list describes any variant of party-list proportional representation where voters have at least some influence on the order in which a partys candidates are elected. Additionally, an open list system can allow a voter the alternative of voting for the party as a whole without expressing a preference between individuals. There are differences possible between varying open list systems, each giving the voter varying amounts of influence, voters choice is usually called preference vote. A relatively closed open list system is one where a candidate must get a full quota of votes on his or her own to be assured of winning a seat. The total number of seats won by the party minus the number of its candidates that achieved this quota gives the number of unfilled seats and these are then successively allocated to the partys not-yet-elected candidates who were ranked highest on the original list. In a more open list system, the quota for election could be lowered from the above amount and it is then possible that more of a partys candidates achieve this quota than the total seats won by the party. It should therefore be made clear in advance whether list ranking or absolute votes take precedence in that case, in Dutch elections the voter can give his vote to any candidate in a list, the vote for this candidate is called a preference vote. If a candidate has at least 25% of the quota then he/she takes priority over the other candidates who stand higher on the party list. An example, A party list got 5000 votes, if the quota is 1000 votes, then the party wins five seats. Candidates #1, #7 and #4 have each achieved 25% of the quota and they get the first three of the five seats the party has won. The other two seats will be taken by #2 and #3, the two highest remaining positions on the party list and this means that #5 is not elected even though being the fifth on the list and having more preference votes than #2. In practice, at the level only one or two candidates can precede on their lists. This happens more often at the level where the quota is lower. Parties usually allow candidates to ask for votes, but without campaigning negatively against other candidates on the list. In elections in Sweden, the most open list is used, in Slovakia each voter may, in addition to the party, select one to four candidates from the ordered party list. Candidates who are selected by more than 3% of the voters are elected first. For European elections, voters select two candidates and the candidates must have more than 10% of the votes to override the party list. In the European election in 2009 three of Slovakias thirteen MEPs were elected solely by virtue of preference votes and only one was elected solely by virtue of her position on the party list, sometimes, however, people want to express their support for a particular person
10.
Proportional representation
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Proportional representation characterizes electoral systems by which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. If n% of the support an particular political party, then roughly n% of seats will be won by that party. The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result, not just a plurality, or a bare majority, Proportional representation requires the use of multiple-member voting districts, it is not possible using single-member districts alone. In fact, the most proportional representation is achieved when just one super-district is used, the two most widely used families of PR voting systems are party list PR and single transferable vote. Mixed member proportional representation, also known as the Additional Member System, is a hybrid Mixed Electoral System that uses party list PR as its proportional component, with party list PR, political parties define candidate lists and voters vote for a list. The relative vote for each list determines how many candidates from each list are actually elected, lists can be closed or open, open lists allow voters to indicate individual candidate preferences and vote for independent candidates. Voting districts can be small or as large as a province or an entire nation, the single transferable vote uses small districts, with voters ranking individual candidates in order of preference. During the count, as candidates are elected or eliminated, surplus or discarded votes that would otherwise be wasted are transferred to other candidates according to the preferences, STV enables voters to vote across party lines and to elect independent candidates. Voters have two votes, one for their district and one for the party list, the party list vote determining the balance of the parties in the elected body. Biproportional apportionment, first used in Zurich in 2006, is a method for adjusting an elections result to achieve overall proportionality. Some form of representation is used for national lower house elections in 94 countries, party list PR. As with all systems, there are overlapping and contentious claims in terms of its advantages and disadvantages. But does it follow that the minority should have no representatives at all, is it necessary that the minority should not even be heard. Nothing but habit and old association can reconcile any reasonable being to the needless injustice, in a really equal democracy, every or any section would be represented, not disproportionately, but proportionately. A majority of the electors would always have a majority of the representatives, man for man, they would be as fully represented as the majority. Unless they are, there is not equal government, many academic political theorists agree with Mill, that in a representative democracy the representatives should represent all segments of society. The established parties in UK elections can win formal control of the parliament with as little as 35% of votes, in Canada, majority governments are regularly formed by parties with the support of under 40% of votes cast. Coupled with turnout levels in the electorate of less than 60%, in the 2005 general election, for example, the Labour Party under Tony Blair won a comfortable parliamentary majority with the votes of only 21. 6% of the total electorate
11.
Election threshold
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The electoral threshold is the minimum share of the vote which a political party requires to secure any representation in a legislature. This limit can operate in various ways, if there are a number of multi-member constituencies, each constituency will have a quota, i. e. a minimum percentage of the votes in that constituency to be awarded one seat. Lijphart suggested calculating the informal threshold as the mean of these, in Polands Sejm, Germanys Bundestag and New Zealands House of Representatives, the threshold is 5%. However, in Germany and New Zealand, if a party wins a number of directly elected seats—three in Germany. The threshold is 3. 25% in Israels Knesset, and 10% in the Turkish parliament, in Poland, ethnic minority parties do not have to reach the threshold level to get into the parliament, and so there is always a small German minority representation in the Sejm. In Romania, for the minority parties there is a different threshold than for the national parties that run for the Chamber of Deputies. In the Slovenian parliamentary elections of 1992 and 1996 the threshold was set at 3 parliamentary seats and this meant that the parties needed to win about 3. 2% of the votes in order to pass the threshold. In 2000 the threshold was raised to 4% of the votes, in Sweden, there is a nationwide threshold of 4%, but if a party reaches 12% in one election district, it will take part in the seat allocation for that district. However, through the 2014 election, nobody has been elected based on the 12% rule, in Norway the nationwide electoral threshold of 4% applies only to leveling seats. A party with sufficient local support may still win the district seats. Following the 2009 election, the Liberal Party won two seats in this manner, in the United States, as the majority of elections are conducted under the first-past-the-post system, legal election thresholds do not apply in the actual voting. However, several states have requirements for parties to obtain automatic ballot access to the next general election without having to submit voter-signed petitions. The threshold rules also apply for independent candidates to obtain ballot access, countries can have more than one threshold. Most multiple-threshold systems are still in the proposal stage, election thresholds are often implemented with the intention of bringing stability to the political system. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe recommends for parliamentary elections a threshold not higher than 3%. However a 2007 European Court of Human Rights decision, Yumak and Sadak v. Turkey, because Turkey has no limits for independent candidates, the 10% rule has to some extent been circumvented by parties running candidates as independents. Examples of elections where established parties fall below the threshold are, all five parties that passed the 10% threshold in 1999 elections, as well as two other major parties, failed to pass the threshold in 2002, rocking the Turkish politics to its foundations. Notably DYP got 9. 55%, MHP got 8. 34%, GP got 7. 25%, DEHAP got 6. 23%, ANAP got 5. 13%, SP got 2. 48% and DSP got 1. 22%, all falling below the threshold
12.
