1.
Frigate
–
A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
2.
Rigging
–
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
3.
Naval architecture
–
Naval architecture also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation, preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are required for ships being modified. Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules, the word vessel includes every description of watercraft, including non-displacement craft, WIG craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water. The principal elements of architecture are, Hydrostatics concerns the conditions to which the vessel is subjected to while at rest in water. This involves computing buoyancy, and other properties, such as trim. Hydrodynamics concerns the flow of water around the hull, bow, and stern. Resistance – resistance towards motion in water primarily caused due to flow of water around the hull, powering calculation is done based on this. Propulsion – to move the vessel through water using propellers, thrusters, water jets, engine types are mainly internal combustion. Some vessels are powered using nuclear or solar energy. Ship motions – involves motions of the vessel in seaway and its responses in waves, controllability – involves controlling and maintaining position and direction of the vessel. Arrangements involves concept design, layout and access, fire protection, allocation of spaces, ergonomics, construction depends on the material used. Other joining techniques are used for materials like fibre reinforced plastic. Traditionally, naval architecture has been more craft than science, the suitability of a vessels shape was judged by looking at a half-model of a vessel or a prototype. Ungainly shapes or abrupt transitions were frowned on as being flawed and this included rigging, deck arrangements, and even fixtures. Subjective descriptors such as ungainly, full, and fine were used as a substitute for the precise terms used today. A vessel was, and still is described as having a ‘fair’ shape and these tools are used for static stability, dynamic stability, resistance, powering, hull development, structural analysis, green water modelling, and slamming analysis. Data is regularly shared in international conferences sponsored by RINA, Society of Naval Architects, computational Fluid Dynamics is being applied to predict the response of a floating body in a random sea
4.
Sail
–
A sail derives power from the wind to provide motive power for sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and sail-powered land vehicles. Sails mobilize lift and drag properties as air passes along the surface, in most cases sails are supported directly by a mast rigidly attached to the sailing craft or on a wire stay attached to the mast, however some craft employ a flexible mount for a mast. Sails also employ spars and battens to help determine their shape, as a result, sails come in a variety of shapes that include both triangular and quadrilateral configurations, usually with curved edges that promote three-dimensional curvature of the sail. Kites also power certain sailing craft, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article, sailing craft employ two types of rig, the square rig and the fore-and-aft rig. The square rig carries the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically most efficient when running. A fore-and-aft rig consists of sails that are set along the line of the rather than perpendicular to it. Vessels so rigged are described as fore-and-aft rigged, archaeological studies of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ceramics show use of sailing boats from the sixth millennium onwards. Excavations of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia provides direct evidence of sailing boats, Sails from ancient Egypt are depicted around 3200 BCE, where reed boats sailed upstream against the River Niles current. Ancient Sumerians used square rigged sailing boats at about the same time, the proto-Austronesian words for sail, lay, and other rigging parts date to about 3000 BCE when this group began their Pacific expansion. Greeks and Phoenicians began trading by ship by around 1,200 BCE, northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade and during the Crusades. The lateen sail proved to have better performance for smaller vessels. Aerodynamic forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind —the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, for apparent wind angles aligned with the entry point of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. For apparent wind angles behind the sail, lift diminishes and drag increases as the predominant component of propulsion, because of limitations on speed through the water, displacement sailboats generally derive power from sails generating lift on points of sail that include close-hauled through broad reach. Downwind sailing with a spinnaker Each rig is configured in a sail plan, a sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship
5.
