1.
Gladstone Pottery Museum
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It is a grade II* listed building. The museum is located in Longton, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire and it is also included in one of the regional routes of the European Route of Industrial Heritage. Despite the name of the museum, it is a complex of buildings from two works, the Gladstone and the Roslyn, the protected features include the kilns. A pottery factory first opened on the site in 1787, by 1876 the Wards site had passed into the hands of R Hobson and Co and had been renamed Gladstone, after the politician William Ewart Gladstone. The factory opened as a museum in 1974, the buildings having been saved from demolition in 1970 when the pottery closed, in the 1990s ownership passed to Stoke-on-Trent City Council. The museum has shown its commitment to industrial heritage by functioning as a working pottery, however, production has had to be curtailed for financial reasons and the museum is therefore less of a living museum than it was. As at 2014 the Middleport Pottery in Burslem, which is used for production, is arguably the only working Victorian pottery in the city of Stoke-on-Trent. The clay and ground bone were mixed in the sliphouse, bowls plates and saucers were pressed, jiggered and jolleyed or moulded from the slip. The green china was left to dry in the greenhouse, at the same time the saggars that would hold them in the kiln were made. The bottle oven kiln is protected by an outer hovel, which helps to create an updraught, the biscuit kiln was filled with clay sealed saggars of green flatwares by placers. The doors were bricked up and the firing began, each firing took 14 tons of coal. Fires were lit in the firemouths and baited every four hours, flames rose up inside the kilns and they controlled the temperature of the firing using dampers in the crown. The temperature was gauged by watching the contraction of bullers rings, a kiln would be fired to 1250C. They fired again in the bigger glost kilns- again they are placed in sealed saggars, items separated by kiln furniture such as stints, the table-ware would then be decorated by transfers or by painting and placed in the muffle kiln. The enamel kiln is of different construction- it fired at 700C, the pots were stacked on 7 or 8 levels of clay bats. The door was lined with brick. When the kiln cooled the product was transported in basket and exported to different parts of the country and empire using the canal network, the museum is centred on the Roslyn pottery. It contains two biscuit ovens and two larger glost ovens, in addition are two enamel kilns
2.
Packaging and labeling
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
3.
Pottery
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Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
4.
Kiln
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A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
5.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
6.
Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
7.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
8.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
9.
Aluminium oxide
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Aluminium oxide or aluminum oxide is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula Al2O3. It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium oxides, and it is commonly called alumina, and may also be called aloxide, aloxite, or alundum depending on particular forms or applications. It occurs naturally in its crystalline polymorphic phase α-Al2O3 as the mineral corundum, varieties of form the precious gemstones ruby. Al2O3 is significant in its use to produce metal, as an abrasive owing to its hardness. Corundum is the most common naturally occurring form of aluminium oxide. Rubies and sapphires are gem-quality forms of corundum, which owe their characteristic colors to trace impurities, rubies are given their characteristic deep red color and their laser qualities by traces of chromium. Sapphires come in different colors given by various other impurities, such as iron, Al2O3 is an electrical insulator but has a relatively high thermal conductivity for a ceramic material. Aluminium oxide is insoluble in water, in its most commonly occurring crystalline form, called corundum or α-aluminium oxide, its hardness makes it suitable for use as an abrasive and as a component in cutting tools. Aluminium oxide is responsible for the resistance of aluminium to weathering. Metallic aluminium is very reactive with oxygen, and a thin passivation layer of aluminium oxide forms on any exposed aluminium surface. This layer protects the metal from further oxidation, the thickness and properties of this oxide layer can be enhanced using a process called anodising. A number of alloys, such as bronzes, exploit this property by including a proportion of aluminium in the alloy to enhance corrosion resistance. Aluminium oxide was taken off the United States Environmental Protection Agencys chemicals lists in 1988, aluminium oxide is on EPAs Toxics Release Inventory list if it is a fibrous form. Al2O3 +6 HF →2 AlF3 +3 H2O Al2O3 +2 NaOH +3 H2O →2 NaAl4 The most common form of aluminium oxide is known as corundum. The oxygen ions form a hexagonal close-packed structure with aluminium ions filling two-thirds of the octahedral interstices. In terms of its crystallography, corundum adopts a trigonal Bravais lattice with a group of R-3c. The primitive cell contains two units of aluminium oxide. Each has a crystal structure and properties
10.
Cordierite
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For the green variety of quartz see prasiolite. Cordierite or iolite is an iron aluminium cyclosilicate. Iron is almost always present and a solution exists between Mg-rich cordierite and Fe-rich sekaninaite with a series formula, 2Al3 to 2Al3. A high-temperature polymorph exists, indialite, which is isostructural with beryl and has a distribution of Al in the 6O18 rings. Cordierite, which was discovered in 1813, is named after the French geologist Louis Cordier, cordierite typically occurs in contact or regional metamorphism of pelitic rocks. It is especially common in hornfels produced by metamorphism of pelitic rocks. Two common metamorphic mineral assemblages include sillimanite-cordierite-spinel and cordierite-spinel-plagioclase-orthopyroxene, other associated minerals include garnet and anthophyllite. Cordierite also occurs in some granites, pegmatites, and norites in gabbroic magmas, alteration products include mica, chlorite, and talc. Cordierite occurs, for example, in the contact zone at Geevor Tin Mine in Cornwall. Catalytic converters are made from ceramics containing a large proportion of synthetic cordierite. The manufacturing process aligns the cordierite crystals to make use of the very low thermal expansion along one axis. This prevents thermal shock cracking from taking place when the catalytic converter is used, as the transparent variety iolite, it is often used as a gemstone. The name iolite comes from the Greek word for violet, another old name is dichroite, a Greek word meaning two-colored rock, a reference to cordierites strong pleochroism. It has also been called water-sapphire and Vikings Compass because of its usefulness in determining the direction of the sun on overcast days and this works by determining the direction of polarization of the sky overhead. Gem quality iolite varies in color from blue to blue violet to yellowish gray to light blue as the light angle changes. Iolite is sometimes used as a substitute for sapphire. It is much softer than sapphires and is found in Australia, Brazil, Burma, Canada, India, Madagascar, Namibia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania. The largest iolite crystal found weighed more than 24,000 carats, another name for blue iolite is steinheilite, after Fabian Steinheil, the Russian military governor of Finland who observed that it was a different mineral from quartz
11.