Latvian parliamentary election, 2014
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Parliamentary elections were held in Latvia on 4 October 2014. The previous elections were held in 2011, but according to the countrys constitution, on 27 December 2013, the Reform Party announced an electoral pact with its government coalition partner Unity, with most prominent Reform Party candidates running under the Unity campaign. On 16 July 2014 the Latvian Social Democratic Workers Party signed a pact with the Latvian Association of Regions to run under the LAR campaign. Following the elections, a government was formed by Unity, the Union of Greens and Farmers. However, the government resigned on 7 December 2015
13.
House of the Livonian Noble Corporation
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The House of the Livonian Noble Corporation is a historical building in Riga, Latvia, constructed to house the Landtag of the Livonian Noble Corporation in the Governorate of Livonia. It was opened in 1867 and housed the Landtag until Latvian independence in 1919, today it is home to the Saeima, the parliament of Latvia. It is located in UNESCO listed Old Riga, directly opposite St. Jamess Cathedral, the Livonian Noble Corporation was a semi-autonomous fiefdom that administered the area on behalf of the Emperor. The Landtag was not a body, but was rather an aristocratic assembly of Nobles. Construction began in 1863 and was designed by Robert Pflug, a Baltic-German, and Jānis Baumanis, the exterior and interior were finished in Eclectic style. The façade featured a niche containing a statue by Danish sculptor David Jensen of the Teutonic Landmeister Wolter von Plettenberg, after the socialist republic was defeated, the building became the seat of the Constitutional Assembly elected in 1920. On 17 October 1921, the building was destroyed by fire and it was restored according to the design of the architect Eižens Laube. At the time of the restoration the main assembly hall was modified to meet the needs of the Saeima of the new Republic of Latvia. The Saeima chamber today still approximates this design, the last meeting of the Constitutional Assembly, which wrote the Constitution of Latvia took place in the restored building on 3 November 1922. The building served as the home of the Saeima until a self-coup by serving Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis in 1934, Ulmanis assumed the title of President in 1936 and the building served as the centre of his authoritarian régime. Latvia remained under Soviet occupation after the war and the served as the location of the Supreme Council for almost half a century. In the early 1980s one of the courtyards was walled in to expand building space. Since 1993 it is once again home to Latvias parliament, government of Latvia Estonian Knighthood House Parliament of Latvia
14.
Riga
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Riga is the capital and the largest city of Latvia. With 696,593 inhabitants, Riga is the largest city in the Baltic states, the city lies on the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the Daugava. Rigas territory covers 307.17 square kilometres and lies one and ten metres above sea level, on a flat and sandy plain. Riga was founded in 1201 and is a former Hanseatic League member, Rigas historical centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, noted for its Art Nouveau/Jugendstil architecture and 19th century wooden architecture. Riga was the European Capital of Culture during 2014, along with Umeå in Sweden, Riga hosted the 2006 NATO Summit, the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, and the 2006 IIHF Mens World Ice Hockey Championships. It is home to the European Unions office of European Regulators for Electronic Communications, Riga is served by Riga International Airport, the largest airport in the Baltic states. Riga is a member of Eurocities, the Union of the Baltic Cities, another theory could be that Riga was named after Riege, the German name for the River Rīdzene, a tributary of the Daugava. The river Daugava has been a trade route since antiquity, part of the Vikings Dvina-Dnieper navigation route to Byzantium. A sheltered natural harbour 15 km upriver from the mouth of the Daugava — the site of todays Riga — has been recorded, as Duna Urbs and it was settled by the Livs, an ancient Finnic tribe. Riga began to develop as a centre of Viking trade during the early Middle Ages, Rigas inhabitants occupied themselves mainly with fishing, animal husbandry, and trading, later developing crafts. German traders began visiting Riga, establishing a nearby outpost in 1158, along with German traders also arrived the monk Meinhard of Segeberg to convert the Livonian pagans to Christianity. Catholic and Orthodox Christianity had already arrived in Latvia more than a century earlier, Meinhard settled among the Livs, building a castle and church at Ikšķile, upstream from Riga, and established his bishopric there. The Livs, however, continued to practice paganism and Meinhard died in Ikšķile in 1196, in 1198, the Bishop Berthold arrived with a contingent of crusaders and commenced a campaign of forced Christianization. Berthold was killed soon afterwards and his forces defeated, pope Innocent III issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians. Bishop Albert was proclaimed Bishop of Livonia by his uncle Hartwig of Uthlede, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, Albert landed in Riga in 1200 with 23 ships and 500 Westphalian crusaders. In 1201, he transferred the seat of the Livonian bishopric from Ikšķile to Riga, the year 1201 also marked the first arrival of German merchants in Novgorod, via the Dvina. To defend territory and trade, Albert established the Order of Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202, open to nobles, in 1207, Albert started on fortification of the town. Emperor Philip invested Albert with Livonia as a fief and principality of the Holy Roman Empire, until then, it had been customary for crusaders to serve for a year and then return home
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Cultural regions of Latvia
