1.
Prefectures of Japan
–
The Prefectures of Japan consist of 47 prefectures. They form the first level of jurisdiction and administrative division of Japan and they consist of 43 prefectures proper, two urban prefectures, one circuit or territory and one metropolis. The Meiji Fuhanken sanchisei administration created the first prefectures to replace the provinces of Japan in 1868, each prefectures chief executive is a directly-elected governor. Ordinances and budgets are enacted by an assembly whose members are elected for four-year terms. Under the current Local Autonomy Law, each prefecture is subdivided into cities and districts and each district into towns, for example, Hokkaido has 14 subprefectures that act as branch offices of the prefecture. Some other prefectures also have offices that carry out prefectural administrative functions outside the capital. Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is a merged city-prefecture, the Wests use of prefecture to label these Japanese regions stems from 16th-century Portuguese explorers and traders use of prefeitura to describe the fiefdoms they encountered there. Its original sense in Portuguese, however, was closer to municipality than province and those fiefs were headed by a local warlord or family. Though the fiefs have long since been dismantled, merged, and reorganized multiple times, and been granted legislative governance and oversight, the Meiji government established the current system in July 1871 with the abolition of the Han system and establishment of the prefecture system. Although there were initially over 300 prefectures, many of them being former Han territories, this number was reduced to 72 in the part of 1871. The Local Autonomy Law of 1947 gave more power to prefectures. In 2003, then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi proposed that the government consolidate the current prefectures into about 10 regional states, the plan called for each region to have greater autonomy than existing prefectures. This process would reduce the number of administrative regions and cut administrative costs. As of August 2012, no reorganization has been scheduled, the central government delegates many functions to the prefectures and municipalities, but retains the overall right to control them. Although local government expenditure accounts for 70 percent of government expenditure, the central government controls local budgets, tax rates. Historically, during the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate established bugyō-ruled zones around the nine largest cities in Japan, and 302 township-ruled zones elsewhere. When the Meiji government began to create the system in 1868, the nine bugyō-ruled zones became fu, while the township-ruled zones. Later, in 1871, the government designated Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto as fu, during World War II, in 1943, Tokyo became a to, a new type of pseudo-prefecture
2.
Japanese language
–
Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
3.
Romanization of Japanese
–
The romanization of Japanese is the application of the Latin script to write the Japanese language. This method of writing is referred to in English as rōmaji. There are several different romanization systems, the three main ones are Hepburn romanization, Kunrei-shiki romanization, and Nihon-shiki romanization. Variants of the Hepburn system are the most widely used, Japanese is normally written in a combination of logographic characters borrowed from Chinese and syllabic scripts which also ultimately derive from Chinese characters. It is also used to transliterate Japanese terms in text written in English on topics related to Japan, such as linguistics, literature, history, and culture. Rōmaji is the most common way to input Japanese into word processors and computers, all Japanese who have attended elementary school since World War II have been taught to read and write romanized Japanese. The word rōmaji literally means Roman letters, and in Japan it is often used to refer to the Latin alphabet itself than to any specific form of romanized Japanese. The earliest Japanese romanization system was based on the Portuguese orthography and it was developed around 1548 by a Japanese Catholic named Yajiro. Jesuit priests used the system in a series of printed Catholic books so that missionaries could preach and teach their converts without learning to read Japanese orthography. The most useful of these books for the study of early modern Japanese pronunciation and early attempts at romanization was the Nippo jisho, in general, the early Portuguese system was similar to Nihon-shiki in its treatment of vowels. The latter continued to be printed and read after the suppression of Christianity in Japan, the Hepburn system included representation of some sounds that have since changed. The Nihon-shiki romanization was an outgrowth of that movement, several Japanese texts were published entirely in rōmaji during this period, but it failed to catch on. Today, the use of Nihon-shiki for writing Japanese is advocated by the Oomoto sect, during the Allied occupation of Japan, the government of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers made it official policy to romanize Japanese. However, that failed and a more moderate attempt at Japanese script reform followed. Hepburn romanization generally follows English phonology with Romance vowels and it is an intuitive method of showing Anglophones the pronunciation of a word in Japanese. It was standardized in the USA as American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese, Hepburn is the most common romanization system in use today, especially in the English-speaking world. The Revised Hepburn system of romanization uses a macron to indicate long vowels. For example, the name じゅんいちろう, is written with the kana characters ju-n-i-chi-ro-u, without the apostrophe, it would not be possible to distinguish this correct reading from the incorrect ju-ni-chi-ro-u
4.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
5.
Kyushu
–
Kyushu is the third biggest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternative ancient names include Kyūkoku, Chinzei, and Tsukushi-no-shima, the historical regional name Saikaidō referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands. In the 8th century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as an administrative term for the region. As of 2016, Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479, the island is mountainous, and Japans most active volcano, Mt Aso at 1,591 metres, is on Kyushu. There are many signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, the island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. The name Kyūshū comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, excepting Oita and Miyazaki cities, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population. Designated cities Fukuoka Kitakyushu Kumamoto Core cities Kagoshima Ōita Nagasaki Miyazaki Naha Kurume Parts of Kyushu have a climate, particularly Miyazaki. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, the island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, in 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88. 9%. Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the part of the island, around Beppu. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, the Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway
6.
Saga, Saga
–
Saga is the capital city of Saga Prefecture, located on the island of Kyushu, Japan. Saga was the capital of Saga Domain in the Edo period, as of February 28,2017, the city has an estimated population of 234,453 and a population density of 543 persons per km². The total area is 431.84 km², on October 1,2005, Saga absorbed the towns of Fuji, Morodomi and Yamato and the village of Mitsuse to create the new and expanded city of Saga. With this creation, the city now neighbors the city of Fukuoka, on October 1,2007 the towns of Higashiyoka, Kawasoe, and Kubota were also incorporated into Saga, further expanding its borders. Although Saga is the capital of Saga Prefecture, it can also be said to be within the Greater Fukuoka metropolitan area, april 1,1889 - The modern municipal system was established and the city of Saga is founded. At the same time, the current city region is occupied by 21 villages from three districts. Saga District, Higashikawasoe, Honjō, Hyōgo, Kamino, Kase, Kasuga, Kawakami, Kinryū, Kitakawasoe, Kose, Kuboizumi, Matsuume, Nabeshima, Nikita, Nishiyoka, Oseki, june 6,1899 - Kose changed the kanji of its name. October 1,1922 - Kamino was incorporated into Saga, november 3,1935 - Hasuike was elevated to town status. March 31,1954 - Hyōgo, Kase, Kose, Nishiyoka, October 1,1954 - Honjō, Kinryū, Kitakawasoe, Kuboizumi and Nabeshima were all incorporated into Saga. March 1,1955 - Higashikawasoe and Nikita were merged to create the town of Morodomi, October 1,2005 - The towns of Fuji, Morodomi and Yamato and the village of Mitsuse merged with Saga. October 1,2007 - The towns of Higashiyoka, Kawasoe, Saga District was dissolved as a result of this merger. Standing out from many cultural assets is the castle within the city. It is one of the castles in Japan surrounded by a wall rather than built on one. First built between 1591 and 1593, there was a fire in 1726, renovated in 1728, there was yet another fire in 1835. Nabeshima Naomasa daimyo of the Nabeshima clan renovated it two years and moved in. In 1874 it was a building and a prefectural office. 1883 saw it become a junior school, the buildings were eventually replaced by modern school buildings. Saga City is located in the southeast portion of Saga Prefecture, after the 2005 merger the city became very long north to south
7.