Sailing ship
–
A modern sailing ship or sailship is any large wind-powered vessel. Traditionally a sailing ship is a vessel that carries three or more masts with square sails on each. Large sailing vessels that are not ship-rigged may be more referred to by their sail rig, such as schooner, barque, brig. There are many different types of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. The crew who sail a ship are called sailors or hands and they take turns to take the watch, the active managers of the ship and her performance for a period. Watches are traditionally four hours long, some sailing ships use traditional ships bells to tell the time and regulate the watch system, with the bell being rung once for every half hour into the watch and rung eight times at watch end. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands, Sailing ships are limited in their maximum size compared to ships with heat engines, so economies of scale are also limited. The heaviest sailing ships never exceeded 14,000 tons displacement, there are many types of sailing ships, mostly distinguished by their rigging, hull, keel, or number and configuration of masts. There are also types of smaller sailboats not listed here. The steam power was used to drive the winches, hoists, a similar ship Kruzenshtern, a very large sailing vessel without mechanical assists, had a crew of 257 men, compared to the Preussen, which required only 48 men. In 2006, automated control had been taken to the point where sails could be operated by one using a central control unit. The DynaRig technology was first developed in the 1960s in Germany by W. Prolls as an alternative for commercial ships to prepare for a possible future energy crisis. The technology is a version of the same type of sail used by the Preussen. The main difference is that the yards do not swing around a fixed mast but are attached to a rotating mast. DynaRig along with extensive computerization was used in the proof-of-concept Maltese Falcon to enable it to be sailed with no crew aloft, as of 2013, with increasing restrictions on use of bunker fuel, attempts were underway to develop hybrid sailing ships using automated sail and alternative fuels. Tall ship Rigging Sail-plan List of large sailing vessels Cruising Shipbuilding, the History of a Ship from Her Cradle to Her Grave, With a Short Account of Modern Steamships and Torpedoes. The sailing-ship, six years of history. Media related to Sailing ships at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Beaufort scale
–
The Beaufort scale /ˈboʊfərt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale, the scale was devised in 1805 by Irish-born Francis Beaufort, a Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. Beaufort succeeded in standardizing the scale, in 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923, director of the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors. The measure was slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists, the Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added. However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to only to special cases. Nowadays, the scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services defined the Beaufort Scale only up to Force 12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale. Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the relationship, v =0.836 B3/2 m/s Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface. For example, B =9.5 is related to 24.5 m/s which is equal to the limit of 10 Beaufort. Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale, however, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–Simpson Scale. Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, the wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent, e. g. 12–19 km/h is not equivalent to 8–12 mph, and both are not equivalent to 7–10 knots. The reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale and it was based on visual and subjective observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in different units were never made equivalent. The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met Éireann, Met Éireann issues a Small Craft Warning if winds of Beaufort force 6 are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. This scale is widely used in the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above, China also switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006, and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong Kong and Macau however keep using force 12 as the maximum, a set of red warning flags and red warning lights is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning
7.
Keel
–
On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
8.
Broach (sailing)
–
A sailboat broaches when its heading suddenly changes towards the wind due to wind/sail interactions for which the rudder cannot compensate. This happens when the force on the rig greatly exceeds the hydrodynamic force on the hull. In small boats and dinghies, broaching can lead to a death roll, in larger boats broaching can lay the mast horizontal, putting both rig and crew at risk. It can be dangerous when racing other boats at close quarters. More succinctly, a broach is to slew around on a wave front, another source says it is extremely dangerous and likens it to turning broadside and losing control in following seas, so as to present the ships side to oncoming large waves. In that event, the ship may trip on its keel, roll, capsize, historically, it has been defined as, Broach-to. It generally happens when there is considerable sea on, and the ship is carrying a press of canvas with a deal of after-sail set. When a ship sails with the aft, or on the quarter, the wind acts in the direction of the ship s course. This may be due to excessive heeling, swell that causes the rudder to be lifted out of the water. The boat will come quickly across the wind with too much sail set and it can also happen on a close reach where it is typically precipitated by sudden waves. With an inattentive helmsman it can be a consequence of gybing, when it happens unexpectedly and the helm isnt corrected, the heading of the boat may veer into the wind causing a broach. In addition the sea conditions also falsely seem milder on this point of sail as developing white caps are shielded from view by the back of the waves and are less apparent. When changing course in a wind from a run to a reach or a beat. One of the less obvious causes of broaching is an oscillation developed when running downwind, when running dead downwind, the sails are set with an angle of attack of nearly 90 degrees to the wind. The high angle of attack causes turbulent bubbles to form on the side of the sail. The sudden separation of a turbulent bubble drops the lift of the sail to nearly nothing, at angles of attack near 90 degrees, lift can generate on the leech, or trailing edge of the sail. As the boat due to separation of turbulent bubbles, a constructive interference is formed. Once started, the oscillation builds quickly, especially in modern ultra-light displacement centerboard boats and sportsboats, once this oscillation reaches a certain point, the extreme change in heel angle will cause the boat to broach
9.