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Cultural regions of Latvia are several areas within Latvia formally recognised as distinct from the rest of the country. The Constitution of Latvia recognises four distinct regions, Kurzeme, Zemgale, Latgale, Semigallia is the central part of Latvia. Zemgale is bounded by Kurzeme in the west, the Gulf of Riga, the Daugava river and Vidzeme in the north, Selonia in the east and the Lithuanian border in the south. It consists of the city of Jelgava and the municipalities of Auce, Baldone, Bauska, Dobele, Engure, Iecava, Jaunpils, Jelgava, Ozolnieki, Rundāle, Tērvete, Tukums, traditional Semigallia also includes the northern part of Šiauliai County in Lithuania. Selonia is often considered a part of Semigallia, Selonia comprises the eastern part of the 1939 province of Semigallia, roughly corresponding to parts of the former Aizkraukle, Daugavpils and Jēkabpils districts south of Daugava river. Traditional Selonia also includes a portion of north east Lithuania, Vidzeme, meaning Middle land, is also known as Livland, though it comprises only a small part of traditional Livland. Present Vidzeme is the Latvian part of Swedish Livonia and City of Riga and it roughly corresponds to the former Alūksne, Cēsis, Gulbene, Limbaži, Madona, Valka, Valmiera districts and parts of Aizkraukle, Ogre and Riga districts north of Daugava river. Latgallia, the part of Livonia still in hands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Treaty of Altmark in 1629 and it roughly corresponds to Balvi, Krāslava, Ludza, Preiļi, Rēzekne districts and parts of Daugavpils and Jēkabpils districts north of Daugava river. In some cases, Kurzeme and Zemgale are combined into one region, from this perspective, there are three regions, Kurzeme, Vidzeme and Latgale. Administrative divisions of Latvia Planning regions of Latvia Statistical regions of Latvia
16.
Latvia
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Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2. The country has a seasonal climate. Latvia is a parliamentary republic established in 1918. The capital city is Riga, the European Capital of Culture 2014, Latvia is a unitary state, divided into 119 administrative divisions, of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities. Latvians and Livs are the people of Latvia. Latvian and Lithuanian are the two surviving Baltic languages. Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries, the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language, Latvia and Estonia share a long common history. Until World War II, Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans, Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran, except for the Latgale region in the southeast, which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic. The Russian population has brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918, however, its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II. The peaceful Singing Revolution, starting in 1987, called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule and it ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990, and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, CBSS, the IMF, NB8, NIB, OECD, OSCE, and WTO. For 2014, Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and it used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, henry of Latvia coined the Latinisations of the countrys name, Lettigallia and Lethia, both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the name in Romance languages from Letonia. Around 3000 BC, the ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals, by 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia, Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, as well as the Livonians speaking a Finnic language
17.
Politics of Latvia
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The politics of Latvia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. The President holds a ceremonial role as Head of State. Executive power is exercised by the government, legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament, the Saeima. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, the law also prohibits any activity directed toward nationality discrimination or the promotion of national superiority or hatred. In autumn 1992 Latvia reimplemented significant portions of its 1922 constitution, after almost three years of deliberations, Latvia finalized a citizenship and naturalization law in summer 1994. In the 5–6 June 1993 elections, with a turnout of over 90%, the Popular Front, which spearheaded the drive for independence two years previously with a 75% majority in the last parliamentary elections in 1990, did not qualify for representation. The centrist Latvian Way party received a 33% plurality of votes, led by the opposition National Conservative Party, right-wing nationalists won a majority of the seats nationwide and also captured the Riga mayoralty in the 29 May 1994 municipal elections. OSCE and COE observers pronounced the elections free and fair, in February 1995, the Council of Europe granted Latvia membership. With President Bill Clintons assistance, on 30 April 1994 Latvia and Russia signed a troop withdrawal agreement, Russia withdrew its troops by 31 August 1994, but maintained several hundred technical specialists to staff an OSCE-monitored phased-array ABM radar station at Skrunda until 31 August 1998. The also-popular president, Guntis Ulmanis, had limited constitutional powers, in June 1996, the Saeima re-elected Ulmanis to another 3-year term. Under pressure from Šķēle, several ministers resigned or were fired. However, after months of increasing hostility between Šķēle and leading politicians, the coalition parties demanded and received the prime ministers resignation on 28 July. The new government was formed by the recent Minister of Economy Guntars Krasts and it included the same parties and mostly the same ministers as Šķēles government. It pursued the course of reform, albeit not as vigorously. In the 1998 elections, the Latvian party structure began to consolidate with only six parties winning seats in the Saeima, Andris Šķēles newly formed Peoples Party garnered a plurality with 24 seats. Two shaky governments under Vilis Krištopans and Andris Šķēle quickly collapsed in less than a year, in May 2000, a compromise candidate was found in the form of Andris Bērziņš, the Latvian Way mayor of Rīga. His four-party coalition government lasted till the elections in 2002. In 1999, the Saeima elected Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, a candidate with no party affiliation
18.