Districts of Japan
–
As of 2008, cities belong directly to prefectures and are independent from districts. In Japan, towns and villages belong to districts and the districts possess little to no administrative authority, the districts are used primarily in the Japanese addressing system and to identify the relevant geographical areas and collections of nearby towns and villages. The district was initially called kōri and has ancient roots in Japan, although the Nihon Shoki says they were established during the Taika Reforms, kōri was originally written 評. It was not until the Taihō Code that kōri came to be written 郡, under the Taihō Code, the administrative unit of province was above district, and the village was below. Each jurisdiction refers to its position along the river from which the former province. Kamikawa means upper course of the river, Nakagawa means middle course, jacobs at Urban Studies Research, Vol.2011, doi,10. 1155/2011/692764 Graphic shows relationships among Japanese cities at p.7 of Large City System of Japan Text of the Local Government Law
8.
Municipalities of Japan
–
Japan has three levels of government, national, prefectural, and municipal. The nation is divided into 47 prefectures, each prefecture consists of numerous municipalities, with 1,719 in total. There are four types of municipalities in Japan, cities, towns, villages, in Japanese, this system is known as shikuchōson, where each kanji in the word represents one of the four types of municipalities. The status of a municipality, if it is a village, the least-populated city, Utashinai, Hokkaidō, has a population of merely four thousand, while a town in the same prefecture, Otofuke, Hokkaidō, has nearly forty thousand residents. Some designated cities also have further administrative subdivisions, also known as wards, but, unlike the Special wards of Tokyo, these wards are not municipalities. Tokyo Prefecture now encompasses 23 special wards, each a city itself, as well as many other cities, towns and even villages on the Japanese mainland. Each of the 23 special wards of Tokyo is legally equivalent to a city, for information on the former city of Tokyo, see Tokyo City, for information about present-day Tokyo Prefecture, see Tokyo. See List of cities in Japan for a complete list of cities, see also, Core city The same kanji which designates a town is also sometimes used for addresses of sections of an urban area. In rare cases, a village might even contain a section with the same type of designation. Although the kanji is the same, neither of these sections are municipalities unto themselves. Subprefectures are branch offices of the prefectures and not municipalities by themselves, districts are not current municipalities but names of groups of towns and villages. Provinces are not current municipalities but names of geographical regions similar to prefectures
9.
Eurasian magpie
–
The Eurasian magpie or common magpie is a resident breeding bird throughout Europe, much of Asia and northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family designated magpies, in Europe, magpie is used by English speakers as a synonym for the European magpie, the only other magpie in Europe is the Iberian magpie, which is limited to the Iberian peninsula. The Eurasian magpie is one of the most intelligent birds, the expansion of its nidopallium is approximately the same in its relative size as the brain of chimpanzees, orangutans and humans. The magpie was described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium of 1555, in 1758 Linnaeus included the species in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Corvus pica. The magpie was moved to a separate genus Pica by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760, Pica is the Classical Latin word for this magpie. The Eurasian magpie is almost identical in appearance to the North American black-billed magpie, an analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences published in 2003 confirmed that the black-billed magpie and the yellow-billed magpie were closely related to each other. The study also found that magpies in Korea are as different from the subspecies as they are to the North America magpie species. These results imply that the species Pica pica is not monophyletic, Magpies were originally known as simply pies. This comes from a root meaning pointed, in reference to either the beak or the tail. Pie as a term for the dates to the thirteenth century. The adult male of the subspecies, P. p. pica, is 44–46 cm in length. The graduated tail is black, glossed green and reddish purple. The legs and bill are black, the iris is dark brown, the plumage of the sexes is similar but females are slightly smaller. The tail feathers of both sexes are quite long, about 12-28 cm long, males of the nominate subspecies weigh 210–272 g while females weigh 182–214 g. The young resemble the adults, but are at first without much of the gloss on the sooty plumage, the young have the malar region pink, and somewhat clear eyes. The tail is shorter than the adults. The subspecies differ in their size, the amount of white on their plumage and the colour of the gloss on their black feathers. The northwest African race P. p. mauritanica differs from the subspecies in having a patch of blue bare skin behind the eye, no white patch on the rump
10.
Sea of Japan
–
The Sea of Japan is a marginal sea between the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin, and the Asian mainland. The Japanese archipelago separates the sea from the Pacific Ocean and it is bordered by Japan, North Korea, Russia and South Korea. Like the Mediterranean Sea, it has almost no tides due to its nearly complete enclosure from the Pacific Ocean and this isolation also reflects in the fauna species and in the water salinity, which is lower than in the ocean. The sea has no islands, bays or capes. Its water balance is determined by the inflow and outflow through the straits connecting it to the neighboring seas. Few rivers discharge into the sea and their contribution to the water exchange is within 1%. The seawater has a concentration of dissolved oxygen that results in high biological productivity. Therefore, fishing is the dominant economic activity in the region, the intensity of shipments across the sea has been moderate owing to political issues, but it is steadily increasing as a result of the growth of East Asian economies. The sea is called Rìběn hǎi or originally Jīng hǎi in China, Yaponskoye more in Russia, Chosŏn Tonghae in North Korea, a naming dispute exists about the sea name, with South and North Korea promoting the English translation of its native name East Sea. In Europe, the sea is called Mer du Japon in French, Japanisches Meer in German, Mar del Giappone in Italian, in Southeast Asia, the sea is called Laut Jepun in Malay, Laut Jepang in Indonesian, and Dagat Hapon in Filipino. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Japan Sea as follows, the Northeastern limit of the Eastern China Sea and the Western limit of the Inland Sea. A line running from Nagoya Saki in Kyûsyû through the islands of Uma Sima, from the extremity of Siriya Saki to the extremity of Esan Saki. A line joining Sôni Misaki and Nishi Notoro Misaki, from Cape Tuik to Cape Sushcheva. The Sea of Japan was once a landlocked sea when the bridge of East Asia existed. The onset of formation of the Japan Arc was in Early Miocene, the Early Miocene period also corresponds to incipient opening of the Japan Sea, and the northern and southern parts of the Japanese archipelago that were separated from each other. During the Miocene, there was expansion of Sea of Japan, the northern part of the Japanese archipelago was further fragmented at later periods until the orogenesis of the northeastern Japanese archipelago began in the later Late Miocene. The southern part of the Japanese archipelago remained as a large landmass. The land area had expanded northward in the Late Miocene, the orogenesis of high mountain ranges in the northeastern Japan started in Late Miocene and it lasts in Pliocene also
11.
Ariake Sea
–
The Ariake Sea is a body of salt water surrounded by Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, and Kumamoto Prefectures, all of which lie on the island of Kyūshū in Japan. It is the largest bay in Kyūshū and its deepest point is only about 50 m deep, and extreme tides exceed 4 m. It is used for aquaculture, with nori being a major product, various species of fauna, including mudskippers, pen shells, and fiddler crabs, live in the Ariake Sea. In autumn, there is red-grass along the sea shore, recent years have brought increasing pollution, with resultant red tides. Isahaya Bay is a branch of the Ariake Sea, across the Amakusa Islands lies the Yatsushiro Sea. Many harbors are located on the coast, among them are Misumi, Shimabara, Taira, Nagasu, Kumamoto, Miike, Kuchinotsu, and Oniike. Five ferry routes cross the Ariake Sea, shiranui Kashima Gatalympics 1792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami 有明海 有明海総合研究プロジェクト Ariake Sea General Research Project 有明海等環境情報・研究ネットワーク Environmental Information on Ariake Etc
12.