Mast (sailing)
–
The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
10.
Capsizing
–
Capsizing or keeling over is when a boat or ship is turned on its side or it is upside down in the water. The act of reversing a capsized vessel is called righting, if a capsized vessel has enough flotation to prevent sinking, it may recover on its own if the stability is such that it is not stable inverted. Vessels of this design are called self-righting, in dinghy sailing, a practical distinction can be made between being knocked down which is called a capsize, and being inverted, which is called being turtled. Small dinghies frequently capsize in the course of use and can usually be recovered by the crew. Some types of dinghy are occasionally deliberately capsized, as capsizing and righting the vessel again can be the fastest means of draining water from the boat, capsizing is an inherent part of dinghy sailing. It is not a question of if but a question of when, for those who do not want the experience, a keelboat monohull has physics on its side. But even yachts can capsize and turtle in extraordinary conditions, so design considerations are important, such events can overcome skill and experience, boats need to be appropriate for foreseeable conditions. A capsized kayak may be righted with a roll or eskimo rescue, in whitewater kayaking, capsizing occurs frequently and is accepted as an ordinary part of the sport. For sailing vessels, the ratio is a commonly published number used as a guideline for safe operation. However the only variables that go into capsize ratio are a beam and its displacement. A vessel may be designated as self-righting if it is designed to be able to then return to upright without intervention. Most small craft intended as lifeboats with rigid hulls designed since about the middle of the century are self-righting. In a storm, even large vessels may be rolled by being hit broadside by a wave or pitchpoled stem over stern in extreme waves. This is normally catastrophic for larger ships, and smaller yachts can be dismasted due to the drag as the boat is forced to roll over, among ship types, a roll-on-roll-off ship is more prone to capsizing as it has large open car decks near the waterline. If the watertight car-deck doors fail through damage or mismanagement, water entering the car-deck is subject to the surface effect. A ship that is holed may capsize, technically, this was not a capsize as her bottom was only partly exposed, rather this was a partial sinking. A vessel which capsizes without being holed may allow water to enter in places normally above the waterline, the ship may not then be able to right itself, stability and safety will be compromised even if the vessel is righted. In competitive yacht racing, a boat has certain special rights as it cannot maneuver
11.