Mullite
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Mullite or porcelainite is a rare silicate mineral of post-clay genesis. It can form two stoichiometric forms 3Al2O32SiO2 or 2Al2O3 SiO2, unusually, mullite has no charge balancing cations present. As a result, there are three different aluminium sites, two distorted tetrahedral and one octahedral, mullite was first described in 1924 for an occurrence on the Isle of Mull, Scotland. It occurs as argillaceous inclusions in rocks in the Isle of Mull, inclusions in sillimanite within a tonalite at Val Sissone, Italy and with emerylike rocks in Argyllshire. Mullite is present in the form of needles in porcelain and it is produced during various melting and firing processes, and is used as a refractory material, due to its high melting point of 1840°C. The formula for making it was kept a guarded secret. Mullite morphology is also important for its application, in this case, there are two common morphologies for mullite. One is a shape with low aspect ratio and the second is a needle shape with high aspect ratio. The most important condition relates to ceramic chemical composition, if the silica and alumina ratio with low basic materials such as sodium and calcium is adjusted, the needle shape mullite forms at about 1400 °C and the needles will interlock. This mechanical interlocking contributes to the mechanical strength of porcelain. Recent research indicates that a synthetic analogue of mullite can be a replacement for platinum in reducing the amount of pollution generated by diesel engines. Martinón-Torres, Marcos, Thilo Rehren, Ian C, mullite and the mystery of Hessian wares. In Hartmut Schneider and Sridhar Komarneri
12.
Stoke-on-Trent
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Stoke-on-Trent is a city and unitary authority area in Staffordshire, England, with an area of 36 square miles. Together with the boroughs of Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire Moorlands, it is part of North Staffordshire. Stoke is polycentric, having formed by a federation of six towns in the early 20th century. It took its name from Stoke-upon-Trent, where the town hall, Hanley is the primary commercial centre. The four other towns are Burslem, Tunstall, Longton and Fenton, Stoke-on-Trent is the home of the pottery industry in England and is commonly known as the Potteries. Formerly a primarily industrial conurbation, it is now a centre for service industries, the name Stoke is taken from the town of Stoke-upon-Trent, the original ancient parish, with other settlements being chapelries. Stoke derives from the Old English stoc, a word that at first meant little more than place and these variant meanings included dairy farm, secondary or dependent place or farm, summer pasture, crossing place, meeting place and place of worship. It is not known which of these was intended here, because Stoke was such a common name for a settlement, some kind of distinguishing affix was usually added later, in this case the name of the river. The motto of Stoke-on-Trent is Vis Unita Fortior which can be translated as, United Strength is Stronger, or Strength United is the More Powerful and it was not until 1 April 1910 that the Six Towns were brought together. The county borough of Hanley, the boroughs of Burslem, Longton. The combined borough took the town of Stoke. In 1919, the borough proposed to further and annex the neighbouring borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. This never took place, due to objections from Newcastle Corporation. A further attempt was made in 1930, with the promotion of the Stoke-on-Trent Extension Bill, ultimately, Wolstanton was instead added to Newcastle-under-Lyme in 1932. The borough was granted city status in 1925, with a Lord Mayor from 1928. The decision was overturned, however, when an approach was made to King George V. The public announcement of the elevation to city status was made by the King during a visit to Stoke on 4 June 1925, the county borough was abolished in 1974, and Stoke became a non-metropolitan district of Staffordshire. Its status as a unitary authority was restored on 1 April 1997, for Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS3 region
13.
Staffordshire Potteries
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North Staffordshire became a centre of ceramic production in the early 17th century, due to the local availability of clay, salt, lead and coal. Hundreds of companies produced decorative or industrial items, the boom came after the discovery in 1720 by potter John Astbury of Shelton, that by adding heated and ground flint powder to the local reddish clay could create a more palatable white or cream ware. The flint was sourced from either the South Coast of England or France, a group involving James Brindley later patented a process for reducing the fine siliceous dust by using a water based process, thereby reducing the risk to workers of suffering silicosis. In the early 1900s the process converted to grinding bone, which had a similar effect, with the coming of the railway distribution of pottery products from the 1840s, mainly by the London and North Western Railway and Midland Railway, there was a considerable increase in business. The Chartist 1842 General Strike was ignited by striking collieries in the Potteries, Potteries active in the 19th century include Aynsley, Burleigh, Doulton, Dudson, Minton, Moorcroft, Twyford, and Wedgwood. Category, Staffordshire pottery Stoke-on-Trent Built-up Area Gladstone Pottery Museum Bottle oven Trent, the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery
14.
Bottle oven
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A bottle kiln, or bottle oven, is a type of kiln. The word bottle refers to the shape of the structure and not to the kilns products, bottle kilns were typical of the industrial landscape of Stoke-on-Trent, where nearly 50 are preserved as listed buildings. Their association with Stoke-on-Trent reflects the fact that the British ceramic industry was based in that city. Bottle kilns are found in locations, for example Coalport. Bottle kilns were constructed until the mid-twentieth century, after which they were replaced by types of kiln. A bottle oven kiln is protected by an outer hovel which helps to create an updraught, the biscuit kiln was filled with saggars of green flatwares by placers. The doors were bricked up and then the firing began, each firing took 14 tons of coal. Fires were lit in the firemouths and baited every four hours, flames rose up inside the kiln and heat passed between the bungs of saggars. They controlled the temperature of the firing using dampers in the crown, the firing was monitored by Bullers rings placed in the kiln. A kiln would be fired to 1250C, the biscuitwares were glazed and fired again in the bigger glost kilns - again they were placed in saggars, separated by kiln furniture such as stints, saddles and thimbles. The enamel kiln is of a different construction, with external flues, the pots were stacked on seven or eight levels of clay bats. The door is iron lined with brick, the brick walls of the inner kiln are around 12 in thick. Around it are iron straps called bonts, the chamber of the kiln is round with a high domed roof. The floor is slightly domed, with a central well-hole, while around the walls there are a number of brick bags. Directly above the firemouths, inside the kiln, are the bags which provided additional chimneys and distributed the heat from the flames. The height and the diameter of the kiln can vary, and consequently, the kiln is entered through a clammin which was designed to be big enough to let in a placer carrying a saggar. The kilns are enclosed in a brick hovel which can be standing or be part of the workshop. Each pot bank made its own saggars from fire clay, in the saggar makers workshop, clay would be rolled around a wooded form by the saggar maker, while a lad would knock the bottom using a mawl and an iron mould
15.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
16.