Ceramic art
–
Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take forms including art ware, tile, figurines, sculpture, Ceramic art is one of the arts, particularly the visual arts. Of these, it is one of the plastic arts, while some ceramics are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology, Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as art pottery. In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery, the word ceramics comes from the Greek keramikos, meaning pottery, which in turn comes from keramos meaning potters clay. Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay, shaped and subjected to heat, in modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae, cultures especially noted for ceramics include the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, and Korean cultures, as well as the modern Western cultures. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, porcelain, earthenware is pottery that has not been fired to vitrification and is thus permeable to water. Many types of pottery have been made from it from the earliest times, earthenware is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar. Terracotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic and its uses include vessels, water and waste water pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction. Terracotta has been a medium for ceramic art. Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay, stoneware is fired at high temperatures. Vitrified or not, it is nonporous, it may or may not be glazed and it may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the used for its manufacture. Porcelain is a material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent and it has been defined as ware with a translucent body containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Developed by English potter Josiah Spode, bone china is known for its levels of whiteness and translucency
13.
Porcelain
–
Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
14.
Karatsu, Saga
–
Karatsu is a city located in Saga Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, Japan. Its name, formed from the Japanese word roots 唐 kara, the central area of Karatsu, which does not include the former cities and villages of Higashimatsuura District, has a population of 78,386. As of October 1,2016, the city has an population of 121,684. The total area is 487.42 km², on January 1,2005, the towns of Chinzei, Hamatama, Hizen, Kyūragi, Ōchi and Yobuko. and the village of Kitahata were merged into Karatsu. On January 1,2006, the village of Nanayama was merged into Karatsu, due to its proximity to mainland Asia, Karatsu has long been known as a stopover to Korea and China. Mountains, Mt. Sakurei, Mt. Hachiman, Mt. Tonbo Saga Prefecture Genkai Imari Saga Takeo Taku Fukuoka Prefecture Itoshima Under ritsuryō, in 1591, on the coast of the northern part of the city, Nagoya Castle was constructed. The following year, it became the location from which the Imjin War was launched by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, in the middle of 1593, Terasawa Hirotaka created the Karatsu domain and began governing it. In 1602, replacing Nagoya Castle, Karatsu Castle was constructed in what is now the heart of Karatsu, the tower of Karatsu Castle was built in 1966. 1889-04-01 - The modern municipal system was established, the current city region is occupied by 1 town, and 19 villages. 1896-07-28 - Ōmura was renamed Tamashima, 1922-07-01 - Hamasaki was elevated to town status. 1922-11-01 - Nagoya changes the kanji of its name, 1924-01-01 - Mitsushima was incorporated into Karatsu Town. 1928-08-01 - Yobuko was elevated to town status, 1931-02-01 - Karatsu Village was incorporated into Karatsu Town. 1932-01-01 - Karatsu Town was elevated to city status, 1935-09-01 - Sashi and Ōchi both were elevated to town status. 1941-11-03 - Sashi was incorporated into Karatsu, 1952-05-03 - Kyūragi was elevated to town status. 1954-11-01 - Kagami, Kuri, Minato and Onizuka were all incorporated into Karatsu, 1956-09-30 - Hamasaki and Tamashima were merged to create the town of Hamasaki-Tamashima, and Nagoya and Uchiage were merge to create the town of Chinzei. 1958-11-01 - Kirigo was split and its parts were incorporated into Karatsu and Irino, 1966-11-01 - Hamasaki-Tamashima was renamed Hamatama. 2005-01-01 - Karatsu merged with Chinzei, Hamatama, Hizen, Kitahata, Kyūragi, Ōchi, 2006-01-01 - Nanayama was incorporated into Karatsu. The graceful Karatsu Castle stands watch over this castle town, Karatsu is famous for its Karatsu Kunchi festival, which runs annually from November 2 to November 4 and is visited by approximately 500,000 visitors from all over Japan
15.
Imari, Saga
–
Imari is a city located in Saga Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, Japan. Imari is most notable because of Imari porcelain, which is the European collectors name for Japanese porcelain wares made in the town of Arita, the porcelain was exported from the port of Imari specifically for the European export trade. As of October 1,2016, the city has an population of 54,907. The total area is 254.99 km², Imari is located in the western part of Saga Prefecture. The city center is located around the mouth of the Imari River, mountains, Mt. Hachiman, Mt. Seira, Mt. High quality goods to be presented to Shōgun and the Imperial Court were produced in what is now called Ōkawachiyama, from the Meiji period to 1955 coal was also a major export. April 1,1889 - The modern municipal system was established, the current city region was occupied by one town, and 11 villages. February 16,1901 - Ōdake Village was renamed Hatatsu Village, december 10,1928 - Makishima Village was incorporated into Imari Town. April 1,1936 - Nishiyamashiro Village became Yamashiro Town, december 8,1943 - The villages of Ōkawachi and Ōtsubo were incorporated into Imari Town. April 1,1954 - The towns of Imari and Yamashiro, and the villages of Higashiyamashiro, Kurokawa, Hatatsu, Minamihata, Ōkawa, Matsuura, expressways, There are no expressway interchanges in Imari. The closest is the Nagasaki Expressway Takeo-Kitagata Interchange, the cultivation of the Japanese pear from Imari, which originated in the Ōkawa area 100 years ago, has spread out to the Minamihata area and other areas of the city. Today, they are produced over about 350 hectares of land, since then the production and the crop acreage of Imari nashi have increased. According to the latest municipal statistics, the production is the fifth, the characteristics of Imari nashi are juiciness and crispness. Thanks to the adoption of light sensor systems for fruit sorting, only those which are of excellent quality can be selected and are shipped to Kantō, Kansai, recently export to China has started and been promoted. The main brands of Imari nashi are Kosui, Hosui, the most produced is Kosui, but Hosui is the most popular brand of the three. The Imari Ton-Ten-Ton Festival is held annually for three days from October 22 to 24, beginning at the Imari Shrine in Imari City, the festival is well known as one of the three great fighting festivals of Japan. Masayuki Tanaka Imari City official website
16.
Arita, Saga
–
Arita is a town located in Nishimatsuura District, Saga Prefecture, Japan. It is known for producing Arita porcelain, one of the handicrafts of Japan. It also holds the largest ceramic fair in Western Japan, the Arita Ceramic Fair and this event is held from April 29 to May 5 every year and has thousands of stores and stalls lining the six-kilometre long main street. On March 1,2006 the town of Nishiarita, from Nishimatsuura District, was merged into Arita, Arita is located in the western part of Saga Prefecture, bordering Nagasaki Prefecture from its southwest to western sides. About 70% of the town is forest and mountains, Saga Prefecture, Imari, Takeo Nagasaki Prefecture, Hasami, Sasebo Arita was one of the first sites in Japan to produce porcelain, Arita ware. The discovery of Porcelain stone is attributed to a Korean potter named Kanagae Sambe, April 1,1889 – The modern municipal system is established. In accordance with this system the village of Sarayama is renamed and reclassified as the town of Arita, also at this time the villages of Shin, Magarikawa and Ōyama are formed. November 13,1896 – The village of Shin is renamed Arita, january 1,1947 – The village of Arita becomes a town and is renamed Higashi-Arita. April 1,1954 – Higashi-Arita is incorporated into Arita, April 1,1955 – Magarikawa and Ōyama merge to form the village of Nishi-Arita. January 1,1956 – Several areas of Nishi-Arita are incorporated into Arita, April 1,1965 – Nishi-Arita becomes a town. March 1,2006 – Nishi-Arita is incorporated into Arita, the closest airports are Saga Airport and Nagasaki Airport. The Porcelain Park is a ceramic centered theme park, and is modeled on the Zwinger Palace in Germany, Ceramic ware from the heyday of Arita are on display in the gallery. Arita Kan has an exhibition of art porcelain,400 different cups for coffee or tea. China On The Park dates back to the end of the last century when the Fukugawa factory was chosen to provide the Imperial household with porcelain and this large and modern style facility contains a factory, galleries, shops and a restaurant. Tozan Shrine has an archway and other items of porcelain which. This shrine was and still is revered by Arita’s ceramists. Rokuroza, located near Kami-Arita Station, is a place one can learn how to make pottery. The most produced pottery in western Japan, believed to have started in the 16th century
17.