Constitution of Latvia
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The Constitution of Latvia is the fundamental law of the Republic of Latvia. Satversme is the oldest Eastern or Central European constitution still in force and it was adopted, as it states itself in the text, by the people of Latvia, in their freely elected Constitutional Assembly of Latvia on 15 February 1922 and came into force on 7 November 1922. It was heavily influenced by Germanys Weimar Constitution and the Swiss Federal Constitution, the constitution establishes the main bodies of government, it consists of 115 articles arranged in eight chapters. After the 1934 Latvian coup détat by Prime Minister of Latvia Kārlis Ulmanis, Satversme was suspended and this situation continued until June 17,1940, when Soviet Union occupied Latvia destroyed the existing regime and incorporated the Latvian SSR into the USSR on August 5. A new, Soviet-style constitution was then introduced, only articles 1,2,3 and 6 of Satversme were reintroduced at that time by the declaration and the constitution was fully reintroduced only by the first assembly of the 5th Saeima in 1993. In Latvian, satversme is officially used instead of constitution, while in everyday conversations konstitūcija is often used, the word was created by Atis Kronvalds, one of the leaders of the First Latvian National Awakening in the 19th century. The movement was trying to promote Latvian culture after centuries of Baltic German influence, Kronvalds and like-minded individuals created and introduced many new words and terms intended to be used over Germanic loanwords to modernize Latvian. The Constitution was drafted by the Constitutional Assembly of Latvia, which consisted of 150 members elected in April 1920 in general elections, the initial text was elaborated by a Constitutional committee and consisted of two parts. It was influenced by ideas of the Weimar Constitution and the Swiss Federal Constitution, the first regulated the states institutions, the second, citizens rights and obligations. The committee presented its work on 20 September 1921, on 20 June 1922 a law was passed that set the new constitution to come into force at 12 a. m. on 7 November 1922. In 1940 Latvian SSR was established by occupying Soviet Union forces, the legality of this parliament and its decisions is questioned–Soviets considered that the constitution was nullified by Ulmanis coup détat, so the Peoples Saeima never formally annulled it. After declaring accession to the USSR, the Peoples Saeima drafted a Constitution of LSSR on the basis of the 1936 Soviet Constitution and it was adopted a month after, on 25 August 1940. On 18 April 1978 the government of the LSSR adopted a new constitution modeled on the 1977 Soviet Constitution, on 4 May 1990 the Supreme Soviet of LSSR declared restoration of Latvias independence and adopted articles 1,2,3 and 6 of the constitution of 1922. Articles 1,2,3 and 6, which establish the basis of the states political system, were the first to be adopted after the restoration of independence. It is elected in general, equal and direct elections for a term of four years, the Constitution describes in general how the Saeima should work, noting that the Saeima should also establish rules of order to regulate its internal operations and order. Executive power is vested in the President and the Cabinet of ministers, there are two exceptions to this rule - the President can single-handedly decide to dissolve the Saeima and when a new government is formed it is up to him to choose a new Prime Minister. The cabinet is formed by the Prime Minister, under the constitution, the right to legislate has been granted to the Saeima. Laws are to be adopted by the Saeima and proclaimed by the President, the State Audit Office controls how the state financial resources are used
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President of Latvia
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The President of Latvia, is head of state and commander-in-chief of the National Armed Forces of the Republic of Latvia. The term of office is four years, before 1997, it was three years. He or she may be elected any number of times, in the event of the vacancy in the office of the President, the Speaker of the Saeima assumes the duties of the President. For example, after the death of Jānis Čakste the Speaker of the Saeima, Pauls Kalniņš, was acting president briefly in 1927, unlike his Estonian counterpart, the Latvian presidents role is not entirely ceremonial. However, he is not as powerful as the President of Lithuania, the official Latvian term Valsts prezidents literally means State President
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Government of Latvia
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The Government of Latvia is the central government of the Republic of Latvia. Since the early 2000s cabinet meetings in Latvia have been open to the public, in June 2013, the Latvian government became one of the first in Europe to offer live internet broadcasts of cabinet meetings. The incumbent cabinet is the Kučinskis cabinet since 11 February 2016, on 7 December 2015 Prime Minister Laimdota Straujuma resigned, which forced negotiations for a new government. The Second Straujuma cabinet served as a government until the new cabinet was sworn in. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia website
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Prime Minister of Latvia
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The Prime Minister of Latvia is the most powerful member of the Government of Latvia, and presides over the Latvian Cabinet of Ministers. The Prime Minister is nominated by the President of Latvia, the tables below display all Latvian Prime Ministers from both the first period of Latvian independence and since the country regained its independence. From 1990 to 6 July 1993, the office was known as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, a direct translation of the official Latvian term is Minister-President. Although the equivalent is used in some European languages, it is not used conventionally in English, some sources may list Stučka and Niedra as prime ministers for periods when their governments controlled most of Latvia. 2 On 15 May 1934, prime minister Ulmanis dissolved parliament and banned all political parties,3 Puppet leader appointed by Soviet authorities. Not recognized as such by the Latvian government, from 4 May 1990 after adopting the Declaration of the Restoration of Independence of the Republic. Political Party, LTF LC Independent TB/LNNK TP JL LZP LPP/LC V Lists of office-holders Official list from the Latvian Cabinet of Ministers
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Dissolution of parliament in Latvia