Ceramic glaze
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Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or coating of a vitreous substance which has been fused to a ceramic body through firing. Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item, glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the inherent porosity of terracotta, the term we now use for basic unglazed earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface, glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to their functionality, glazes can form a variety of finishes, including degrees of glossy or matte finish. Glazes may also enhance the design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted. Most pottery produced in recent centuries has been glazed, tiles are almost always glazed, and modern architectural terracotta is very often glazed architectural terra-cotta. Domestic sanitary ware is invariably glazed, as are many used in industry. The most important groups of traditional glazes, named after their main ceramic fluxing agent, are, Lead-glazed earthenware, is shiny and transparent after firing, used for about 2,000 years around the Mediterranean, in Europe and China. Tin-glazed pottery, which coats the ware with a white glaze. Known in the Ancient Near East and then important in Islamic pottery, includes faience, maiolica, majolica and Delftware. Ash glaze, important in East Asia, simply made from wood or plant ash, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. Glazes need to include a ceramic flux which functions by promoting partial liquefaction in the clay bodies, fluxes lower the high melting point of the glass formers silica, and sometimes boron trioxide. These glass former may be included in the materials, or may be drawn from the clay beneath. Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include silica, which will be the glass former. Various metal oxides, such as sodium, potassium and calcium, alumina, often derived from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colorants, such as oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate. Most commonly, glazes in aqueous suspension of various powdered minerals, other techniques include pouring the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto the piece with an airbrush or similar tool, or applying it directly with a brush or other tool. Small marks left by these spurs are sometimes visible on finished ware, decoration applied under the glaze on pottery is generally referred to as underglaze
17.
Apprenticeship
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An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
18.
What's My Line?
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Whats My Line. is a panel game show which originally ran in the United States on the CBS Television Network from 1950 to 1967, with several international versions and subsequent U. S. revivals. It is the longest-running U. S. primetime network television game-show, after its cancellation by CBS in 1967, it returned in syndication as a daily production, moderated originally by Wally Bruner and later by Larry Blyden, which ran from 1968 to 1975. There have been international versions, radio versions, and a live stage version. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it #9 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever, produced by Mark Goodson and Bill Todman for CBS Television, the show was initially called Occupation Unknown before deciding on the name Whats My Line. The original series, which was usually broadcast live, debuted on Thursday, February 2,1950 and this was then state-of-the-art technology, and Daly praised it upon his return from Moscow. In such instances, there would often be two shows a day, the one, followed immediately by the live one. The cast and crew began taking Summer breaks from the show in July 1961, the host, then called the moderator, was veteran radio and television newsman John Charles Daly. Clifton Fadiman, Eamonn Andrews, and Random House co-founding publisher, the show featured a panel of four celebrities who questioned the contestants. On the initial program of February 2,1950, the panel was former New Jersey governor Harold Hoffman, columnist Dorothy Kilgallen, poet Louis Untermeyer, and psychiatrist Richard Hoffmann. At various times, a regular panelist might take a vacation or be absent from an episode to due outside commitments, on these occasions, the most frequent guest panelist was Arlene Franciss husband Martin Gabel, who appeared 112 times over the years. Publisher Bennett Cerf replaced Untermeyer as a regular panelist in 1951, Allen left in 1954 to launch The Tonight Show, and he was replaced by comedian Fred Allen, who remained on the panel until his death in 1956. Following Fred Allens death, he was not replaced on a permanent basis, for the majority of the shows network run, between 1956 and 1965, the panel therefore consisted of Kilgallen, Cerf, Francis and a fourth guest panelist. After Kilgallens death in 1965, she was not replaced with a permanent panelist. For the shows final two years, the panel consisted of Cerf, Francis and two guests, Whats My Line. was a guessing game in which the four panelists attempted to determine the occupation of a guest. In the case of the mystery guest each week, the panel sought to determine the identity of the contestant. Panelists were required to probe by asking only yes-no questions, a typical episode featured two standard rounds plus one mystery guest round. On the occasions on which there were two guests, the first would usually appear as the first contestant. For the first few seasons, the contestant would first meet the panel up close, for an inspection
19.
Studio pottery
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Studio pottery is pottery made by professional and amateur artists or artisans working alone or in small groups, making unique items or short runs. Typically, all stages of manufacture are carried out by the artists themselves, Studio pottery includes functional wares such as tableware, cookware and non-functional wares such as sculpture. Studio potters can be referred to as ceramic artists, ceramists, ceramicists or as an artist who uses clay as a medium, much studio pottery is tableware or cookware but an increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. In Britain since the 1980s, there has been a trend away from functional pottery, for example. Some studio potters now prefer to call themselves ceramic artists, ceramists or simply artists, Studio pottery is represented by potters all over the world and has strong roots in Britain. Since the second half of the 20th century ceramics has become highly valued in the art world. Ceramics have realized high prices, reaching thousands of pounds for some pieces, in auctions houses such as Bonhams. Notable studios included Brannam Pottery, Castle Hedingham Ware, Martin Brothers, leading trends in British studio pottery in the 20th century are represented by Bernard Leach, William Staite Murray, Dora Billington, Lucie Rie and Hans Coper. Originally trained as a fine artist, Bernard Leach established a style of pottery, after briefly experimenting with earthenware, he turned to stoneware fired to high temperatures in large oil- or wood-burning kilns. This style dominated British studio pottery in the mid-20th century, leachs influence was disseminated by his writings, in particular A Potters Book and the apprentice system he ran at his pottery in St Ives, Cornwall, through which many notable studio potters passed. A Potters Book espoused an anti-industrial, Arts and Crafts ethos, Leach taught intermittently at Dartington Hall, Devon from the 1930s. Other ceramic artists exerted an influence through their positions in art schools, William Staite Murray, who was head of the ceramics department of the Royal College of Art, treated his pots as works of art, exhibiting them with titles in galleries. Dora Billington studied at Hanley School of Art, worked in the industry and was latterly head of pottery at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. She worked in media that Leach did not, e. g. tin-glazed earthenware, Lucie Rie came to London in 1938 as a refugee from Austria. She had studied at the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule and has been regarded as essentially a modernist, Rie experimented and produced new glaze effects. She was a friend of Leach and was impressed by his approach. The bowls and bottles which she specialised in are finely potted and she taught at Camberwell College of Arts from 1960 until 1972. Hans Coper, also a refugee, worked with Rie before moving to a studio in Hertfordshire and his work is non-functional, sculptural and unglazed
20.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
21.