Yayoi period
–
The Yayoi period is an Iron Age era in the history of Japan traditionally dated 300 BC–300 AD. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon period should be reclassified are Early Yayoi. The date of the beginning of this transition is controversial, with estimates ranging from the 10th to the 6th centuries BC, the period is named after the neighborhood of Tokyo where archaeologists first uncovered artifacts and features from that era. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new Yayoi pottery styles, a hierarchical social class structure dates from this period. Techniques in metallurgy based on the use of bronze and iron were also introduced to Japan in this period, the Yayoi followed the Jōmon period and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that during this time, an influx of farmers from the Asian continent to Japan absorbed or overwhelmed the native hunter-gatherer population, the Yayoi period is traditionally dated from 300 BC to 300 AD. The earliest archaeological evidence of the Yayoi is found on northern Kyūshū, Yayoi culture quickly spread to the main island of Honshū, mixing with native Jōmon culture. Yayoi pottery was decorated and produced using the same coiling technique previously used in Jōmon pottery. Yayoi craft specialists made bronze ceremonial bells, mirrors, and weapons, by the 1st century AD, Yayoi farmers began using iron agricultural tools and weapons. As the Yayoi population increased, the society became more stratified and they wove textiles, lived in permanent farming villages, and constructed buildings with wood and stone. They also accumulated wealth through land ownership and the storage of grain, such factors promoted the development of distinct social classes. Contemporary Chinese sources described the people as having tattoos and other bodily markings which indicated differences in social status, Yayoi chiefs, in some parts of Kyūshū, appear to have sponsored, and politically manipulated, trade in bronze and other prestige objects. That was possible by the introduction of an irrigated, wet-rice culture from the Yangtze estuary in southern China via the Ryukyu Islands or Korean Peninsula, wet-rice agriculture led to the development and growth of a sedentary, agrarian society in Japan. Local political and social developments in Japan were more important than the activities of the authority within a stratified society. Direct comparisons between Jōmon and Yayoi skeletons show that the two peoples are noticeably distinguishable, the Jōmon tended to be shorter, with relatively longer forearms and lower legs, more wide-set eyes, shorter and wider faces, and much more pronounced facial topography. They also have strikingly raised brow ridges, noses, and nose bridges, Yayoi people, on the other hand, averaged an inch or two taller, with close-set eyes, high and narrow faces, and flat brow ridges and noses. By the Kofun period, almost all excavated in Japan except those of the Ainu are of the Yayoi type with Jomon admixture. The earliest archaeological sites are Itazuke or Nabata in the part of Kyūshū
18.
Yoshinogari site
–
Yoshinogari is the name of a large and complex Yayoi archaeological site in Yoshinogari and Kanzaki in Saga Prefecture, Kyūshū, Japan. According to the Yayoi chronology established by pottery seriations in the 20th century, however, recent attempts to use absolute dating methods such as AMS radiocarbon dating have shown that the earliest Yayoi component of Yoshinogari dates to before 400 BC. This archaeological site is of importance in Japanese and world prehistory because of the massive size and important nature of the settlement. Yoshinogari consists of a settlement, a cemetery, and multiple ditch-and-palisade enclosed precincts, the total area of this site is approximately 40 hectares. This site has been excavated by a number of different agencies. Ancient structures are being reconstructed on the site and the park is a major tourist attraction, Yoshinogari is located 12 km from the Ariake Sea on a low hill that extends out of the Sefuri Mountains and is surrounded on three sides by land that is suitable for wet-rice cultivation. The earliest component of the Yoshinogari settlement formed at the end of the low hill extending out from the Sefuri Mountains. The earliest settlement was about 3 hectares in area and contained a ditch-enclosure, a small number of pit-houses, pit-features, and burial jars dating to this sub-period have been excavated. Mortuary features are prominent in this sub-period, for example, a 30 x 40 m mounded burial was constructed on the northern end of the low hill. Five of six jar burials in the centre of the burial contained cylindrical jade-like glass ornaments from China. The mounded burial is located in an away from the majority of burials. More than 2000 burial jars dating to this period have come to light, many of these burials were laid out in a long row, some hundreds of metres long, parallel with the length of the low hill in the middle of the site. Artifacts excavated from the Middle Yayoi burials indicate the presence of some status distinctions, large wooden raised-floor granaries appeared at the end of this sub-period in the middle and southern ends of the site. An area of the Middle Yayoi settlement seems to have dedicated to the casting of bronze implements due to the number of moulds which were found. In the same area, pottery that was common in the Chinese continent and this has led some Japanese archaeologists to propose that Middle Yayoi interaction with the China was related to bronze-casting. A large outer ditch was built around the edges of the low hill, completely surrounding the settlement, inside of the outer ditch, smaller ditch-enclosed precincts were built that surrounded groups of pit-houses and raised-floor buildings. The ditches of the precincts of the Late Yayoi were undoubtedly meant for defence based on the evidence of pot-moulds indicating palisades on the inside of the ditches. Indeed, the so-called Northern Inner Enclosure was surrounded by double ditches, some of the raised-floor buildings of this sub-period were quite tall and large
19.
Nagasaki Prefecture
–
Nagasaki Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyushu. The capital is the city of Nagasaki, Nagasaki Prefecture was created by merging of the western half of the former province of Hizen with the island provinces of Tsushima and Iki. Facing China and Korea, the region around Hirado was a center for both traders and pirates. During the 16th century, Catholic missionaries and traders from Portugal arrived and became active in Hirado and Nagasaki and these Kakure Kirishitan were tried at every step, forced to step on fumi-e to prove that they were non-Christian. With the banishment of all Catholic missionaries, traders from Catholic countries were forced out of the country. Along with them, their children, half Japanese and half European, were forced to leave the country. The majority was sent to Jagatara and are remembered by the locals as the people who wrote the poignant letters which were smuggled across the sea to their homeland. Today, Nagasaki has a prominent Catholic churches, and the Churches, on August 9,1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, which destroyed all buildings in a one-mile radius from the point of impact and extensively damaged other parts of the city. Roughly 39,000 people were killed, including 27,778 Japanese munitions workers,2,000 Korean forced workers, about 68-80% of the industrial production was destroyed to the point it would not recover for months or at least a year. Nagasaki Prefecture contains many areas prone to rain and landslide damage. In July 1957, mainly in the Isahaya area, damage from rains, flooding and landslides lead to a death toll of 586. Also, in July 1982, typhoon damage in the Nagasaki area lead to 299 fatalities, Nagasaki borders Saga Prefecture on the east, and is otherwise surrounded by water, including Ariake Bay, the Tsushima Straits, and the East China Sea. It also includes a number of islands such as Tsushima. Most of the prefecture is near the coast and there are a number of such as Nagasaki. Thirteen cities are located in Nagasaki Prefecture, These are the towns and villages of each district, shusaku Endos novel Silence draws from the oral history of the local Christian communities, both Kakure Kirishitan and Hanare Kirishitan. As of 2002, there are 68,617 Catholics in Nagasaki Prefecture, the Nagasaki Saints of the Shikoku-Kyūshū Island League make Nagasaki Prefecture their home. First elected in 2010 to succeed Genjirō Kaneko, he was reelected for a term in 2014. The prefectural assembly of Nagasaki has a membership of 46
20.