Star of India (ship)
–
Star of India was built in 1863 at Ramsey in the Isle of Man as Euterpe, a full-rigged iron windjammer ship. After a full career sailing from Great Britain to India and New Zealand, retired in 1926, she was not restored until 1962–63 and is now a seaworthy museum ship home-ported at the Maritime Museum of San Diego in San Diego, California. She is the oldest ship still sailing regularly and also the oldest iron-hulled merchant ship still floating, the ship is both a California Historical Landmark and United States National Historic Landmark. She was launched on 14 November 1863, and assigned British Registration No.47617, euterpes career had a rough beginning. She sailed for Calcutta from Liverpool on 9 January 1864, under the command of Captain William John Storry, a collision with an unlit Spanish brig off the coast of Wales carried away the jib-boom and damaged other rigging. The crew became mutinous, refusing to continue, and she returned to Anglesey to repair,17 of the crew were confined to the Beaumaris Jail at hard labor. Then, in 1865, Euterpe was forced to cut away her masts in a gale in the Bay of Bengal off Madras and limped to Trincomalee, Captain Storry died during the return voyage to England and was buried at sea. In late 1871 she began twenty-five years of carrying passengers and freight in the New Zealand emigrant trade, the fastest of her 21 passages to New Zealand took 100 days, the longest 143 days. She also made ports of call in Australia, California, a baby was born on one of those trips en route to New Zealand, and was given the middle name Euterpe. Another child, John William Philips Palmer, was born on the 1873 journey to Dunedin, New Zealand and she was registered in the United States on 30 October 1900. In 1906, the Association changed her name to be consistent with the rest of their fleet and she was laid up in 1923 after 22 Alaskan voyages, by that time, steam ruled the seas. In 1926, Star of India was sold to the Zoological Society of San Diego, California, the Great Depression and World War II caused that plan to be canceled, and it was not until 1957 that restoration began. Alan Villiers, a captain and author, came to San Diego on a lecture tour. Seeing Star of India decaying in the harbor, he publicized the situation, progress was still slow, but in 1976, Star of India finally put to sea again. She houses exhibits for the Maritime Museum of San Diego, is kept fully seaworthy, unlike many preserved or restored vessels, her hull, cabins and equipment are nearly 100% original. This location is slightly west of downtown San Diego, California, the other ships belonging to the Maritime Museum are always docked to the north of Star of India. Her nearest neighbor – since 2007 – is HMS Surprise, a replica of a British frigate, when she sails, Star of India often remains within sight of the coast of San Diego County, and usually returns to her dock within a day. She is sailed by a volunteer crew of Maritime Museum members
12.
Fore-and-aft rig
–
A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
13.
Bermuda rig
–
A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
14.
Mainsail
–
A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel. On a square rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest sail on the main mast. On a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest and often the only sail rigged aft of the main mast, a sail rigged in this position without a boom is generally called a trysail, and is used in extremely heavy weather. Traditional fore-and-aft rigs used a four-sided gaff rigged mainsail, sometimes setting a gaff topsail above it, the modern Bermuda rig uses a triangular mainsail as the only sail aft of the mast, closely coordinated with a jib for sailing upwind. A large overlapping jib or genoa is larger than the mainsail. In downwind conditions a spinnaker replaces the jib, some mainsails are full-batten mainsails, meaning the batten extends all the way from the mast to the leeach of a sail. A partial batten extends from the mast partway to the leech, battens enable the mainsail to project farther away from the mast. However, there is some cost associated with the battens themselves, batten pockets need to be sewn into the sail, and batten cars may be needed to allow the sail to be raised and lowered. A mainsail may be fixed to the boom via slugs, cars, or a bolt-rope, or may be loose-footed, meaning it is attached at the tack. Before Nathanael Greene Herreshoffs invention of tracks and slides in the 1880s. Traditional mainsails were held against the mast by hoops that went the way around the mast. This meant a traditional mainsail could be raised no higher than the first point a rope or wire was required to keep the mast upright
15.
Gaff rig
–
Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
16.
Square rig
–
These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
17.