Oxide
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An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
22.
Terra sigillata
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Usually roughly translated as sealed earth, the meaning of terra sigillata is clay bearing little images, not clay with a sealed surface. The archaeological term is applied, however, to plain-surfaced pots as well as decorated with figures in relief. Terra sigillata as a term refers chiefly to a specific type of plain and decorated tableware made in Italy. The sigillata industries grew up in areas where there were existing traditions of pottery manufacture, the products of the Italian workshops are also known as Aretine ware from Arezzo and have been collected and admired since the Renaissance. The wares made in the Gaulish factories are referred to by English-speaking archaeologists as samian ware. All these types of pottery are significant for archaeologists, they can often be closely dated, modern Terra sig should be clearly distinguished from the close reproductions of Roman wares made by some potters deliberately recreating and using the Roman methods. The finish called terra sigillata by studio potters can be made from most clay, mixed as a thin liquid slip. When applied to unfired clay surfaces, terra sig can be polished with a cloth or brush to achieve a shine ranging from a smooth silky lustre to a high gloss. The surface of ancient terra sigillata vessels did not require this burnishing or polishing, burnishing was a technique used on some wares in the Roman period, but terra sigillata was not one of them. The polished surface can only be retained if fired within the range and will lose its shine if fired higher. The oldest use for the terra sigillata was for a medicinal clay from the island of Lemnos. The latter was called sealed because cakes of it were pressed together, later, it bore the seal of the Ottoman sultan. He promoted it as a panacea effective against every type of poison and several diseases, berthold invited authorities to test it themselves. In 1581, a prince tested the antidote on a condemned criminal and these high-quality tablewares were particularly popular and widespread in the Western Roman Empire from about 50 BC to the early 3rd century AD. Not all red-gloss ware was decorated, and hence the more inclusive term Samian ware is sometimes used to all varieties of it. However, samian ware is normally used only to refer to the sub-class of terra sigillata made in ancient Gaul, in European languages other than English, terra sigillata, or a translation, is always used for both Italian and Gaulish products. Italian and Gaulish TS vessels were made in standardised shapes constituting services of matching dishes, bowls and these reference sometimes make it possible to date the manufacture of a broken decorated sherd to within 20 years or less. The mould was therefore decorated on its surface with a full decorative design of impressed
23.
Combustion
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Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced, a simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. The bond energies in the play only a minor role, since they are similar to those in the combustion products. The heat of combustion is approximately -418 kJ per mole of O2 used up in the combustion reaction, uncatalyzed combustion in air requires fairly high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric with respect to the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. Thus, the smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Since combustion is rarely clean, flue gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law, fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. Combustion is also currently the only used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous, oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat, although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process. In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, producing a number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides, carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur, NOx species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F, and more is produced at higher temperatures
24.
Sawdust
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Sawdust or wood dust is a by-product of cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding, or otherwise pulverizing wood or any other material with a saw or other tool, it is composed of fine particles of wood. It is also the byproduct of certain animals, birds and insects live in wood. It can present a hazard in manufacturing industries, especially in terms of its flammability, sawdust is the main component of particleboard. A major use of sawdust is for particleboard, coarse sawdust may be used for wood pulp, sawdust has a variety of other practical uses, including serving as a mulch, as an alternative to clay cat litter, or as a fuel. Until the advent of refrigeration, it was used in icehouses to keep ice frozen during the summer. It has been used in displays, and as scatter in miniature railroad. It is also used to soak up liquid spills, allowing the spill to be easily collected or swept aside. As such, it was common on barroom floors. It is used to make Cutlers resin, mixed with water and frozen, it forms pykrete, a slow-melting, much stronger form of ice. Sawdust is used in the manufacture of charcoal briquettes, the claim for invention of the first commercial charcoal briquettes goes to Henry Ford who created them from the wood scraps and sawdust produced by his automobile factory. Cellulose, fibre starch that is indigestible to humans, and a filler in some low calorie foods, can be and is made from sawdust, sawdust-derived cellulose has also been used as a filler in bread. Airborne sawdust and sawdust accumulations present a number of health and safety hazards, wood dust becomes a potential health problem when, for example, the wood particles, from processes such as sanding, become airborne and are inhaled. Wood dust is a human carcinogen. Certain woods and their dust contain toxins that can produce allergic reactions. Water-borne bacteria digest organic material in leachate, but use up much of the available oxygen and this high biological oxygen demand can suffocate fish and other organisms. People can be exposed to wood dust in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the legal limit for wood dust exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. Sawdust is flammable and accumulations provide a source of fuel
25.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
26.
Stoneware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
James C. Watkins
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James C. Watkins born in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1951 and raised in a farming family in Athens, Alabama. He is a ceramic artist living in Lubbock, Texas and is known for his large scale double-walled ceramic vessels and he is recognized for his textured surfaces, created by using alternative firing techniques. His porcelain substrate tiles are fumed with stannous chloride and multi-fired using ferric chloride, gold, Watkins work is included in the permanent collections of major museums, including the Shigaraki Ceramic Cultural Park in Shigaraki, Japan and the Eiteljorg Museum of Art, in Indianapolis, Indiana. Watkins is a Paul Whitfield Horn Professor in the College of Architecture at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas where he teaches Architectural Ceramics, the Horn Professorship is the highest honor that Texas Tech University bestows on members of its faculty. Watkins uses his experience of growing up in the south during the 1950s and 60s as a source of inspiration for his signature work. His mother and father were farmers, Watkins is the oldest of six children - three boys and three girls. He grew up in a time when large cast-iron pots were used as an essential farming utensil. His mother made soap, hominy and souse in the large black cast-iron pots, Watkins creates large double-walled ceramics forms that are inspired by the memory of helping his mother keep the fire burning hot around the cast-iron pots. Watkins has been honored for his contributions to the arts and teaching,1990 The Presidents Excellence in Teaching Award, Texas Tech University. 2005 Senior Fulbright Scholar Fellowship, Vietnam,2013 William D. Kerns Award for the Visual Arts. 2016 Art on the Llano Estacado Legacy Award, Watkins, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,2000,168 pages ISBN 0-7872-6231-5 Architectural Delineation Presentation Techniques and Projects 2nd ed. James T. Davis, James C. Watkins, Kendall Hunt Publishing Company,2001,168 pages ISBN 0-7872-8850-0 Find this book Alternative Kilns & Firing Techniques, James C. Watkins, Paul Andrew Wandless, Publish by Lark Books, a division of Sterling Publishing Company,2004,127 pages ISBN 1-57990-4556 1-57990-952-3 Find this book Niedrigbrand, James C. Watkins, Paul Andrew Wandless, Publish by Lark Books, a division of Sterling Publishing Company,2005,127 pages ISBN 3-936489-11-4 Find this book A Meditation of Fire The Art of James C. Watkins, by Kippra D. Hopper, Publish by Texas Tech University Press,1999,136 pages ISBN 0-89672-419-0 Find this book Blog with selections of James Watkins works American Ceramics, the Studio Potter, James Watkins, Remembrance, Summer/Fall Issue 1996
29.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
30.