Hizen Province
–
Hizen Province was an old province of Japan in the area of Saga and Nagasaki prefectures. It was sometimes called Hishū, with Higo Province, Hizen bordered on the provinces of Chikuzen and Chikugo. The province was included in Saikaidō and it did not include the regions of Tsushima and Iki that are now part of modern Nagasaki Prefecture. The name Hizen dates from the Nara period Ritsuryō Kokugunri system reforms, the name appears in the early chronicle Shoku Nihongi from 696 AD. The ancient provincial capital of Hizen was located near Yamato City, during the late Muromachi period, the province was the site of much early contact between Japan and Portuguese and Spanish merchants and missionaries. Hirado, and later Nagasaki became major foreign trade centers, during the Edo period, Hizen Province was divided among several daimyōs, but dominated by the Nabeshima clan, whose domain was centered at the castle town of Saga. The former Hizen province was divided into modern Saga Prefecture and a portion of Nagasaki Prefecture, at the same time, the province continued to exist for some purposes. For example, Hizen is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 between Japan and the United States and between Japan and the United Kingdom, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Papinot, Edmond. Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan
21.
Meiji Restoration
–
The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Renovation, Revolution, Reform, or Renewal, was an event of change that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were Emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities, Meiji government also made education compulsory for both boys and girls at minimal fees. The goals of the government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to changes in Japans political and social structure. In Japan however, unlike China, foreign ideas were not associated with opium addiction. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that if we take the initiative, we can dominate, if we do not, we will be dominated, leading Japan to throw open its doors to foreign technology. Observing Japans response to the powers, Li Hongzhang considered Japan Chinas principal security threat as early as 1863. The word Meiji means enlightened rule and the goal was to modern advances with traditional eastern values. The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi. The foundation of the Meiji restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi, leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate, after Emperor Kōmeis death on January 30,1867, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne on February 3. This period also saw Japan change from being a society to having a market economy. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to its end on November 9,1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and this forced the Emperor to strip Yoshinobu of all power, setting the stage for official restoration. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country, consequently the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs and it is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under control, thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. With Fuhanken sanchisei, the areas were split into three types, urban prefectures, rural prefectures and the already existing domains
22.
Yoshinogari, Saga
–
Yoshinogari is a town located in Kanzaki District, Saga Prefecture, Japan. It is the result of a merger between the town of Mitagawa, and the village of Higashisefuri, both from Kanzaki District, on March 1,2006, Yoshinogari is located in the northern part of Saga Prefecture. It is about 10 kilometres north of Saga City and about 30 kilometres south of Fukuoka, Yoshinogari is very narrow north to south. The southern part contains the end of the Chikushi Plains. The area was named the Yoshinogari site and the name originates from here. April 1,1889 - The modern system of municipalities is established, april 1,1965 - Mitagawa Village becomes Mitagawa Town. March 1,2006 - Mitagawa Town and Higashi-Sefuri village merge to form Yoshinogari Town, Mitagawa Junior High School Higashi-Sefuri Junior High School Mitagawa Elementary School Higashi-Sefuri Elementary School The closest airports are Saga Airport and Fukuoka Airport. JR Kyushu Nagasaki Main Line Yoshinogari-kōen Station Expressways, Nagasaki Expressway National Highways, Route 34, Prefectural Roads, Saga Prefectural Route 31, and Route 46 Media related to Yoshinogari, Saga at Wikimedia Commons Yoshinogari official website
23.
Saga Castle
–
Saga Castle is a Japanese castle located in Saga City, Saga Prefecture, Japan. It is a hiraijirō, a built on a plains rather than a hill or mountain. Saga castle was home to the Nabeshima clan, daimyō of Saga Domain and it was also known as Submerged Castle. The location of Saga Castle was originally a village under the control of the Ryūzōji clan. After Ryūzōji Takanobu was defeated by a coalition of Shimazu and Arima forces in 1584, following the Battle of Sekigahara, the Nabeshima clan was confirmed in its holdings in Hizen province, and Naoshige’s son, Nabeshima Katsushige became 1st daimyō of Saga Domain. Naoshige began work on rebuilding the castle with the approval of the Tokugawa Shogunate beginning in 1602, the original structure included a five-storey donjon surrounded by a system of 80-metre wide moats. Unusually, the moats are not surmounted by stone walls, and these ramparts were also planted with pine and camphor trees for additional concealment, which lent the castle its nickname. A fire in 1726 destroyed most of the structures, including the donjon. The palace portion was restored two years later in the bailey, which was the centre of the Saga domain government for most of the Edo period. Another fire occurred in 1835, after which the buildings were reconstructed by Saga domain’s final daimyō Nabeshima Naomasa, after the Meiji Restoration, the castle remained the location for the local government offices. However, the castle was occupied in 1874 by former politician Gotō Shimpei, the rebels were defeated by military force, during which most of the buildings in the castle were burned down. Since 1874, the grounds have been used as the site for a court building and a prefectural office. The buildings were replaced by modern school buildings. In 1953, one of the gates of the castle was proclaimed a Saga Prefectural Important Cultural Property. It gained national protection in 1957, from 2001 to 2004 the main portion of the castle was restored. It is now houses the Saga Castle History Museum and is the largest wooden castle reconstruction in Japan, in 2006, Saga Castle was listed as one of the 100 Fine Castles of Japan by the Japan Castle Foundation. Saga Castle is also the castle where Yamamoto Tsunetomo, the orator of Hagakure, Saga Rebellion Schmorleitz, Morton S. Castles in Japan. Tokyo, Charles E. Tuttle Co. pp. 144–145, Castles of the Samurai, Power and Beauty
24.
Kamakura period
–
The Kamakura period is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shogun, Minamoto no Yoritomo. The period is known for the emergence of the samurai, the warrior caste, the Kamakura period marks the transition to land-based economies and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule, once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu, but because he was given the ancient high military title Seii Tai-shōgun by the Emperor, Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board Mandokoro, a board of retainers, and a board of inquiry. After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces, as shogun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land. The regime continued warfare against the Northern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control, however, the 4th leader of the Northern Fujiwara Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Minamoto no Yoriie became shogun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early century, a regency had been established for the shogun by Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the Hōjō clan. Often the Shikken was also the Tokuso and Rensho, under the Hōjō, the shogun became a powerless figurehead. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The shoguns constables gained greater powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakuras approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of power, the court retained extensive estates. Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency, in 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a form of collective leadership
25.
Muromachi period
–
The Muromachi period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun of this line, from a cultural perspective, the period can be divided into the Kitayama and Higashiyama periods. The early years from 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period are known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period and this period is marked by the continued resistance of the supporters of Emperor Go-Daigo, the emperor behind the Kenmu Restoration. The years from 1465 to the end of the Muromachi period are known as the Sengoku period or Warring States period. Emperor Go-Daigos brief attempt to restore the power in the Kenmu Restoration alienated the samurai class. Ashikaga Takauji obtained the samurais strong support, and deposed Emperor Go-Daigo, in 1338 Takauji was proclaimed shogun and established his government in Kyoto. However, Emperor Godaigo escaped from his confinement and revived his political power in Nara, the ensuing period of Ashikaga rule was called Muromachi from the district of Kyoto in which its headquarters – the Hana-no-gosho – were located by third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in 1378. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga shogunate was not as strong as that in Kamakura had been, not until the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu did a semblance of order emerge. Yoshimitsu allowed the constables, who had had limited powers during the Kamakura period, to become strong regional rulers, in time, a balance of power evolved between the shogun and the daimyō, the three most prominent daimyō families rotated as deputies to the shogun at Kyoto. The line of shoguns gradually weakened after Yoshimitsu and increasingly lost power to the daimyō, the shoguns influence on imperial succession waned, and the daimyō could back their own candidates. In time, the Ashikaga family had its own problems, resulting finally in the Ōnin War. The power vacuum that ensued launched a century of anarchy, the Japanese contact with the Ming dynasty began when China was renewed during the Muromachi period after the Chinese sought support in suppressing Japanese pirates in coastal areas of China. Japanese pirates of this era and region were referred to as wokou by the Chinese, wanting to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wokou threat, Yoshimitsu accepted a relationship with the Chinese that was to last for half a century. In 1401 he restarted the system, describing himself in a letter to the Chinese Emperor as Your subject. Japanese wood, sulfur, copper ore, swords, and folding fans were traded for Chinese silk, porcelain, books, and coins, in what the Chinese considered tribute but the Japanese saw as profitable trade. Zen played a role in spreading not only religious teachings and practices but also art and culture, including influences derived from paintings of the Chinese Song, Yuan. The proximity of the court to the bakufu resulted in a commingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyō, samurai. Art of all kinds—architecture, literature, Noh drama, Kyōgen, poetry, sarugaku, the tea ceremony, landscape gardening, there was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism during the centuries of the latters predominance
26.
