1.
Skull
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The skull is a bony structure that forms the head of the skeleton in most vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and provides a cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts, the cranium and the mandible, in the human these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium or facial skeleton that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation—housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, in the human these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton. In some animals such as horned ungulates, the skull also has a function by providing the mount for the horns. The English word skull is probably derived from Old Norse skulle, while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον, the skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina and processes, and several cavities or sinuses. For details and the constituent bones, see neurocranium and viscerocranium, the human skull is the bony structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain, like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury. The skull consists of two parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium and the facial skeleton, the neurocranium forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The facial skeleton is formed by the supporting the face. Except for the mandible, all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures—synarthrodial joints formed by bony ossification, sometimes there can be extra bone pieces within the suture known as wormian bones or sutural bones. The human skull is considered to consist of twenty-two bones—eight cranial bones. In the neurocranium these are the bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, the sphenoid, ethmoid and frontal bones. The bones of the skeleton are the vomer, two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla, the mandible, two palatine bones, two zygomatic bones, and two lacrimal bones. Some of these bones—the occipital, parietal, frontal, in the neurocranium, and the nasal, lacrimal, the skull also contains sinus cavities and numerous foramina. The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelium and their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn through the nasal cavity. The foramina are openings in the skull, the largest of these is the foramen magnum that allows the passage of the spinal cord as well as nerves and blood vessels. The many processes of the include the mastoid process and the zygomatic process
2.
Leonardo da Vinci
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He has been variously called the father of palaeontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter and tank, many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the Universal Genius or Renaissance Man, an individual of unquenchable curiosity and feverishly inventive imagination. Much of his working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France, Leonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait, Leonardos drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived, Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated power, an adding machine. Some of his inventions, however, such as an automated bobbin winder. A number of Leonardos most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, geology, optics, and hydrodynamics, today, Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived. Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 at the hour of the night in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci. He was the son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – da Vinci simply meaning of Vinci, his birth name was Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci, meaning Leonardo. The inclusion of the title ser indicated that Leonardos father was a gentleman, little is known about Leonardos early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother and his father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children. When Leonardo was sixteen, his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, pieros legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo and his fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani. Leonardo received an education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents, one, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face
3.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
4.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
5.
Median plane
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The term parasagittal plane is used to refer to any plane parallel to the sagittal and median plane. It is one of the used to define the right upper quadrant of the human abdomen. The midsternal line can be interpreted as a segment of the median plane
6.
Irish dance
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Irish dancing or Irish dance is a group of traditional dance forms originating in Ireland which can broadly be divided into social dances and performance dances. Irish social dancing can be divided further into céilí and set dancing, Irish set dances are quadrilles, danced by four couples arranged in a square, while céilí dances are danced by varied formations of two to sixteen people. In addition to their formation, there are significant stylistic differences between two forms of social dance. Irish step dancing, popularised in 1994 by the world-famous show Riverdance, is notable for its rapid leg and foot movements, body and arms being kept largely stationary. The solo stepdance is generally characterised by a controlled and rigid body, straight arms and back. The solo dances can either be in soft shoes or hard shoes, soft shoes are often called ghillies or pumps. They are constructed of very soft kid leather - similar to ballet shoes in texture and their laces crisscross across the top of the feet and are tied up either around the ankle or under the arch of the foot. Hard shoes are called heavy shoes or jig shoes. They are used to create the beautiful rhythmical percussions and they are made of black leather with fibreglass heels and taps on the tips of the shoes with a leather strap across the top of the foot. The dancing traditions of Ireland probably grew in association with traditional Irish music. Although its origins are unclear, Irish dancing was later influenced by dance forms from the Continent, travelling dancing masters taught all over Ireland, as late as the 18th and early 19th centuries. During this time, places for competitions and feis were always small and they had to dance on tabletops, sometimes even the top of a barrel. Because of this, the styles were very contained, with hands rigid at the sides. As time went on, larger places for competitions and performances were found, so styles grew to include more movement, more dancing across the stage as seen, for example. Irish social, or céilí /ˈkeɪli/ dances vary widely throughout Ireland, a céilí dance may be performed with as few as two people and as many as sixteen. Céilí dances may also be danced with an number of couples in a long line or proceeding around in a circle. Céilí dances are often fast and some are quite complex, in a social setting, a céilí dance may be called – that is, the upcoming steps are announced during the dance for the benefit of newcomers. The céilí dances are danced to Irish instruments such as the Irish bodhrán or fiddle in addition to the concertina, guitar
7.