Feldspar
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Feldspars are a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 40% of the Earths continental crust. Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in both intrusive and extrusive rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in types of sedimentary rocks. The name feldspar derives from the German Feldspat, a compound of the words Feld, field, and Spat, the change from Spat to -spar was influenced by the English word spar, a synonym for mineral. Feldspathic refers to materials that contain feldspar, the alternate spelling, felspar, has largely fallen out of use. This group of minerals consists of tectosilicates, solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called plagioclase, or more properly plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar, the alkali feldspars are as follows, orthoclase —KAlSi3O8 sanidine —AlSi3O8 microcline —KAlSi3O8 anorthoclase —AlSi3O8 Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye, microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope. Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars, barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for potassium in the mineral structure. The barium feldspars are monoclinic and include the following, celsian—BaAl2Si2O8 hyalophane—4O8 The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic, the immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colours visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae, chemical weathering of feldspars results in the formation of clay minerals. About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries, Italy, Turkey, and China, Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, in ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at a stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of the system together. In the US, about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers, ceramics and other uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder
31.
Frit
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A frit is a ceramic composition that has been fused in a special fusing oven, quenched to form a glass, and granulated. However, not all glass that is fused and quenched in water is frit, according to the OED, the origin of the word frit dates back to 1662 and is a calcinated mixture of sand and fluxes ready to be melted in a crucible to make glass. Nowadays, the raw materials of glass making are more commonly called glass batch. In antiquity, frit could be crushed to make pigments or shaped to create objects and it may also have served as an intermediate material in the manufacture of raw glass. The definition of frit tends to be variable and has proved an issue for scholars. In recent centuries, frits have taken on a number of roles, such as biomaterials, frit in the form of alumino-silicate can be used in glaze-free continuous casting refractories. Archaeologists have found evidence of frit in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Europe, the definition of frit as a sintered, polycrystalline, unglazed material can be applied to these archaeological contexts. It is typically colored blue or green, Blue frit, also known as Egyptian blue, was made from quartz, lime, a copper compound, and an alkali flux, all heated to a temperature between 850 and 1000°C. Quartz sand may have used to contribute silica to the frit. The copper content must be greater than the content in order to create a blue frit. Ultimately the frit consists of crystals and “partially reacted quartz particles bonded together” by interstitial glass. Despite an argument to the contrary, scientists have found that, regardless of alkali content, high alkali content will yield “a large proportion of glass, ” thereby diluting the cuprorivaite crystals and producing lighter shades of blue. Regrinding and resintering the frit will create finer cuprorivaite crystals, also producing lighter shades, the earliest appearance of blue frit is as a pigment on a tomb painting at Saqqara dated to 2900 BC, though its use became more popular in Egypt around 2600 BC. Blue frit has also uncovered in the royal tombs at Ur from the Early Dynastic III period. Its use in the Mediterranean dates to the Thera frescoes from the Late Middle Bronze Age, while the glass phase is present in blue frits from Egypt, scientists have not detected it in blue frits from the Near East, Europe, and the Aegean. Natural weathering, which is responsible for the corrosion of glasses and glazes from these three regions, is the likely reason for this absence. At Amarna, archaeologists have found blue frit in the form of cakes, powder residues. Analysis of the microstructures and crystal sizes of these frits has allowed Hatton, Shortland, the cakes were produced by heating the raw materials for frit, then they were ground to make powders, and finally, the powders were molded and refired to create vessels
32.
Kaolinite
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Kaolinite /ˈkeɪəlᵻˌnaɪt/ is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O54. It is a silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlᵻn/ or china clay, the name kaolin is derived from Gaoling, a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern Chinas Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word, kaolin, kaolinite has a low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity. It is a soft, earthy, usually white, mineral, in many parts of the world it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow, or light orange colors, alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, United States. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, kaolinite group clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. Below 100 °C, exposure to dry air will slowly remove liquid water from the kaolin, the end-state for this transformation is referred to as leather dry. Between 100 °C and about 550 °C, any remaining water is expelled from kaolinite. The end state for this transformation is referred to as bone dry, throughout this temperature range, the expulsion of water is reversible, if the kaolin is exposed to liquid water, it will be reabsorbed and disintegrate into its fine particulate form. Subsequent transformations are not reversible, and represent permanent chemical changes, endothermic dehydration of kaolinite begins at 550–600 °C producing disordered metakaolin, but continuous hydroxyl loss is observed up to 900 °C. Al2Si2O54 → Al2Si2O7 +2 H2O, further heating to 925–950 °C converts metakaolin to an aluminium-silicon spinel which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure,2 Al2Si2O7 → Si3Al4O12 + SiO2. Upon calcination above 1050 °C, the spinel phase nucleates and transforms to platelet mullite, finally, at 1400 °C the needle form of mullite appears, offering substantial increases in structural strength and heat resistance. This is a structural but not chemical transformation, see stoneware for more information on this form. Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the weathering of rocks in hot. Such climatically-related differences in mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past. In the Institut National pour lEtude Agronomique au Congo Belge classification system, in the US the main kaolin deposits are found in central Georgia, on a stretch of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line between Augusta and Macon. The deposits were formed between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, about 100 million to 45 million years ago, in sediments derived from weathered igneous, Kaolin production in the US during 2011 was 5.5 million tonnes
33.