Sengoku period
–
The Sengoku period is a period in Japanese history marked by social upheaval, political intrigue and near-constant military conflict. Japanese historians named it after the otherwise unrelated Warring States period in China and it came to an end when all political power was unified under the Tokugawa shogunate. In the years preceding this era the Shogunate gradually lost influence, many of these Lords began to fight uncontrollably with each other for control over land and influence over the shogunate. As trade with China grew, the developed, and the use of money became widespread as markets. This, combined with developments in agriculture and small-scale trading, led to the desire for local autonomy throughout all levels of the social hierarchy. As early as the beginning of the 15th century, the caused by earthquakes and famines often served to trigger armed uprisings by farmers weary of debt. The Ōnin War, a conflict rooted in economic distress and brought on by a dispute over succession, is generally regarded as the onset of the Sengoku period. The eastern army of the Hosokawa family and its allies clashed with the army of the Yamana. Fighting in and around Kyoto lasted for nearly 11 years, leaving the city almost completely destroyed, the conflict in Kyoto then spread to outlying provinces. The period culminated with a series of three warlords, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who gradually unified Japan, after Tokugawa Ieyasus final victory at the siege of Osaka in 1615, Japan settled down into several centuries of peace under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Ōnin War in 1467 is usually considered the point of Sengoku period. There are several events which could be considered the end of it, The Siege of Odawara, the Battle of Sekigahara, the upheaval resulted in the further weakening of central authority, and throughout Japan regional lords, called daimyōs, rose to fill the vacuum. There were many, however, whose positions eroded and were usurped by more capable underlings. One of the earliest instances of this was Hōjō Sōun, who rose from humble origins. Building on the accomplishments of Sōun, the Late Hōjō clan remained a power in the Kantō region until its subjugation by Toyotomi Hideyoshi late in the Sengoku period. Well-organized religious groups also gained power at this time by uniting farmers in resistance. The monks of the Buddhist True Pure Land sect formed numerous Ikkō-ikki and this in turn provided Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who had risen through the ranks from ashigaru to become one of Odas most trusted generals, with the opportunity to establish himself as Odas successor. Toyotomi eventually consolidated his control over the remaining daimyōs and, although he was ineligible for the title of Seii Taishogun because of his common birth, during his short reign as Kampaku, Toyotomi attempted two invasions of Korea
27.
Chikugo Province
–
Chikugo Province is the name of a former province of Japan in the area that is today the southern part of Fukuoka Prefecture on Kyūshū. It was sometimes called Chikushū, with Chikuzen Province, Chikugo was bordered by Hizen, Chikuzen, Bungo, and Higo Provinces. The ancient capital of the province was located near the city of Kurume. In the Edo Period the province was divided into two fiefs, the Tachibana clan held a fief at Yanagawa, and the Arima clan held a northern fief at Kurume. In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures, maps of Japan and Chikugo Province were reformed in the 1870s. 1359, Battle of Chikugo River, Ashikaga gain a military victory,1361, Imperial forces led by Kikuchi Takemitsu capture Dazaifu. Kōra taisha was the chief Shinto shrine of Chikugo, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Media related to Chikugo Province at Wikimedia Commons Murdochs map of provinces,1903
28.
Higo Province
–
Higo Province was an old province of Japan in the area that is today Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. It was sometimes called Hishū, with Hizen Province, Higo bordered on Chikugo, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Provinces. The castle town of Higo was usually at Kumamoto City, the Kato were soon stripped of their lands, and the region was given to the Hosokawa clan. In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures, maps of Japan and Higo Province were reformed in the 1870s. At the same time, the continued to exist for some purposes. For example, Higo is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 between Japan and the United States and between Japan and the United Kingdom, aso-jinja was the chief Shinto shrine of Higo. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Papinot, Edmond, historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. OCLC77691250 Media related to Higo Province at Wikimedia Commons Murdochs map of provinces,1903
29.
Chikuzen Province
–
Chikuzen Province was an old province of Japan in the area that is today part of Fukuoka Prefecture in Kyūshū. It was sometimes called Chikushū or Chikuyō, with Chikugo Province, Chikuzen bordered Buzen, Bungo, Chikugo, and Hizen Provinces. The original provincial capital is believed to be near Dazaifu, although Fukuoka city has become dominant in modern times, at the end of the 13th century, Chikuzen was the landing point for a Mongol invasion force. But the main force was destroyed by a typhoon, in April 1336, Kikuchi Taketoshi attacked the Shoni clan stronghold at Dazaifu. At the time, the Shoni were allied with Ashikaga Takauji in his battles against Go-Daigo, the Shoni were defeated, which led to the suicide of several clan members, including their leader Shoni Sadatsune. In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures, maps of Japan and Chikuzen Province were reformed in the 1870s. At the same time, the continued to exist for some purposes. For example, Chikuzen is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 between Japan and the United States and between Japan and the United Kingdom, sumiyoshi-jinja and Hakosaki-gū were the chief Shinto shrines of Chikuzen. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Papinot, Edmond, historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. OCLC77691250 Media related to Chikuzen Province at Wikimedia Commons Murdochs map of provinces,1903
30.
Nabeshima Naoshige
–
Nabeshima Naoshige was daimyo of Hizen from 1538 to 1618. Naoshige was the son of Nabeshima Kiyosada and was known as Nobumasa throughout half of his career and he was a vassal of the Ryūzōji clan during the Sengoku period of the 16th century. Naoshige proved himself in battle as he led forces of Ryūzōji Takanobu, in 1570, Naoshige assisted Takanobu while at Saga Castle when it was surrounded by a 60, 000-man Ōtomo clan army. However, Naoshige had only 5,000 troops, so he suggested a night raid on the camp which successfully routed them. In 1575, he attacked Suko Castle in western Hizen and forced its commander, Hirai Tsuneharu, Naoshige was the chief retainer for the daimyo of Hizen in 1584 when Takanobu died. Control of the passed to Naoshige when Ryūzōji Masaie was killed in battle in 1607. A Sengoku era warlord, Nabeshima distinguished himself in battle by killing hundreds of men and he was later sent on Hideyoshis Korean campaigns where he struck up a friendship with Katō Kiyomasa and upon his return to Hizen, Tokugawa Ieyasu. Naoshige also assisted Takanobu during the Battle of Okitanawate but was unable to prevent their rout which later ended in Takanobus death, Naoshige took this chance of having a weak heir to leave the Ryūzōji and to support Toyotomi Hideyoshi while during his battle against Kyūshū in 1587. Afterwards much of the Ryūzōji territory which included the Saga Castle. Naoshige followed in leading over 12,000 men to Korea in the First Korean Campaign, at Sekigahara, Lord Nabeshimas son, Katsushige, was convinced to take sides against Tokugawa Ieyasu. Nabeshima wisely recalled him to attack Tokugawas enemies in Kyūshū, thus saving the clan from disaster, historians describe Nabeshima as a survivor and a man of quick intelligence who saved his domain from invasion several times. His actions and sayings are immortalized in the chapter of the Hagakure by writer Tsunetomo Yamamoto. Following the Battle of Sekigahara during the year of 1600 Naoshige sent his son, following the victory of the Tokugawa clan, their 357, 000-koku fief went untouched by Ieyasu. Following Naoshiges death his family very well known. Naoshige is known for re-settling potters from Korea in Hizen
31.