Yard (sailing)
–
A yard is a spar on a mast from which sails are set. It may be constructed of timber or steel or from modern materials like aluminium or carbon fibre. Although some types of fore and aft rigs have yards, the term is used to describe the horizontal spars used on square rigged sails. In addition, for decades after square sails were generally dispensed with, some yards were retained for deploying wireless aerials. Bunt The short section of the yard between the slings that attach it to the mast, quarters The port and starboard quarters form the bulk of the yard, extending from the slings to the fittings for the lifts and braces. Yardarms The outermost tips of the yard, outboard from the attachments for the lifts, note that these terms refer to stretches of the same spar, not to separate component parts. The yard can rotate around the mast to allow the direction of the vessel to be changed relative to the wind, when running directly downwind the yards are squared, pointing perpendicular to the ships centre line. As the ship is steered closer to the wind the yards are braced round using the braces, when further rotation is obstructed by other bits of rigging, the yard is said to be braced hard round or sharp up, as in sharp up to port. This angle limits how close to the wind a square rigged ship can sail, in nineteenth-century warships this was generally by physically sending down the upper yards from the masts and storing them on deck--along with, in many cases, the upper sections of the mast itself. Merchant ships in the age of sail would also do this before sailing in the Southern Ocean. On modern tall ships the yards are not designed to be sent down on deck, as well as rotating round the mast and moving up and down along it, the yards on many ships are designed to tilt relative to the mast. This allows the sails to be set more efficiently when the ship is heeled over by raising the leeward yardarm to bring the yard closer to the horizontal and this is achieved using the lifts, which run from each yardarm to the mast some way above. On some ships only the course lifts can be adjusted, with the influence of the yard being sufficient to tilt all the sails. Some ships have their yards mounted on mechanical swivels with no possibility of tilting them, in order to set and stow the square sails, the crew must climb aloft and spread out along the yards. To do this, they stand in footropes suspended beneath the yard, the person working on the end of the yardarm has a separate footrope known as the flemish horse. Jackstays run along the top of the yard - the sail will be bent on to one of them and these are usually steel rods, but stiff cordage stretched between the yardarms was used in the past. Almost all ships used in modern times are fitted with steel safety wires along the yards to which sailors attach themselves using a harness and this is a relatively recent innovation - cargo-carrying and naval sailing ships were not so equipped and falling from the yard represented a real risk. The yard exists to allow square sails to be set to drive the ship, the top edge of the sail is bent on to the yard semi-permanently
18.
Lateen
–
A lateen or latin-rig is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the sail of the Age of Discovery. It is common in the Mediterranean, the upper Nile River, and the parts of the Indian Ocean. The lateen is used today in a different form on small recreational boats like the Sailfish and Sunfish. The earliest fore-and-aft rig was the spritsail, appearing in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft, one theory is that the lateen sail originated during the early Roman empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel – rather than athwartship, while tailoring the luff and leech. The theory of Roman origin for lateen was begun with Lynn White, John M. H. Brindley.25 The original passage cited from Caesarus is, according to Brindley, no more than an allusion, ‘tres naves, quas Latenas vocant, majores, plenas tritico direxerunt’. The assumption is that labelling these three wheat ships ‘latines’ means that they had lateen sails, there is also reason to doubt Sottas’s interpretation of Procopius’ claim – that three ships of Justinian’s fleet in 533 deployed lateen sails. That the triangular sails refer to triangular top sails, which were standard gear on Roman square-rigged ships after 50 ad’, second, White’s claim that the lateen sail was deployed on a European ship in 880 is problematic. We know that the Persians were sailing to India and beyond via the Persian Gulf from the third, and by the mid-seventh century the Muslims were sailing the length of the Indian Ocean. But even if the Romans had invented the lateen sail, it is important to note that after 50 ce there is no evidence of refinement or further development of sails and rigging. Based on this theory, the lateen sail originated in the Near East, most likely in Persia or Arabia and these sailors were likely responsible for introducing the lateen sails and large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. According to the Belgian maritime historian Basch, the earliest true lateen rig appears as early as the 1st century BC, in a Hellenistic wall painting found in a Hypogeum in Alexandria. The earliest archaeologically excavated lateen-rigged ship, the Yassi Ada II, dates to ca.400 AD, the Kelenderis ship mosaic and the Kellia ship graffito from the early 7th century complement the picture. By the 6th century, the lateen sail had largely replaced the square throughout the Mediterranean. It became the standard rig of the Byzantine dromon war galley and was also employed by Belisarius flagship in the 532 AD invasion of the Vandal kingdom. This is also indicated by the terminology of the lateen among Mediterranean Arabs and it has been suggested that the lateen sail was brought to the Indian Ocean by the Alexandrian merchants who sailed the Red Sea in Roman and later Byzantine and Arab times. Such theories have been superseded by unequivocal depictions of lateen-rigged Mediterranean sailing vessels which pre-date the Arab invasion, searches for lateen sails in India were inconclusive
19.