Slip (ceramics)
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A slip is a liquid mixture or slurry of clay and/or other materials suspended in water. It has many uses in the production of pottery, and other ceramics ware, in pottery the two most important uses of slip are, firstly, to create the basic shape by slipcasting with moulds, and secondly, to decorate the pottery, which is discussed below. Engobe, from the French word for slip, is in English an American term for similar to a slip. Some American sources say it is synonymous with slip, and use it in preference to slip, while others draw distinctions, mainly in terms of engobe using materials other than clay. On one definition engobe, as compared to slip, has somewhat lower clay content, higher proportion of flux, and added filler and it is mostly used in relation to contemporary pottery, but sometimes for slip in historical contexts. Slipware is pottery decorated by slip placed onto a wet or leather-hard clay body surface by dipping, painting or splashing, decorative slips may be a different colour than the underlying clay body or offer other decorative qualities. Selectively applying layers of colored slips can create the effect of a painted ceramic, slip decoration is an ancient technique in Chinese pottery also, used to cover whole vessels over 4,000 years ago. Chinese pottery also used techniques where patterns, images or calligraphy were created as part-dried slip was cut away to reveal a lower layer of slip or the clay body in a contrasting colour. The latter of these is called the cut-glaze technique, slipware may be carved or burnished to change the surface appearance of the ware. Specialized slip recipes may be applied to biscuit ware and then refired, a slip may be made for various other purposes in the production and decoration of ceramics. Slip can be used, As a means of mixing the constituents of a clay body, to join sections of unfired ware or greenware, such as handles and spouts. To fix into place pieces of relief decoration produced separately, for example by moulding and this technique is known as sprigging, an example is Jasperware. An additive with deflocculant properties, such as silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that shrinkage is minimised. Usually the mixing of slip is undertaken in a blunger although it can be using other types of mixers or even by hand. Chinese Pottery and Porcelain,1991, British Museum Press,9780714114705
34.
Ash glaze
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Ash glazes are ceramic glazes made from the ash of various kinds of wood or straw. They have historically been important in East Asia, especially Chinese pottery, Korean pottery, many traditionalist East Asian potteries still use ash glazing, and it has seen a large revival in studio pottery in the West and East. Some potters like to achieve random effects by setting up the kiln so that ash created during firing falls onto the pots, otherwise the ash is mixed with water, and often clay, and applied as a paste. Ash glazing began around 1500 BC, in China during the Shang Dynasty, around 1000 BC, the Chinese apparently realized that the ash covering the pieces was causing the glaze so they started adding the ash as a glaze before the pot went into the kiln. Ash glaze was the first glaze used in East Asia, and contained only ash, clay, the ceramic flux in ash glazes is calcium oxide, commonly known as quicklime, and ash glazes are part of the lime glaze family, not all of which use ash. In some ash glazes extra lime was added to the ash, a relatively high temperature of around 1170 °C is required, high enough to make the body into stoneware or porcelain. The glaze has glasslike and pooling characteristics which puts emphasis on the texture of the piece being glazed. When the glaze is made up of wood ash, the final result is mostly dark brown to green. The pots with these glazes resemble the earth in color and texture, rice-straw ash glaze produces an opaque creamy-white glaze, it is high in silica. If the ash is very thick, there may be sufficient phosphorus to give an opalescent blue, natural ash glaze from ash falling in the kiln tends to collect thickly on the shoulders of typical shapes of storage jar, and begin to drip down the walls of the vessel. This effect might be aided by tying plaits of straw around the shoulders before placing in the kiln, to create the ash, the material needs to burn completely in a kiln. Wood-ash is around 1% the mass of the wood, though some kinds of straw leave ash at a much higher percentage of the original weight. Therefore, a lot of wood or straw is necessary to produce the ash, the ash is then put through a sieve to eliminate the excess clumps from the ash. At this point artists can process the ash further to create a uniform mixture or leave it unprocessed so there are more random final results. To process the ash, water is first added to the mixture, the solution is drained and dried and the result is ash containing less harmful chemicals like some soluble alkalis. A wide range of plants have been used, and their chemical compositions can give very different effects. Wood ash is made up of calcium carbonate, which is used in many glaze recipes. The ash also contains carbonate, phosphates, and other metals, however, the ratio of these chemicals depend on the location, soil
35.
Lead-glazed earthenware
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Lead-glazed earthenware is one of the traditional types of glazed earthenware, which coat the ceramic body and render it impervious to liquids, as terracotta itself is not. The lead glaze is shiny and transparent after firing, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. In lead glazes tints provided by impurities render greenish to brownish casts, the Romans used lead glazes for high-quality oil lamps and drinking cups. Lead oxide was the principal flux in the glaze, polychrome effects were obtained by using as coloring agents copper, iron, much of Roman technology was lost in the West, but coarse lead-glazed earthenwares were universal in medieval Europe and in Colonial America. In England, lead-glazed Stamford Ware was produced in Stamford, Lincolnshire as early as the ninth century and it was widely traded across Britain and the near continent. In 16th-century France Bernard Palissy refined lead-glazed earthenware to a high standard, lead-glazed earthenwares in Britain include the Toby jugs, such as those made in the late 18th century by Ralph Wood the Younger at Burslem, Staffordshire
36.
Tin-glazed pottery
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Tin-glazed pottery is earthenware covered in glaze containing tin oxide which is white, shiny and opaque, usually this provides a background for brightly-painted decoration. It has been important in Islamic and European pottery, but very little used in East Asia, the pottery body is usually made of red or buff colored earthenware and the white glaze imitated Chinese porcelain. The makers of Italian tin-glazed pottery from the late Renaissance blended oxides to produce detailed, from there it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century and England, France and other European countries shortly after. The rise in the cost of tin oxide during the First World War led to its substitution by zirconium compounds in the glaze. Tin-glazed pottery of different periods and styles is known by different names, the pottery from Muslim Spain is known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The decorated tin-glaze of Renaissance Italy is called maiolica, sometimes pronounced majolica by English speakers, when the technique was taken up in the Netherlands it became known as delftware as much of it was made in the town of Delft. Dutch potters brought it to England in around 1600 and wares produced there are known as English delftware or galleyware, in France it was known as faience. During the Renaissance, the term maiolica was adopted for Italian-made luster pottery copying Spanish examples, in the late 18th century, old Italian maiolica became popular among the British, who referred to it by the anglicized pronunciation majolica. The Minton pottery copied it and applied the term majolica ware to their product, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Minton launched the colorful lead-glazed earthenware which they called Palissy ware soon also to become known as majolica. So now we have two distinct products with the same name, for the article about 19th century lead-glazed earthenware, see Victorian majolica W. B. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the Moors introduced tin-glazed pottery to Spain after the conquest of 711. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed pottery came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, although the Moors were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century, the Hispano-Moresque style survived in the province of Valencia. Later wares usually have a coarse reddish-buff body, dark blue decoration, such archaic wares are sometimes dubbed proto-maiolica. During the later 14th century, the palette of colors was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to embrace cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide slip was decoratively scratched to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenware made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later 13th century. The city itself declined in importance in the half of the 15th century. Italian cities encouraged the start of a new industry by offering tax relief, citizenship, monopoly rights
37.