Nabeshima clan
–
Nabeshima clan is a Japanese samurai kin group. The clan controlled Saga Domain from the late Sengoku period through the Edo period, the Nabeshima clan was a cadet branch of the Shōni clan and was descended from the Fujiwara clan. The clan played an important role in the region as early as the Muromachi period and it did not take the name Nabeshima, however, until the late 15th century, when Shōni Shigenao established himself at Nabeshima in Hizen province. Later, in the Sengoku period, the Nabeshima were one of a number of clans which clashed over the island. The Nabeshima sided with the Ryūzōji clan against the clan, though this ultimately ended in failure. Naoshige also contributed to Hideyoshis invasions of Korea in the 1590s, the clan initially aided Ishida Mitsunari against Tokugawa Ieyasu in the Sekigahara Campaign in 1600. Though regarded as tozama daimyō, and assigned particularly heavy corvee duties, the Nabeshima were allowed to keep their territory in Saga, in recognition of their service, members of the clan were granted the prestigious family name Matsudaira in 1648. Nabeshima Naoshige Nabeshima Katsushige Nabeshima Motoshige Nabeshima Naomasa Frederic, Louis, the Vampire-Cat, a review of the versions of the Japanese legend about the Vampire Cat of Nabéshima
32.
Edo period
–
The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
33.
Saga Domain
–
Saga Domain, also known as Hizen Domain, was a Japanese domain in the Edo period. It is associated with Hizen Province in modern-day Saga Prefecture on the island of Kyushu, in the han system, Saga was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of kokudaka and this was different from the feudalism of the West. The Nabeshima clan were originally vassals of the Ryūzōji clan who controlled the region, however, Ryūzōji Takanobu was killed in battle with the Shimazu and Arima clans in 1584, and Nabeshima Naoshige became the guardian of Takanobus young heir, Ryūzōji Takafusa. Six years later, Toyotomi Hideyoshi granted approval for Nabeshima to overthrow Ryūzōji, Nabeshima supported Hideyoshis invasions of Korea in the 1590s, and fought in the Western Army, against the Tokugawa clan in the fateful battle of Sekigahara in 1600. During this battle, however, he turned against and captured Western Army general Tachibana Muneshige, earning some degree of favor from Tokugawa Ieyasu, the domain was governed from Saga Castle in the capital city of Saga by the Nabeshima clan of tozama daimyō. The Nabeshima enjoyed an income of 357,000 koku throughout the Tokugawa period, including among their vassals the lords of the nearby Ogi, Hasunoike, and Kashima Domains. The domains location close to Korea and far from Edo, the capital, along with its trade connections. The area was a center for production and techniques as a result of its connections with Korea. Remnants of the Ryūzōji continued to surface from time to time, however, Ryūzōji Takafusa died in 1607, and six years later an order was issued by the shogunate granting his brother, Ryūzōji Katsushige, control of the domain. The area also bore a considerable Christian peasant population, which erupted in protest in the famous Shimabara Rebellion, the shogunate imposed upon Saga responsibility for defense of the port of Nagasaki and enforcement of the maritime restrictions. Though this burden was shared with the Fukuoka Domain, each domain bearing these responsibilities in alternate years, as a result, it was not unknown for Saga to seek to lessen its losses by reducing the number of samurai it sent to defend the port. As no further troops could be summoned to the port in time, the shogunate was forced to submit to the demands of the British ship, the domain would be further weakened by a typhoon in 1828 which cost Saga approximately 10,000 lives. Towards the end of the Tokugawa period, elements within Saga sided with groups from Tosa, Satsuma, Saga leaders would later turn against the new Meiji government, launching the Saga Rebellion in 1874, which ultimately failed. Saga recovered in the last decade or so of the period, however, taking in Western technology. The bureaucracy was cut by 80%, and efforts were made to support, the domains economy came to be focused upon ceramics, tea, charcoal, and related goods, and prosperity was found through trade. Saga thus began operations at the first Japanese iron refinery in 1849, in 1853, Russian Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin arrived in Nagasaki harbor, and provided the first demonstration of a steam locomotive to the Japanese. Ishiguro Hirotsugu, Nakamura Kisuke, and Tanaka Hisashige were among the first Japanese engineers, when the shogunate relaxed the restrictions on the construction of large ships, an order was placed with the Dutch
34.
Karatsu Domain
–
Karatsu Domain was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It is associated with Hizen Province in modern-day Saga Prefecture, in the han system, Karatsu was a political and economic abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields. In other words, the domain was defined in terms of kokudaka and this was different from the feudalism of the West. Karatsu domain was founded in 1593, by Terazawa Hirotaka, who was granted lordship of Karatsu and he was also Nagasaki bugyō under the Tokugawa bakufu. The Terazawa clan took part in the Battle of Sekigahara on the side of Tokugawa Ieyasu and received an additional 40,000 koku of land, the Terazawa took part in the Shogunates expedition to suppress the Shimabara Uprising. The family held on to Karatsu until 1647, when Hirotakas son Katataka committed suicide, due to a lack of heir, the family came to an end, the domain then passed into the hands of Ogasawara Nagamasa, whose family remained until Karatsu domain was abolished in 1871. At the same time, Karatsus domain-based administration was forced to pledge support to the Satchō Alliance of Emperor Meiji. Ogasawara Naganari, the Meiji period Imperial Japanese Navy admiral, was a descendant of the Ogasawara branch which ruled Karatsu, the hereditary daimyo were head of the clan and head of the domain. Terazawa clan, 1593-1647 Ōkubo clan 1649-1678 Matsudaira clan 1678-1691 Doi clan 1691-1762 Mizuno clan 1762-1817 Ogasawara clan 1817-1871 List of Han Abolition of the han system Bolitho, treasures Among Men, The Fudai Daimyo in Tokugawa Japan. ISBN 978-0-300-01655-0, OCLC185685588 Rein, Johannes, Japan, Travels and Researches Undertaken at the Cost of the Prussian Government. New York, A. C. Armstrong & Son, media related to Karatsu Castle at Wikimedia Commons Karatsu at Edo 300
35.