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The Constitution of Latvia, ratified on February 15,1922, contains a provision regarding one of the reserve powers of the President of Latvia to initiate the dissolution of the parliament. According to Article 48-50 of the Constitution,48, the President shall be entitled to propose the dissolution of the Saeima. Following this proposal, a national referendum shall be held, the agenda of such sittings shall be determined by the President. Since 2009, Article 14 also foresees the right for the citizens without involvement of president,14, not less than one tenth of electors has the right to initiate a national referendum regarding recalling of the Saeima. The electors may not recall any individual member of the Saeima and this constitutional power was used for the first time in the history of the Latvian state by the President, Valdis Zatlers, on May 28,2011. This move was in response to the refusal to sanction a search at the home of Ainārs Šlesers. The referendum on the dissolution of parliament has to place no later than two months time after the Presidents decree. On May 30 the Central Election Commission resolved that the vote take place on July 23,2011. These amendments were adopted by the Saeima on April 8,2009, but on April 1,2009, the Latvian parliament, the Saeima, was also dissolved unconstitutionally on May 15,1934 following a bloodless coup organized by then-Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis. The Cabinet declared a state of emergency and suspended the activity of all parties which effectively put a ban on the work of the Saeima. This act was in violation of the Constitution and led to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. Latvian parliamentary dissolution referendum,2011 Politics of Latvia Legal Analysis of the Procedure for Saeimas Dissolution
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Latvian parliamentary election, 2010
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Parliamentary elections were held in Latvia on October 2,2010. It was the first parliamentary election to be held in Latvia since the beginning of the crisis during which Latvia had experienced one of the deepest recessions in the world. A total of 1,239 candidates representing 13 parties or alliances stood in five electoral constituencies equivalent to the four regions of Latvia and Riga city. With 1012 of 1013 polling stations counted, results showed an increase in support for the incumbent coalition government of Valdis Dombrovskis, after surviving a vote of no confidence in early February, PM Ivars Godmanis resigned on 20 February 2009 after the two largest parties called for his dismissal. A new government was formed, headed by Valdis Dombrovskis, there were also discussions that President Zatlers might use the parliamentary dissolution power of Latvian President to call a referendum on holding early elections. Zatlers stated he would hold talks with politicians from all parties on 31 March 2009, on 31 March 2009, Zatlers announced he would not dissolve parliament. The Saeima was to consider constitutional amendments as early as 9 April 2009, several changes to the election law took effect for this election. The so-called locomotive law meant that candidates were restricted to standing in one constituency, in addition to completing registration forms in paper format, for the first time, parties also had to register electronically. Voting hours were shortened, with polling stations closing two hours earlier at 8 pm instead of 10 pm, finally laws relating to election spending were tightened, in particular, laws against third party advertising on behalf of political parties were strengthened. – For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK, consisting of For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK, christian Democratic Union In the run-up to the election, three right-wing parties established an alliance called Unity on 6 March 2010. Furthermore, most of the parties constituting the Harmony Centre alliance had merged into the Social Democratic Party Harmony on 10 February 2010, on 22 April 2010, the Peoples Party and the Latvias First Party/Latvian Way formed an electoral alliance called For a Good Latvia. Unity on 28 May 2010 declined to include For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK and the far-right All For Latvia. in their alliance, numerous televised debates took place prior to the election. These involved either the party leaders or other party figures. In all, seven took place on the LNT Channel, five of these were held on a regional basis. Like the LNT debates, these involved parties which opinion polls indicated would poll 2% or more, a twelfth debate was held on LTV between the remaining seven parties or electoral lists which were not expected to poll 2%. The two debates held on the PBK Channel involved the four parties which the polls indicated would poll 5% or more. However outgoing Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis refused to part in the debate. Unity decided not to send a replacement and were absent from the debate
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Latvian parliamentary election, 2011
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An early parliamentary election was held in Latvia on 17 September 2011, following the countrys first parliamentary dissolution referendum held on 23 July 2011. The last parliamentary election was only in October 2010. The election resulted in Harmony Centre winning the most seats, up two to 31 and this was the first time a pro-Russian party had won the most seats in a Latvian election. The right-wing National Alliance gained six seats to 14, both the Union of Greens and Farmers and Latvias First Party/Latvian Way lost heavily, with the latter falling out of the Saeima altogether. Zatlers and incumbent Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis soon agreed to form a coalition, needing nine further seats to give them a majority allowed three possible coalitions – with Harmony Centre, the National Alliance, or the Union of Greens and Farmers. The Greens and Farmers were quickly ruled out by Zatlers, who judged it to be an oligarchs party, after initial talks with the National Alliance, the two briefly discussed a grand coalition with Harmony Centre. However, Zatlers and Unity returned to the National Alliance, the new government was confirmed by the Saeima on 25 October. A few days before the government formation, six MPs split from Zatlers Reform Party, they supported the new government. Prior to the election, a number of changes in Latvias party system occurred, the Peoples Party dissolved itself amid high debts and quickly sinking popularity. For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK and All For Latvia, turned their election alliance National Alliance into a joint party. The New Era Party, Civic Union and Society for Other Politics turned their election alliance Unity into a joint party, former president Valdis Zatlers founded Zatlers Reform Party, which is enjoying great popularity in election polls. The Harmony Centre party, led by Nils Ušakovs, finished with about 29% of the vote, followed by Zatlers Reform Party with 21% and the Unity party with 18%. The National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers were the other parties to enter Parliament, with fourteen and twelve percent of the vote. Harmony Centres victory was the first for a party since Latvias independence. Despite winning the most seats, Harmony Centre, was unable to come to an agreement to form a coalition that would hold a majority in parliament immediately after the election, the most likely potential coalition was predicted to be Zatlers Reform Party, Unity and National Alliance. Valdis Dombrovskis was believed to remain Prime Minister, despite his party finishing behind the Reform Party, Zatlers stated on 1 October 2011 that he preferred a coalition with Dombrovskis as PM and including Harmony Centre. However, on 10 October 2011, reports indicated a coalition with the National Alliance was all, official election results Vladimir Socor, Latvia Facing Its Toughest Test Since 1991 In Upcoming Elections, in, jamestown. org, July 27,2011. Vladimir Socor, Realignments In Latvia’s Political Landscape Ahead of Crucial Elections, in, jamestown. org, NSD, European Election Database - Latvia publishes regional level election data, allows for comparisons of election results, 1990–2011
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Latvian presidential election, 2007