Salt glaze pottery
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Sodium from the salt reacts with silica in the clay body to form a glassy coating of sodium silicate. The glaze may be colourless or may be coloured various shades of brown, blue, the earliest known production of salt glazed stoneware was in the Rhineland of Germany around 1400. Initially, the process was used on earthenware, by the 15th century, small pottery towns of the Westerwald, including Höhr-Grenzhausen, Siegberg, Köln, and Raeren in Flanders, were producing a salt-glazed stoneware. In the 17th century, salt glaze gained popularity in England as well as in Colonial America, Westerwald Pottery was characterized by stamped medallions and the use of a cobalt oxide based colorant for decoration. Production of salt glaze pottery in Westerwald ceased because of environmental considerations in 1983, in the UK during the 17th century and 18th century high quality salt-glazed stoneware was produced in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, London and Staffordshire. Salt glazed pottery was popular in North America from the early 17th century until the early 19th century. Whilst its manufacturer in America increased from the earliest dated production, the earliest known production of salt glaze pottery in Australia has been dated to 1850-1883. During the 20th century the technique was promoted for studio pottery use by Bernard Leach, in the 1950s it was introduced into Japanese craft pottery through Leachs association with Shoji Hamada. Don Reitz introduced salt glazing into the curriculum at Alfred University, New York in 1959, due to the significant amount of air pollution resulting from the process environmental clean air restrictions led to the demise of widespread use of salt glazing. Experiments in stoneware production began in England during the part of the 17th century. The earliest evidence has been dated 1650–1700 at the site of a kiln at Woolwich Ferry, the similarity of the ware to German products of a similar era has led it to be attributed to immigrant potters. A significant English manufacturer of salt glaze pottery was John Dwight at the Fulham Pottery, the company was founded in 1815 when John Doulton formed a partnership with the owner, Martha Jones and foreman, John Watts, of an existing pottery in Lambeth. Initially the factory specialised in utilitarian salt glazed stoneware, similar to that produced by the Fulham factories, during the 1830s and 1840s considerable amounts of salt-glazed sewer-pipes were produced by Doultons following Sir Edwin Chadwicks advocacy of improved sanitary conditions. Doultons were also one of the earliest manufacturers of electrical insulators, initially using salt glaze stoneware, also, from about 1830 they started production of salt glaze stoneware vessels, which were valued for their acid resistance, for the emerging chemical industries. From the 1850s Doulton & Co and their salt glaze decorative products became known as Doulton Ware. By 1890 their decorative stoneware were so successful that 350 designers and artists were employed at the Lambeth factory, doulton’s Lambeth factory closed in 1956, due largely to new clean air regulations that prohibited the production of salt glaze in the urban environment. Production, but not of salt glazing, was transferred to their factory in Burslem which had established in 1877. Several other stoneware potteries also operated in Lambeth between the mid-18th & 19th centuries, including James Stiff and Sons and Stephen Greens Imperial pottery, the former having started his pottery career at Doulton in 1830, before opening his own factory in 1843
38.
Lusterware
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The first use of lustre decoration was as painting on glass. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD, Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century, the technique later became popular in Persia and Syria. The reminiscence of shining metal, especially gold, made especially attractive. Lusterware was produced in quantity in Egypt during the Fatimid dynasty in the 10th-12th centuries, while the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe through Al-Andalus. Málaga was the first centre of Hispano-Moresque ware, before it developed in the region of Valencia, and then to Italy, in the 16th century lustred maiolica was a specialty of Gubbio, noted for a rich ruby red, and at Deruta. Unlike other Persian wares of the period, these use traditional Middle Eastern shapes and decoration rather than Chinese-inspired ones, designs featured plant forms and animals, and generally flowed freely over the whole surface, typically taking up over half the surface area. Production, which was never large, appears to have mostly been from about 1650-1750 and it is often thought to have been centred in Kirman, though firm evidence is lacking. Metallic lustre of another sort produced English lustreware, which imparts to a piece of pottery the appearance of an object of silver, gold or copper. Very dilute amounts of powdered gold or platinum were dissolved in aqua regia and added to spirits of tar for platinum, the mixture was applied to the glazed ware and fired in an enameling kiln, depositing a thin film of platinum or gold. Platinum produced the appearance of silver, and was employed for the middle class in shapes identical to those uses for silver tea services. Depending on the concentration of gold in the compound and the under slip on which it was applied. The gold lustre could be painted or stenciled on the ware, or it could be applied in the resist technique, in which the background was solidly lustred, in 1810 Peter Warburton of New Hall patented a method of transfer-printing in gold and silver lustre. Wedgwoods lusterware made in the 1820s spawned the production of quantities of copper and silver lustreware in England. Raised, multicolored patterns depicting pastoral scenes were created. Pitchers were produced in a range of sizes from cream pitchers to large milk pitchers, tea sets came a bit later, usually featuring creamers, sugar bowls, and slop bowls. Large pitchers with transfer printed commemorative scenes appear to have arrived around the middle of the 19th century and these were purely decorative and today command high prices because of their historical connections. Delicate lustre imitating mother-of-pearl was produced by Wedgwood and at Belleek in the mid-century, under the impetus of the Aesthetic Movement, William de Morgan revived lustrewares in a manner drawing from lustred majolica and Hispano-Moresque wares, with fine, bold designs. In the United States, copper lusterware became popular because of its lustrousness, apparently, as gaslights became available to the rich, the fad was to place groupings of lusterware on mirror platforms to be used as centerpieces for dinner parties
39.
Earthenware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
40.