Nagasaki
–
Nagasaki is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Part of Nagasaki was home to a major Imperial Japanese Navy base during the First Sino-Japanese War, during World War II, the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made Nagasaki the second and, to date, last city in the world to experience a nuclear attack. As of 1 January 2009, the city has an population of 446,007. The total area is 406.35 km², a small fishing village set in a secluded harbor, Nagasaki had little historical significance until contact with Portuguese explorers in 1543. An early visitor was Fernão Mendes Pinto, who came on a Portuguese ship which landed nearby in Tanegashima and his followers who remained behind converted a number of daimyōs. The most notable among them was Ōmura Sumitada, the little harbor village quickly grew into a diverse port city, and Portuguese products imported through Nagasaki were assimilated into popular Japanese culture. The Portuguese also brought them many goods from China. Thus, for a period after 1580, the city of Nagasaki was a Jesuit colony, under their administrative. It was administered by the captain of the Portuguese black ship, the highest representative of the Portuguese Crown and it became a refuge for Christians escaping maltreatment in other regions of Japan. In 1587, however, Toyotomi Hideyoshis campaign to unify the country arrived in Kyūshū, however, the expulsion order went largely unenforced, and the fact remained that most of Nagasakis population remained openly practicing Catholic. In 1596, the Spanish ship San Felipe was wrecked off the coast of Shikoku, in response, Hideyoshi ordered the crucifixions of twenty-six Catholics in Nagasaki on February 5 of that year. Portuguese traders were not ostracized, however, and so the city continued to thrive, in 1602, Augustinian missionaries also arrived in Japan, and when Tokugawa Ieyasu took power in 1603, Catholicism was still tolerated. Many Catholic daimyōs had been allies at the Battle of Sekigahara. Once Osaka Castle had been taken and Toyotomi Hideyoshis offspring killed, though, in addition, the Dutch and English presence allowed trade without religious strings attached. Thus, in 1614, Catholicism was officially banned and all missionaries ordered to leave, most Catholic daimyo apostatized, and forced their subjects to do so, although a few would not renounce the religion and left the country for Macau, Luzon and Japantowns in Southeast Asia. A brutal campaign of persecution followed, with thousands of converts across Kyūshū and other parts of Japan killed, tortured, catholicisms last gasp as an open religion and the last major military action in Japan until the Meiji Restoration was the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637. Consequently, in Tokugawa society the word Shimabara solidified the connection between Christianity and disloyalty, constantly used again and again in Tokugawa propaganda, the Shimabara Rebellion also convinced many policy-makers that foreign influences were more trouble than they were worth, leading to the national isolation policy. The Great Fire of Nagasaki destroyed much of the city in 1663, including the Mazu shrine at the Kofukuji Temple patronized by the Chinese sailors, in 1720 the ban on Dutch books was lifted, causing hundreds of scholars to flood into Nagasaki to study European science and art
36.
Arita ware
–
Arita ware is a broad term for Japanese porcelain made in the area around the town of Arita, in the former Hizen Province, northwestern Kyūshū. According to tradition, the Korean potter Yi Sam-pyeong, or Kanagae Sanbee, is considered the father of Arita ware porcelain. This narrative is however disputed by many historians and he is nevertheless honoured in Sueyama Shrine as the founder. The first porcelain made in Japan followed the discovery of clay near Arita near the end of the 16th century. A number of opened up in the area, and a considerable variety of styles were made. Early wares used underglaze blue decoration, but by the mid-17th century Arita was in the forefront as Japan developed overglaze enamelled decoration in a range of bright colours, the type called kin-rande was especially popular and is therefore known in the West also as Imari ware. Nabeshima ware developed out of Arita, which was of a quality produced for the Nabeshima Lords of the Saga Domain. Kakiemon is a style of porcelain that developed out of Arita, the kilns in Arita also produced white Hakuji porcelain. Ford, Barbara Brennan, and Oliver R, the Great Japan Exhibition, Art of the Edo Period 1600–1868,1981, Royal Academy of Arts/Wiedenfield and Nicolson Media related to Arita ware at Wikimedia Commons
37.
Green tea
–
Green tea is a type of tea that is made from Camellia sinensis leaves that have not undergone the same withering and oxidation process used to make oolong and black tea. Green tea originated in China, but its production has spread to countries in Asia. Several varieties of green tea exist, which differ substantially because of the variety of C. sinensis used, growing conditions, horticultural methods, production processing, Tea consumption has its legendary origins in China during the reign of Emperor Shennong. A book written by Lu Yu in 600-900 AD, Tea Classic, is considered important in green tea history. Steeping, or brewing, is the process of making tea, higher-quality teas, like gyokuro, use more tea leaves and are steeped multiple times for short durations. Steeping temperatures range from 61°C to 87°C and times from 30 seconds to three minutes, generally, lower-quality green teas are steeped hotter and longer while higher-quality teas are steeped cooler and shorter, but usually for multiple times. Steeping too hot or for too long results in the release of excessive amounts of tannins, leading to a bitter, astringent brew, the brew’s taste is also affected by the steeping technique. Green tea extracts have been used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for a variety of uses, Green tea leaves are initially processed by soaking in an alcohol solution, which may be further concentrated to various levels, byproducts of the process are also packaged and used. Extracts may be sold in liquid, powder, capsule, or tablet form, Green tea extract supplements are accessible over the counter in various forms. Standardized green tea extract is 90 percent total polyphenols, and 1 capsule equals 5 cups of tea, regular green tea is 99. 9% water, provides 1 Calorie per 100 mL serving, is devoid of significant nutrient content and contains phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and caffeine. Other components include three kinds of flavonoids, known as kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin, although numerous claims have been made for the health benefits of green tea, human clinical research has not provided conclusive evidence of any effects. There is no evidence that green tea helps to prevent or treat cancer in people. A review of existing studies concluded that while suggestive evidence existed, daily consumption of black tea has been associated with a significant reduction in death from all cancers. A2015 meta-analysis of nine prospective cohort studies concluded that an amount of green tea consumption may be associated with a lower risk of liver cancer in Asian women. This association was not seen in Asian men or when one cup of tea was consumed daily. Similarly, another analysis of observational data conducted in 2012 suggested that tea consumption may have a favorable effect on lung cancer risk. The observed effect was strongest in those who consumed more than seven cups of green tea daily, a 2011 meta-analysis of epidemiological studies found limited evidence that green tea consumption may be associated with a moderately reduced risk of liver cancer in Chinese and Japanese people. Limited evidence suggests that tea consumption is not associated with the risk of developing pancreatic cancer or prostate cancer
38.
Reverberatory furnace
–
A reverberatory furnace is a metallurgical or process furnace that isolates the material being processed from contact with the fuel, but not from contact with combustion gases. The term reverberation is used here in a sense of rebounding or reflecting. Chemistry determines the relationship between the fuel and the material, among other variables. There are, however, a great many designs. The applications of these fall into two general categories, metallurgical melting furnaces, and lower temperature processing furnaces typically used for metallic ores. Historically these furnaces have used solid fuel, and bituminous coal has proven to be the best choice, the brightly visible flames give more radiant heat transfer than anthracite coal or charcoal. Contact with the products of combustion, which may add undesirable elements to the material, is used to advantage in some processes. Control of the balance can alter the exhaust gas chemistry toward either an oxidizing or a reducing mixture. For example, cast iron can be puddled in an atmosphere to convert it to the lower-carbon mild steel or bar iron. The Siemens-Martin oven in open hearth steelmaking is also a reverbetratory furnace, Reverberatory furnaces were formerly also used for melting brass, bronze, and pig iron for foundry work. They were also, for the first 75 years of the 20th century, the first reverberatory furnaces were perhaps in the medieval period, and were used for melting bronze for casting bells. They were first applied to smelting metals in the late 17th century, Sir Clement Clerke and his son Talbot built cupolas or reverberatory furnaces in the Avon Gorge below Bristol in about 1678. In 1687, while obstructed from smelting lead, they moved on to copper, in the following decades, reverberatory furnaces were widely adopted for smelting these metals and also tin. They had the advantage over older methods that the fuel was mineral coal, in the 1690s, they applied the reverberatory furnace to melting pig iron for foundry purposes. The puddling furnace, introduced by Henry Cort in the 1780s to replace the older finery process, was also a variety of reverberatory furnace, today, reverberatory furnaces are widely used to melt secondary aluminium scrap for eventual use by die-casting industries. The simplest reverberatory is nothing more than a box lined with alumina refractory brick with a flue at one end. Conventional oil or gas burners are placed usually on side of the furnace to heat the brick. P. W. King, Sir Clement Clerke and the Adoption of coal in metallurgy, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 73, media related to Reverberatory furnaces at Wikimedia Commons
39.
Steam locomotive
–
A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