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A presidential election was held in the Latvian Saeima on 31 May 2007. The government candidate Valdis Zatlers defeated Aivars Endziņš, before the governing coalition had agreed on Zatlers as a candidate, the Peoples Party had proposed Māris Riekstiņš and LPP/LC had proposed Karina Pētersone. Similarly, the New Era Party had proposed Sandra Kalniete, who withdrew her candidacy after Harmony Centre nominated Endziņš, for Human Rights in United Latvia did not nominate a candidate, it was announced after election that they supported Endziņš. By Latvian law one cannot be president for more than eight years, therefore, the previous president could not be re-elected and the election drew significant public attention. Notably, the New Era Party announced that its candidate would be Sandra Kalniete, before the Saeima election held in 2006, as election day drew nearer, a political battle between the two remaining candidates ensued. Zatlers, who is a doctor, was accused of taking money from his patients, notably, former Health minister Āris Auders had to leave office when one of his patients accused him of fraud. Zatlers was also criticized for lack of experience, Endziņš was the most popular candidate among the general public. An opinion poll showed that Endziņš was supported by 54% of Latvians, people at the Latvian House of Parliament shouted - Envelopes. When Zatlers came out after elections, Endziņš supporters hoped that the public support for his candidacy would sway some of members of the parliament from the ruling coalition to vote for Endziņš. There may be situation that at least 6 coalition MPs voted for Endziņš and more opposition MPs from Harmony Centre voted for Zatlers
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Latvian presidential election, 2015
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Indirect presidential elections were held in Latvia on 3 June 2015. Raimonds Vējonis of the Green Party was elected President, to office on 8 July. According to the European Green Party, he is the first of their members to become a head of state of a European Union member state, incumbent Andris Bērziņš announced in April 2015 that he would not seek a second term. Two opposition parties nominated candidates – the Latvian Association of Regions nominated its MP Mārtiņš Bondars. In the first round of votes in the Saeima, no one was elected, in the second round, Mārtiņš Bondars received the least votes and was eliminated, and in the third round, Sergejs Dolgopolovs was eliminated. In the fourth round, the candidates remaining were Egils Levits. Levits got 26 votes for, Vējonis got 46 votes for, in the final round, Vējonis vas elected with 55 votes for and 42 votes against. Vējonis stated that I would like to improve relations with Russia, but while Russian rockets and heavy weapons remain in Ukraine, thats not really possible. He promised increasing national security while promoting environmentalism, prime Minister Laimdota Straujuma of Unity announced that she was pleased with the result
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European Parliament election, 2014 (Latvia)
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The European Parliament election 2014 in Latvia was the election of the delegation from Latvia to the European Parliament in 2014. At the previous European Parliament election in Latvia in 2009, the country elected 8 MEPs, upon entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty Latvia was awarded 1 additional MEP, again bringing the total number of MEPs representing Latvia to 9. Calculated from the results of the 2009 election, this MEP came from the Civic Union, for this election however, the number of MEPs representing Latvia was again reduced to 8. European Parliament election,2014 Politics of Latvia List of political parties in Latvia Central Election Commission European Parliament Election Law
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Latvian Russian Union
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The Latvian Russian Union is an ethnic minority, left-wing political party in Latvia, supported mainly by ethnic Russians and other Russian-speaking minorities. The Co-chairpersons of the party are Tatjana Ždanoka, Jurijs Petropavlovskis, the party emphasizes issues important to the Russian minority in Latvia. It supports stronger ties with Russia and was the major political organization to oppose Latvias membership in NATO. Socially, it is conservative as is its voter base. Economic issues are less emphasized but the economic positions tend to be left-wing. After the municipal elections, ForHRUL became part of Rigas city government, during this period, ForHRULs most prominent leaders were Jānis Jurkāns, Alfrēds Rubiks and Tatjana Ždanoka. They are fairly popular in the Russian community but very unpopular among ethnic Latvians, ForHRUL therefore remained in opposition, because other parties would have faced a backlash from ethnic Latvian voters if they entered into a coalition with Rubiks or Ždanoka. ForHRUL partially broke up in 2003, the National Harmony Party was the first to leave the alliance and the Socialist Party followed half a year later. The remnant of ForHRUL consisted of Equal Rights and Free Choice in Peoples Europe, the latter was composed of dissident Socialist Party and National Harmony Party members, like Jakovs Pliners, who opposed the decision to quit the alliance. This reduced grouping had only 6 members of the Saeima, ForHRUL was the main force supporting Russian School Defense Staff activities from 2003-2005. It also proposed the idea of a Europe-wide party of ethnic Russians, ForHRUL supported a federal Europe, with a common economic and political space from Lisbon to Vladivostok. In 2007 ForHRUL was transformed into a party that retained the name. In recent years the support has declined as ethnic Russian voters have switched allegiance to the Harmony party. At the 2010 parliamentary election, the party lost its representation in the Latvian Parliament, in 2011, the party launched an unsuccessful popular initiative on amending the law governing Latvian nationality. This decision was upheld by the Constitutional Court of Latvia. It also supported the 2012 initiative to make Russian a co-official language in Latvia, in January 2014 ForHRUL changed its name to the Latvian Russian Union. At the 2014 European Parliament election, it retained its seat in the European Parliament. The party supported the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014 and has taken a stance in the subsequent War in Donbass
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Planning regions of Latvia
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There are five planning regions of Latvia, Kurzeme, Latgale, Riga, Vidzeme and Zemgale. The boundaries of the regions aligns to the boundaries of the municipalities of Latvia following the municipality reform of 1 July 2009, the planning regions of Latvia are not administrative territorial divisions, since they are not mentioned in the law that prescribes the administrative territorial divisions of Latvia. Regional institutions began formation 1997 according to municipal initiatives on the planning of common development, ministry of Regional Development and Local-governments
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Human rights in Latvia