Terracotta
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Terracotta, terra cotta or terra-cotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. The term is used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta. This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Glazed architectural terracotta and its version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. In archaeology and art history, terracotta is used to describe objects such as figurines not made on a potters wheel. An appropriate refined clay is formed to the desired shape, after drying it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C, though it may be as low as 600 °C in historic and archaeological examples. In some contexts, such as Roman figurines, white-colored terracotta is known as pipeclay, as such clays were later preferred for tobacco pipes, fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water, for garden pots or building decoration in many environments, most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, painted terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was rarely left in its raw fired state in the West until the 18th century. Terracotta/earthenware was the known type of ceramic produced by Western and pre-Columbian people until the 14th century. Terracotta has been used throughout history for sculpture and pottery as well as for bricks, in ancient times, the first clay sculptures were dried in the sun after being formed. They were later placed in the ashes of open hearths to harden, however, only after firing to high temperature would it be classed as a ceramic material. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult and a belief in a mother goddess. The Burney Relief is a terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta
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Fritware
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Fritware, also known as stone-paste, is a type of pottery in which frit is added to clay to reduce its fusion temperature. The formula may include quartz or other siliceous material, an organic compound such as gum or glue may be added for binding. The resulting mixture can be fired at a lower temperature than clay alone, a glaze is then applied on the surface to harden the object. The manufacture of fritware began in Iraq in the 9th century, between the 10th and the 12th centuries the main centre of manufacture moved to Egypt, but the technique then spread throughout the Middle-East. Fritware was invented to give a white body, which, combined with tin-glazing of the surface. True porcelain was not manufactured in the Islamic world until modern times, Frit was also a significant component in some early European porcelains. In the 13th century the town of Kashan in Iran was an important centre for the production of fritware, abūl-Qāsim, who came from a family of tilemakers in the city, wrote a treatise in 1301 on precious stones that included a chapter on the manufacture of fritware. His recipe specified a fritware body containing a mixture of 10 parts silica to 1 part glass frit and 1 part clay, the frit was prepared by mixing powdered quartz with soda which acted as a flux. The mixture was heated in a kiln. This type of pottery has also referred to as stonepaste. A ninth-century corpus of proto-stonepaste from Baghdad has relict glass fragments in its fabric, the glass is alkali-lime-lead-silica and, when the paste was fired or cooled, wollastonite and diopside crystals formed within the glass fragments. The lack of inclusions of crushed pottery suggests these fragments did not come from a glaze, Iznik pottery was produced in Ottoman Turkey beginning in the last quarter of 15th century AD. It consists of a body, slip, and glaze, where the body, the frits in both cases are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda, the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic. Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled frit is interstitial glass which serves to connect the quartz particles, the glass was added as frit and that the interstitial glass formed on firing. Egyptian faience Chinese influences on Islamic pottery Allan, J. W. Abūl-Qāsims treatise on ceramics, Iran,11, 111–120, atasoy, Nurhan, Raby, Julian, Iznik, The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey, London, Alexandra Press, ISBN 978-1-85669-054-6. The beginnings of Islamic stonepaste technology, Archaeometry,36, 77–91, Iznik pottery, an investigation of the methods of production, Archaeometry,31, 115–132, doi,10. 1111/j. 1475-4754.1989. tb01008. x. The petrology of Syrian stonepaste ceramics, the view from Aleppo, the technological development of stonepaste ceramics from the Islamic Middle East. History of World Ceramics Technology of Frit Making in Iznik, okyar F. Euro Ceramics VIII, Part 3
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Egyptian faience
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Egyptian faience is a sintered-quartz ceramic displaying surface vitrification which creates a bright lustre of various colours, with blue-green being the most common. Notably, faience is considerably more porous than glass proper and can be cast in molds to create vessels or objects, Egyptian faience was very widely used for small objects from beads to small statues, and is found in both elite and popular contexts. It was the most common material for scarabs and other forms of amulet and shabti figures, larger applications included cups and bowls, and wall tiles, mostly used for temples. 9-centimetre faience sceptre from Egypt dated 1427–1400 BC. It is called Egyptian faience to distinguish it from faience, the tin-glazed pottery associated with Faenza in northern Italy, the term is therefore unsatisfactory in several respects, although clear in an Ancient Egyptian context, and is increasingly rejected in museum and archaeological usage. The bodies are usually colourless but natural impurities give them a brown or greyish tint, colourants can also be added to give it an artificial colour. It can be modelled by hand, thrown or moulded, and this material is used in the context of Islamic ceramics where it is described as stonepaste. Glazed composition is related to glass, but glass is formed by fusing the ingredients in a liquid melted at high temperature. This material is also popularly called faience in the contexts of Ancient Egypt, however, this is a misnomer as these objects have no relationship to the glazed pottery vessels made in Faenza, from which the faience term derives. From the inception of faience in the record of Ancient Egypt. Glazed in these colours, faience was perceived as substitute for blue-green materials such as turquoise, found in the Sinai peninsula, and lapis lazuli, from Afghanistan. As early as the Predynastic graves at Naqada, Badar, el-Amrah, Matmar, Harageh, Avadiyedh and El-Gerzeh, glazed steatite and faience beads are found associated with these semi-precious stones. The symbolism embedded in blue glazing could recall both the Nile, the waters of heaven and the home of the gods, whereas green could possibly evoke images of regeneration, rebirth and vegetation. Such close relationship is reflected in the prominent similarity of the formulations of faience glaze, Faience has been defined as the first high technology ceramic, to emphasize its status as an artificial medium, rendering it effectively a precious stone. Plant ash, from halophyte plants typical of dry and sea areas, was the source of alkali until the Ptolemaic Period. Typical faience mixture is thixotropic, that is thick at first and then soft and this property, together with the angularity of silica particles, accounts for the gritty slumps formed when the material is wetted, rendering faience a difficult material to hold a shape. If pressed too vigorously, this material will resist flow until it yields and cracks, due to its limited plastic deformation and low yield strength. A number of possible binding agents, amongst Arabic gum, clay, lime, egg white, the use of alkalis as binders, in the form of natron or plant ash, produced suitable results in experiments. Three methods have been hypothesized to shape the body of faience objects, modeling, moulding and abrasion, modeling, scraping and grinding are the techniques most widely used in earlier times, as represented in the material qualities of Predynastic and Protodynastic faience objects