Symmetry in biology
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Symmetry in biology is the balanced distribution of duplicate body parts or shapes within the body of an organism. In nature and biology, symmetry is always approximate, for example plant leaves, while considered symmetrical, symmetry creates a class of patterns in nature, where the near-repetition of the pattern element is by reflection or rotation. The body plans of most multicellular organisms exhibit some form of symmetry, whether radial, bilateral, a small minority, notably among the sponges, exhibit no symmetry. Radially symmetric organisms resemble a pie where several cutting planes produce roughly identical pieces, such an organism exhibits no left or right sides. They have a top and a surface only. Most radially symmetric animals are symmetrical about an axis extending from the center of the oral surface, radial symmetry is especially suitable for sessile animals such as the sea anemone, floating animals such as jellyfish, and slow moving organisms such as starfish. Animals in the phyla cnidaria and echinodermata are radially symmetric, although many sea anemones and some corals have bilateral symmetry defined by a single structure, many flowers are radially symmetric or actinomorphic. Roughly identical flower parts – petals, sepals, and stamens occur at intervals around the axis of the flower. Many viruses have radial symmetries, their coats being composed of a small number of protein molecules arranged in a regular pattern to form polyhedrons, spheres. Tetramerism is a variant of radial symmetry found in jellyfish, which have four canals in an otherwise radial body plan, pentamerism, another variant of radial symmetry, means the organism is in five parts around a central axis, 72° apart. Among animals, only the echinoderms such as sea stars, sea urchins, being bilaterian animals, however, they initially develop with mirror symmetry as larvae, then gain pentaradial symmetry later. Flowering plants show fivefold symmetry in many flowers and in various fruits and this is well seen in the arrangement of the five carpels in an apple cut transversely. Hexamerism is found in the corals and sea anemones which are divided into two based on their symmetry. The most common corals in the subclass Hexacorallia have a body plan, their polyps have sixfold internal symmetry. Octamerism is found in corals of the subclass Octocorallia and these have polyps with eight tentacles and octameric radial symmetry. The octopus, however, has symmetry, despite its eight arms. Spherical symmetry occurs in an if it is able to be cut into two identical halves through any cut that runs through the organisms center. Organisms which show approximate spherical symmetry include the green alga Volvox
8.
Vertebral column
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The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses, there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples, the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. There are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, the vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine, vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines are independent bones, the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests, a typical vertebra consists of two parts, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person, together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused. Two transverse processes and one process are posterior to the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. Above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints and these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes
9.
Quadrant (abdomen)
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The abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity, in arthropods it is the posterior tagma of the body, it follows the thorax or cephalothorax. The abdomen stretches from the thorax at the diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim stretches from the joint to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity, the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the organs of the digestive tract. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the intestine. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the function in close association with the digestive tract. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen, along with blood vessels including the aorta. Anatomists may consider the urinary bladder, uterus, fallopian tubes, finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the type of organs retroperitoneal. For example, the stomach of ruminants is divided into four chambers – rumen, in vertebrates, the abdomen is a large cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, ventrally and laterally, and by the vertebral column dorsally. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls, the abdominal cavity is upper part of the pelvic cavity. It is attached to the cavity by the diaphragm. Structures such as the aorta, inferior vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm, both the abdominal and pelvic cavities are lined by a serous membrane known as the parietal peritoneum. This membrane is continuous with the visceral peritoneum lining the organs, the abdomen in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging, for instance, to the digestive tract and urinary system. There are three layers of the abdominal wall and they are, from the outside to the inside, external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominal
10.