Staysail
–
A staysail is a fore-and-aft rigged sail whose luff can be affixed to a stay running forward from a mast to the deck, the bowsprit, or to another mast. Most staysails are triangular, however some are four-cornered, notably some fishermans staysails, triangular staysails set forward of the foremost mast are called jibs, headsails, or foresails. The innermost such sail on a cutter, schooner, and many other rigs having two or more foresails is referred to simply as the staysail, while the others are referred to as jibs, flying jibs, etc. Types of staysail include the tallboy staysail, the staysail. Unlike the cutter staysail, none of these sails have their luff affixed to a stay, on large rigs, staysails other than headsails are named according to the mast and mast section on which they are hoisted. Thus, the staysail hoisted on a stay that runs forward, if two staysails are hoisted to different points on this mast, they would be the mizzen upper topgallant staysail and the mizzen lower topgallant staysail. In square rigged ships the staysails can help in tacking, overcoming the lumbering square sails tendency to prevent bearing up to windward, where a ship attempts to tack but fails and has to bear away again on the original tack, she is said to have missed her stays. In cutter rigged yachts the genoa will often need to be furled before changing tack due to the difficulty in passing the big sail between the two forestays, here the staysail can help bring the bow through the wind more effectively
20.
Jib
–
A jib is a triangular staysail that sets ahead of the foremast of a sailing vessel. Its tack is fixed to the bowsprit, to the bow, jibs and spinnakers are the two main types of headsails on a modern boat. Boats may be sailed using a jib alone, more commonly jib make a direct contribution to propulsion. Generally, a jibs most crucial function is as an airfoil, increasing performance, on boats with only one jib, it is common for the clew of the jib to be further aft than the mast, meaning the jib and mainsail overlap. An overlapping jib is called a genoa jib or simply a genoa and these are efficiently used when reaching more broadly than a close reach. Alternatively, a boat may carry smaller jibs, to compensate aerodynamics when the sail is reefed. On a boat with two staysails the inner sail is called the staysail, and the outer is called the jib and this combination of two staysails is called a cutter rig and a boat with one mast rigged with two staysails and a mainsail is called a cutter. On cruising yachts, and nearly all racing sailboats, the jib needs to be worked when tacking, on these yachts, there are two sheets attached to the clew of the jib. As the yacht comes head to wind during a tack, the sheet is released. This sheet becomes the new active sheet until the next tack, schooners typically have up to three jibs. The foremost one sets on the topmast forestay and is called the jib topsail, a second on the main forestay is called the jib. Actually, all three sails are both jibs and staysails in the generic sense, jibs, but not staysails, could also be set flying, i. e. not attached to the standing rigging. A large square-rigged ship typically has four jibs, but could have as many as six, from forward to aft, these sails are called, Jib of jibs Spindle jib Flying jib Outer jib Inner jib Fore staysail. The first two were used except by clipper ships in light winds and were usually set flying. A storm jib was a small jib of heavy canvas set to a stay to help to control the ship in bad weather
21.