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Human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government, according to the US Department of State and Freedom House. Latvia is ranked above-average among the sovereign states in democracy, press freedom, privacy. The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which has basic rights guaranteed under the constitution, however, human rights organisations have reported multiple problems. Especially non-citizens – including stateless persons – suffer from limited or no access to a range of rights. As of end-2014, European Court of Human Rights has delivered 100 judgments in cases against Latvia, in 83 cases, UN Human Rights Committee has adopted views in four cases involving Latvia, as at December,2014, in two cases finding violation of ICCPR. In 2001, Latvia has extended an invitation to Special Procedures of UN Human Rights Council. In 1990, Latvia has acceded to UDHR in an atypical move, the majority of them were born or lived almost their entire lives in Latvia. Non-citizens also have restrictions on property ownership, amnesty International reported racially motivated attacks against Romani people. Latvia lacks of comprehensive national legislation dealing with all forms of discrimination, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people have faced discrimination by verbal abuse. There were reported allegations of deliberate physical ill-treatment of detainees by prison staff, Human Rights Watch reported in 2006 the attacks on peaceful lesbian and gay pride activists in Riga on July 22. Earlier, Riga City Council denied an application by lesbian, gay, bisexual, the banned march were targeted by crowds of anti-gay protesters. In 2009 the gay march was allowed by Administrative Court of Riga, according to Freedom House, Latvia has wide civil liberties. Also political rights are in a level, though the country suffered high-profile corruption scandals during 2007. The government generally respects freedom of speech, freedom of press, academic freedom is respected in law and in practice. Freedom of assembly and association are protected by law and in practice, the highly competitive Latvian mass media are proving to be reliable sources of information and watchdogs against governmental abuses of power. While the constitutional guarantee of independence is generally respected, corruption in the judicial. Pretrial detentions are long, police use force against detainees. Women enjoy the same rights as men, but they often face employment discrimination
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Language policy in Latvia
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Latgalian and the Livonian language, in addition to latvian, are considered indigenous and all other languages foreign, including Russian. Other significant minority languages include Belarusian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Polish. The official language in Latvia is Latvian, this status has been defined since 1988. In 1992, amendments to the 1989 Law on Languages strengthened the position of Latvian, all other languages, except the extinct Livonian language, are defined as foreign languages in Section 5 of the State Language Law of 1999. In the Constitutions chapter on human rights, rights to get answers from authorities in Latvian are specified since 2002, the current State Language Law was not amended since its adoption in 1999. In 1995, Latvia signed, and in 2005 ratified the Council of Europes Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, when ratifying it, the Latvian Saeima made two declarations limiting the implementation of Articles 10 and 11. As at 2008, Latvia did not plan to sign the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, from 1992–2000, authorities had to accept documents in Russian, German and English, too, and were allowed to answer in the language of application. Before the losses of the Latvian government in the cases Podkolzina v. Latvia and Ignatāne v. Latvia, in practice, this had led to re-examinations of various candidates, at least sometimes unexpected, which prevented Ignatāne and Podkolzina from participation. As of 2011, candidates do not need to prove language proficiency, names and surnames in Latvian-issued documents are formed in Latvianized form, according to Section 19. These provisions were subject in ECHR cases Kuhareca v. Latvia and Mencena v. Latvia, an analogous application was submitted to UN HRC in 2007 and won by the applicant on grounds of privacy. Toponyms are formed in Latvian language only, according to Section 18 of the State Language Law, the Electronic Mass Media Law orders to use only Latvian language in the first channels of public radio and television, and basically Latvian language in their second channels. Unity block, comprising most of the coalition as of 2011. The idea of the state, where language = nation, is seen as the core. Critics draw parallels between measures of the Latvian government and the assimilation of minorities in various countries. Nataliya Pulina in Moskovskiye Novosti asserts that Latvias Russophones are by percentage actually the largest linguistic minority in the EU whose language has no official status. In a draft of its programme, HC offers to grant co-official status to Latgalian and Russian in printed media, public sphere and education. Both these parties are in permanent opposition on the state level, on the other hand, TB/LNNK, a member of governing coalition between 2006 and 2010, is demanding that Latvian be made the sole language of instruction, even in minority schools. The same concerns cinemas, according to Section 17 of State Language Law, until a judgement of the Constitutional Court upon request of 24 ForHRUL MPs, broadcasting in minority languages was limited for private TV and radio
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Non-citizens (Latvia)
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Approximately two thirds of them are ethnic Russians, followed by ethnic Belarusians, ethnic Ukrainians, ethnic Poles and ethnic Lithuanians. Non-citizens of Latvia enjoy a benefit not afforded to citizens of being able to travel to both the Schengen Area as well as Russia, without the need for a visa. According to the census, in March 2011, there were 290,660 non-citizens living in Latvia or 14. 1% of Latvian residents. According to the Population Register, in January 2011,326,735 non-citizens resided in Latvia, the data of the Population Register, as at January 2016, showed 252,017 non-citizens living in Latvia. By the far largest ethnic group of all non-citizens are Russians, additionally,4,535 non-citizens were registered as living outside Latvia. In the age group below 18, non-citizens form 2. 1% of residents, among adults -14. 2%, in the age group above 90,25. 0%, as at 2015. As at 2014, the majority of non-citizens,62. 4%, the referendum held in October 1998 eliminated the windows system, which limited the age groups allowed to naturalize each year. It also gave the right to children of non-citizens born in Latvia after August 21,1991 to be registered as citizens without naturalisation barring imprisonment or other citizenship. Parents can request citizenship for their children until age 15, after which a child can make the request on their own behalf from age 15 to 17, according to the Constitutional Court of Latvia,15. After the passing of the Non-Citizen Law a new, up to that time unknown category of persons appeared – Latvian non-citizens, Latvian non-citizens can be regarded neither as citizens, nor aliens or stateless persons but as persons with a specific legal status 17. Individuals who were citizens of Latvia as of 17 June 1940, prior to Soviet occupation, were again recognized as citizens. That effectively limited non-citizen status to largely Russophones arriving during the Soviet era, notably this included some of those that had elected the parliament in question. To deal with the issue of former Soviet citizens without Latvian citizenship, the issue of non-citizens has been equated to the problem of statelessness. Non-citizens have been described as stateless by the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, Latvian Ombudsman R. Apsītis has considered the specific legal status of non-citizens to be questionable from the viewpoint of international law. By definition in Latvian law, non-citizens are not stateless, while they have rights akin to citizens, for example, the right to reside in Latvia without visas or temporary residence permits, rights in other areas are curtailed. Non-citizens cannot vote, although they can participate to a degree in public policy through NGOs. Pension rights are limited, and non-citizens cannot hold positions in local and national government, the civil service. Non-citizens are exempt from service, which was compulsory for male Latvian citizens until 2006