Abdomen
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The abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity, in arthropods it is the posterior tagma of the body, it follows the thorax or cephalothorax. The abdomen stretches from the thorax at the diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim stretches from the joint to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity, the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the organs of the digestive tract. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the intestine. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the function in close association with the digestive tract. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen, along with blood vessels including the aorta. Anatomists may consider the urinary bladder, uterus, fallopian tubes, finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the type of organs retroperitoneal. For example, the stomach of ruminants is divided into four chambers – rumen, in vertebrates, the abdomen is a large cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, ventrally and laterally, and by the vertebral column dorsally. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls, the abdominal cavity is upper part of the pelvic cavity. It is attached to the cavity by the diaphragm. Structures such as the aorta, inferior vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm, both the abdominal and pelvic cavities are lined by a serous membrane known as the parietal peritoneum. This membrane is continuous with the visceral peritoneum lining the organs, the abdomen in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging, for instance, to the digestive tract and urinary system. There are three layers of the abdominal wall and they are, from the outside to the inside, external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominal
11.
Midclavicular line
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Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. All vertebrates have the basic body plan – they are strictly bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages. That is, they have left and right halves if divided down the centre. For these reasons, the directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the terms are used for many other organisms as well. While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, for example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories. The vertebrates and Craniata share a heritage and common structure. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way, for humans, one type of vertebrate, anatomical terms may differ from other forms of vertebrates. Thus what is on top of a human is the head, whereas the top of a dog may be its back, for example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a position with arms at the side. While the universal vertebrate terminology used in medicine would work in human medicine. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body, for example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis. There is no limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. Generally the modifier term is truncated and an o or an i is added in prefixing it to the qualified term, where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in anteriodorsolateral. Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage
12.
Projectile motion
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A special case of a ballistic trajectory for a rocket is a lofted trajectory, a trajectory with an apogee greater than the minimum-energy trajectory to the same range. In other words, the rocket higher and by doing so it uses more energy to get to the same landing point. This may be done for reasons such as increasing distance to the horizon to give greater viewing/communication range or for changing the angle with which a missile will impact on landing. Lofted trajectories are sometimes used in both missile rocketry and in spaceflight, the following applies for ranges which are small compared to the size of the Earth. For longer ranges see sub-orbital spaceflight, in the equations on this page, the following variables will be used, g, the gravitational acceleration—usually taken to be 9. A ballistic missile is a missile only guided during the brief initial powered phase of flight. These formulae ignore aerodynamic drag and also assume that the area is at uniform height 0. This distance is, d = v 2 g For explicit derivations of these results, the time of flight is the time it takes for the projectile to finish its trajectory. The above results are found in Range of a projectile, the third term is the deviation from traveling in a straight line. The magnitude, | v |, of the velocity of the projectile at distance x is given by | v | = v 2 −2 g x tan θ +2. The magnitude |v| of the velocity is given by | v | = V x 2 + V y 2, here the x-velocity remains constant, it is always equal to v cos θ. The y-velocity can be using the formula v f = v i + a t by setting vi = v sin θ, a = -g. Then, V y = v sin θ − g x v cos θ and | v | =2 +2, the formula above is found by simplifying. This formula allows one to find the angle of launch needed without the restriction of y =0, the tangent of the angle of elevation is proportional to the time since the ball was sent into the air, usually by being struck with a bat. Even when the ball is really descending, near the end of its flight, the player therefore sees it in line with a point ascending vertically from the batsman at constant speed. Finding the place from which the ball appears to rise steadily helps the player to position himself correctly to make the catch, if he is too close to the batsman who has hit the ball, it will appear to rise at an accelerating rate. If he is too far from the batsman, it appear to slow rapidly. Proof Suppose the ball starts with a component of velocity of v y upward
13.
Sagittal suture
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The sagittal suture is a dense, fibrous connective tissue joint between the two parietal bones of the skull. The term is derived from the Latin word sagitta, meaning arrow, the derivation of this term may be demonstrated by observing how the sagittal suture is notched posteriorly, like an arrow, by the lambdoid suture. The sagittal suture is also known as the suture and the sutura interparietalis. In forensic anthropology, the suture is one method used to date human remains. The suture begins to close at age twenty-nine, starting at where it intersects at the lambdoid suture, by age thirty-five, the suture is completely closed. This means that when inspecting a human skull, if the suture is still open, conversely, if the suture is completely formed, one can assume an age of greater than thirty-five. Two anatomical landmarks are found on the suture, the bregma. The bregma is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and coronal sutures, the vertex is the highest point on the skull and is often near the midpoint of the sagittal suture. At birth, the bones of the skull do not meet, if certain bones of the skull grow too fast then premature closure of the sutures may occur. This can result in skull deformities, if the sagittal suture closes early the skull becomes long, narrow, and wedge-shaped, a condition called scaphocephaly. Sagittal suture, Stedmans Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. Moore, Keith L. and T. V. N
14.
Lambdoid suture
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The lambdoid suture is a dense, fibrous connective tissue joint on the posterior aspect of the skull that connects the parietal bones with the occipital bone. It is continuous with the occipitomastoid suture and its name comes from its uppercase lambda-like shape. At birth, the bones of the skull do not meet, if certain bones of the skull grow too fast, then craniosynostosis may occur. This can result in skull deformities, if the lambdoid suture closes too soon on one side, the skull will appear twisted and asymmetrical, a condition called plagiocephaly. Plagiocephaly refers to the shape and not the condition, the lambdoidal suture articulates with the occipital bone and parietal bones. Stedmans Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. Moore, Keith L. and T. V. N, archived from the original on 2014-01-01
15.
Anatomical terms of motion
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Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body, the terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative to the anatomical position of the joints. In general, motion is classified according to the plane it occurs in. Flexion and extension are examples of angular motions, in two axes of a joint are brought closer together or moved further apart. Rotational motion may occur at other joints, for example the shoulder, other terms, such as elevation and depression, describe movement above or below the horizontal plane. Many anatomical terms derive from Latin terms with the same meaning, motions are classified after the anatomical planes they occur in, although movement is more often than not a combination of different motions occurring simultaneously in several planes. Angular motions occur over synovial joints and causes them to increase or decrease angles between bones. Rotational motions move a structure in a rotational motion along a longitudinal axis, apart from this motions can also be divided into, Linear motions, which move in a line between two points. A rectilinear motion refers to a motion in a line between two points, whereas a curvilinear motion refers to a motion following a curved path. Angular motions occur when an object is another object increasing or decreasing the angle. The different parts of the object do not move the same distance, examples include a movement of the knee, where the lower leg changes angle compared to the femur, or movements of the ankle. The study of movement is known as kinesiology, a categoric list of movements of the human body and the muscles involved can be found at list of movements of the human body. The prefix hyper- is sometimes added to describe movement beyond the limits, such as in hypermobility. The range of motion describes the range of motion that a joint is able to do. For example, if a part of the such as a joint is overstretched or bent backwards because of exaggerated extension motion. Hyperextension increases the stress on the ligaments of a joint, and is not always because of a voluntary movement and it may be a result of accidents, falls, or other causes of trauma. It may also be used in surgery, such as in temporarily dislocating joints for surgical procedures and these are general terms that can be used to describe most movements the body makes. Most terms have a clear opposite, and so are treated in pairs, flexion and extension describe movements that affect the angle between two parts of the body
16.
Coronal plane
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A coronal plane is any vertical plane that divides the body into ventral and dorsal sections. It is one of the three planes of the body used to describe the location of body parts in relation to each other. The coronal plane is an example of a plane, because it is perpendicular to the transverse plane. For a human, the plane would transect a standing body into two halves in an imaginary line that cuts through both shoulders. Abduction and adduction are terms for movements of limbs relative to the coronal plane, the sternal plane is a coronal plane which transects the front of the sternum. The term is derived from Latin corona, from Ancient Greek κορώνη, sagittal plane Transverse plane Anatomical Orientation - Page 2 of 9
17.