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Foreign relations of Latvia
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Todays Republic of Latvia regards itself as a continuation of the 1918–1940 republic. It also is a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, on 20 September 2003, in a nationwide referendum, the Latvians voted to join the European Union and Latvias EU membership took effect on 1 May 2004. Latvia became a state of NATO on March 29,2004. Latvia welcomes further cooperation and integration with NATO, European Union and it also seeks more active participation in UN peacekeeping efforts worldwide. Russia expresses concern for how Latvias language and naturalization laws effect Latvias Russian-speaking population, russians comprised 27. 6% of the population in 2010. In turn, Latvia is interested in the welfare of ethnic Latvians still residing in Russia. The latest Russian census shows about 40,000 still living in Russia, ministry of Foreign Affairs List of diplomatic missions in Latvia List of diplomatic missions of Latvia
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Parliament
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In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative, elected body of government. Generally a modern parliament has three functions, representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government, historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies. The term is derived from Anglo-Norman parlement, from the verb parler talk, the meaning evolved over time, originally any discussion, conversation, or negotiation, through various kinds of deliberative or judicial groups, often summoned by the monarch. By 1400, it had come to mean in Britain specifically the British supreme legislature, various parliaments are claimed to be the oldest in the world, under varying definitions. The Sicilian Parliament, whose first assembly was convened in 1097, the Icelandic Althing, year 930, but only including the main chiefs. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, some scholars suggest that in ancient Mesopotamia there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council. The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of deliberative assemblies existed, however, these claims are not accepted by most scholars, who see these forms of government as oligarchies. Ancient Athens was the cradle of democracy, the Athenian assembly was the most important institution, and every citizen could take part in the discussions. However, Athenian democracy was not representative, but rather direct, the Roman Senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy. Some Muslim scholars argue that the Islamic shura is analogous to the parliament, however, others highlight what they consider fundamental differences between the shura system and the parliamentary system. England has long had a tradition of a body of men who would assist, under the Anglo-Saxon kings, there was an advisory council, the Witenagemot. The name derives from the Old English ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, the first recorded act of a witenagemot was the law code issued by King Æthelberht of Kent ca. 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose, however, the Witan, along with the folkmoots, is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament. As part of the Norman Conquest of England, the new king, William I, did away with the Witenagemot, membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the tenants in chief, the few nobles who rented great estates directly from the king, along with ecclesiastics. William brought to England the feudal system of his native Normandy and this is the original body from which the Parliament, the higher courts of law, and the Privy Council and Cabinet descend. Of these, the legislature is formally the High Court of Parliament, only the executive government is no longer conducted in a royal court. Most historians date the emergence of a parliament with some degree of power to which the throne had to defer no later than the rule of Edward I, like previous kings, Edward called leading nobles and church leaders to discuss government matters, especially finance. A meeting in 1295 became known as the Model Parliament because it set the pattern for later Parliaments, in 1307, Edward I agreed not to collect certain taxes without the consent of the realm
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Political party
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A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. The party agrees on some proposed policies and programmes, with a view to promoting the good or furthering their supporters interests. While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized, and in how they operate, there are many differences. Many political parties have a core, but some do not. In many democracies, political parties are elected by the electorate to run a government, many countries, such as Germany and India, have several significant political parties, and some nations have one-party systems, such as China and Cuba. The United States is in practice a two-party system, but with smaller parties also participating. Its two most important parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, the first political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles, emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late 17th century England. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742, as the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig partys initial base of support from the aristocratic families widened to include the emerging industrial interests. A major influence on the Whigs were the political ideas of John Locke. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and they finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute. Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged, the first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. A coalition including the Rockingham Whigs, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, the new government, led by the radical politician Charles James Fox in coalition with Lord North, was soon brought down and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. It was now that a genuine two-party system began to emerge, by the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill note, Adam Smiths theory melded nicely with the political stance of the Whig Party. The modern Conservative Party was created out of the Pittite Tories of the early 19th century, in the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results, following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, Party politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay
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