Identical twin
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Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either monozygotic, meaning that they develop from one zygote, in fraternal twins, each twin is fertilized by its own sperm cell. In contrast, a fetus that develops alone in the womb is called a singleton, the human twin birth rate in the United States rose 76% from 1980 through 2009, from 18.9 to 33.3 per 1,000 births. In Central Africa there are 18–30 twin sets per 1,000 live births, in Latin America, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, the lowest rates are found, only 6 to 9 twin sets per 1,000 live births. North America and Europe have intermediate rates of 9 to 16 twin sets per 1,000 live births, Multiple pregnancies are much less likely to carry to full term than single births, with twin pregnancies lasting on average 37 weeks, three weeks less than full term. Women who have a history of fraternal twins have a higher chance of producing fraternal twins themselves. There is no genetic link for identical twinning. Other factors that increase the odds of having fraternal twins include maternal age, fertility drugs and other fertility treatments, nutrition, the vast majority of twins are either dizygotic or monozygotic. Less common variants are discussed further down the article, the rates for singletons vary slightly by country. For example, the sex ratio of birth in the US is 1.05 males/female, while it is 1.07 males/female in Italy. However, males are more susceptible than females to die in utero. Zygosity is the degree of identity in the genome of twins, dizygotic or fraternal twins usually occur when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterus wall at the same time. When two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm cells, fraternal twins result. The two eggs, or ova, form two zygotes, hence the terms dizygotic and biovular. Fraternal twins are, essentially, two siblings who happen to be born at the same time, since they arise from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, just like ordinary siblings. This is the most common type of twin, dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the same chromosome profile. Even if they happen to have the same profile, they will always have different genetic material on each chromosome. Like any other siblings, dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age, however, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other
18.
Gestational age
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Gestational age is a measure of the age of a pregnancy where the origin from womans last normal menstrual period, or the corresponding age as estimated by other methods. Such methods include adding 14 days to a known duration since fertilization, the initiation of pregnancy for the calculation of gestational age can be different from definitions of initiation of pregnancy in context of the abortion debate or beginning of human personhood. In case of in vitro fertilization, calculating days since oocyte retrieval or co-incubation, gestational age can also be estimated by calculating days from ovulation if it was estimated from related signs or ovulation tests, and adding 14 days by convention. Following are diagrams for estimating gestational age from obstetric ultrasound, by various target parameters and it usually occurs within a day of ovulation, which, in turn, occurs on average 14.6 days after the beginning of the preceding menstruation.6. In a reference group representing all women, the 95% prediction interval of the LMP-to-ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days. Also, vaginal bleeding occurs during 15-25% of first trimester pregnancies, a fetus born prior to the 37th week of gestation is considered to be preterm. A preterm baby is likely to be premature and consequently faces increased risk of morbidity and mortality, an estimated due date is given by Naegeles rule. The events of development usually occur at specific gestational ages. The gestational timing of a toxin exposure or infection can be used to predict the consequences to the fetus. Only if such newborns survived seven days were then classified as live births. If, however, they died within that interval, they were classified as stillbirths, if they survived that interval but died within the first 365 days they were classified as infant deaths. More recently, thresholds for fetal death continue to vary widely internationally, the gestational age for fetal viability ranges from 16 weeks in Norway, to 20 weeks in the US and Australia,24 weeks in the UK, and 26 weeks in Italy and Spain. Gestational age is sometimes used postnatally to estimate various risk factors, for example, it is a better predictor than postnatal age for risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature babies treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Family-based studies showed that age is partially determined by genetic factors
19.
Anatomical terms of location
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Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. All vertebrates have the basic body plan – they are strictly bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages. That is, they have left and right halves if divided down the centre. For these reasons, the directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the terms are used for many other organisms as well. While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, for example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories. The vertebrates and Craniata share a heritage and common structure. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way, for humans, one type of vertebrate, anatomical terms may differ from other forms of vertebrates. Thus what is on top of a human is the head, whereas the top of a dog may be its back, for example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a position with arms at the side. While the universal vertebrate terminology used in medicine would work in human medicine. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body, for example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis. There is no limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. Generally the modifier term is truncated and an o or an i is added in prefixing it to the qualified term, where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in anteriodorsolateral. Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage
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Transverse plane
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The transverse plane is an imaginary plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts. It is perpendicular to the coronal and sagittal planes and it is one of the planes of the body used to describe the location of body parts in relation to each other. The other two commonly used terms are the plane and the sagittal plane. Typically located at the level of S1, anatomical terms of location Horizontal plane Coronal plane Sagittal plane
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
Anatomical plane
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An anatomical plane is a hypothetical plane used to transect the human body, in order to describe the location of structures or the direction of movements. In human and animal anatomy, three principal planes are used, The sagittal plane or median plane is a parallel to the sagittal suture. It divides the body left and right. The coronal plane or frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral portions, the transverse plane or axial plane divides the body into cranial and caudal portions. There could be any number of planes, however, there is only one cardinal sagittal plane. The term cardinal refers to the one plane that divides the body into equal segments, the term cardinal plane appears in some texts as the principle plane. A coronal plane is a Y-X plane, perpendicular to the ground, which separates the anterior from the posterior, the front from the back, a sagittal plane is an Y-Z plane, perpendicular to the ground, which separates left from right. The midsagittal plane is the sagittal plane that is exactly in the middle of the body. The midsagittal or median plane is in the midline, i. e. it would pass through midline structures such as the navel or spine, median can also refer to the midsagittal plane of other structures, such as a digit. The axes and the plane are the same for bipeds and quadrupeds. The axes on particular pieces of equipment may or may not correspond to axes of the body, especially since the body, when describing anatomical motion, these planes describe the axis along which an action is performed. So by moving through the plane, movement travels from head to toe. For example, if a person jumped directly up and then down, a longitudinal plane is any plane perpendicular to the transverse plane. The coronal plane and the plane are examples of longitudinal planes. Sometimes the orientation of certain planes needs to be distinguished, for instance in medical imaging such as sonography, CT scans, MRI scans. One imagines a human in the position, and an X-Y-Z coordinate system with the y-axis going from front to back, the x-axis going from left to right. The z-axis is usually up and the rule applies. In humans, reference may take origin from superficial anatomy, made to landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath
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Axillary lines
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The axillary lines are the anterior axillary line, midaxillary line and the posterior axillary line. The anterior axillary line is a line on the anterior torso marked by the anterior axillary fold. Its the imaginary line that runs down from the point midway between the middle of the clavicle and the end of the clavicle, the lateral end of the collarbone is the end closer to the arm. The V5 ECG lead is placed on the anterior axillary line, the midaxillary line is a coronal line on the torso between the anterior and posterior axillary lines. It is a used in thoracentesis, and the V6 electrode of the 10 electrode ECG. The posterior axillary line is a line on the posterior torso marked by the posterior axillary fold
24.
Thoracic plane
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The mediastinum is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity surrounded by loose connective tissue, as an undelineated region that contains a group of structures within the thorax. The mediastinum contains the heart and its vessels, the esophagus, trachea, phrenic and cardiac nerves, the mediastinum lies within the thorax and is enclosed on the right and left by pleurae. It is surrounded by the chest wall in front, the lungs to the sides and it extends from the sternum in front to the vertebral column behind, and contains all the organs of the thorax except the lungs. It is continuous with the connective tissue of the neck. The mediastinum can be divided into an upper and lower part, The superior mediastinum starts at the superior thoracic aperture, the thoracic plane separates the superior and inferior mediastinum. It is a plane at the level of the angle. The inferior mediastinum from this level to the diaphragm, anatomists, surgeons, and clinical radiologists compartmentalize the mediastinum differently. For instance, in the scheme of Felson, there are only three compartments, and the heart is part of the anterior mediastinum. The thoracic plane separates the superior and inferior mediastinum and it is a plane at the level of the sternal angle, and the intervertebral disc of T4–T5. Superior and inferior sternopericardial ligaments Middle mediastinum Bounded, pericardial sac – It contains the vital organs and is classified into the serous and fibrous pericardium. The mediastinum is frequently the site of involvement of various tumors, Anterior mediastinum, substernal thyroid goiters, lymphoma, thymoma, Middle mediastinum, lymphadenopathy, metastatic disease such as from small cell carcinoma from the lung. Posterior mediastinum, Neurogenic tumors, either from the sheath or elsewhere. Mediastinitis is inflammation of the tissues in the mediastinum, usually bacterial, as the infection can progress very quickly, this is a serious condition. Pneumomediastinum is the presence of air in the mediastinum, which in some cases can lead to pneumothorax, pneumoperitoneum, however, that does not always occur and sometimes those conditions are actually the cause, not the result, of pneumomediastinum. These conditions frequently accompany Boerhaaves syndrome, or spontaneous esophageal rupture, there are many diseases that can present with a widened mediastinum. The most common ones are aortic unfolding, traumatic aortic rupture, thoracic aortic aneurysm, a widened mediastinum is a classic but rare hallmark sign of anthrax infection. Anatomy figure,21, 02-03 at Human Anatomy Online, SUNY Downstate Medical Center – The anatomical divisions of the inferior mediastinum, thoraxlesson3 at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman – Subdivisions of the Thoracic Cavity
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