Stern
–
The stern is the back or aft-most part of a ship or boat, technically defined as the area built up over the sternpost, extending upwards from the counter rail to the taffrail. The stern lies opposite of the bow, the foremost part of a ship, originally, the term only referred to the aft port section of the ship, but eventually came to refer to the entire back of a vessel. The stern end of a ship is indicated with a navigation light at night. Sterns on European and American wooden sailing ships began with two forms, the square or transom stern and the elliptical, fantail, or merchant stern. This frame is designed to support the beams that make up the stern. In 1817 the British naval architect Sir Robert Seppings first introduced the concept of the round or circular stern, the square stern had been an easy target for enemy cannon, and could not support the weight of heavy stern chase guns. The United States began building the first elliptical stern warship in 1820, USS Brandywine became the first sailing ship to sport such a stern. In naval architecture, the term transom has two meanings, in this sense, a transom stern is the product of the use of a series of transoms, and hence the two terms have blended. But until a new form of stern appeared in the 19th century, the stern was a floating house—and required just as many timbers, walls, windows. The stern frame provided the structure of the transom stern, and was composed of the sternpost, wing transom. If the stern had transoms above the transom, they would no longer be affixed to the sternpost. The first of these might be called a counter transom, next up was the window sill transom, above that, the larger the vessel, the more numerous and wider the transoms required to support its stern. Stern timbers – These timbers are mounted vertically in a series, each timber typically rests or steps on the transom and then stretches out. Those not reaching all the way to the taffrail are called short stern timbers, the two outermost of these timbers, located at the corners of the stern, are called the side-counter timbers or outer stern timbers. The flat surface of any transom stern may begin either at or above the waterline of the vessel. The geometric line which stretches from the transom to the archboard is called the counter. The visual unpopularity of Seppings circular stern was soon rectified by Sir William Symonds, in this revised stern, a set of straight post timbers stretches from the keel diagonally aft and upward. It rests on the top of the sternpost and runs on either side of the rudder post to a point well above the vessels waterline, the finished stern has a continuous curved edge around the outside and is raked aft
22.
Topsail
–
A topsail is a sail set above another sail, on square-rigged vessels further sails may be set above topsails. On a square rigged vessel, a topsail is a sail rigged above the course sail. A full rigged ship has either single or double topsails on all masts, the single or lower topsail being the second sail above the deck, the bottom edge of the topsail, like that of other square sails, is slightly concave. Although topsails of a kind were used at least as early as Roman times, they first came into use in Europe some time in the 15th century. It was quite common for a ship to sail with topsails and jibs alone, the larger topsails were difficult and dangerous to handle in strong winds. Sometime in the 1680s, reef-bands were introduced to tie up part of the sail, with topsails eventually getting four of these, and reefing the sails became a regular occupation of sailors. In the mid 19th century, topsails of merchant vessels were split into upper and lower topsails that could be managed separately. Competing versions of the double topsail were invented by Robert Bennet Forbes, although Forbes strove to defend his rig, the Howe rig dominated. In the Forbes rig, both topsail yards are fixed vertically, in the Howe rig, the upper topsail yard slides on the topmast so it can be lowered in a few seconds to close reef the upper topsail. Howe had the foot of the upper topsail closely attached to the lower topsail yard, in 1865 the British clipper Ariel introduced a gap there. Forbes first tried his rig in the topsail schooner Midas in 1844. The clipper Climax built in 1853 under the supervision of Howes was the first ship with Howe rig, gaff topsails, like gaff rigs in general, may still be seen at Tall Ships gatherings. The gaff rig has been superseded by the Bermuda rig. On a gaff-rigged sailing boat, topsails may take a few different forms, a gaff-rigged vessel might have a gaff topsail above any or all of its gaff sails. A yard topsail is similar, but set on a yard, early 19th-century topsail yards were set almost horizontally, but gradually increased in angle until they became almost vertical extension of the topmast. A jack-yard topsail instead has its lower edge extended out beyond the end of the gaff with a short yard, a jack-yard topsail may also have the aforementioned vertical yard, although this makes for a very large topsail. A cornish topsail is a triangular sail having its luff extended well above the masthead by being laced to a yard hoisted by a halyard rove through a sheave fitted diagonally in the mast. The heel of the yard fits immediately about the gaff and is kept in place by a called a timminoggy. A square topsail is a sail, carried above the foresail only
23.
Topgallant sail
–
On a square rigged sailing vessel, a topgallant sail is the square-rigged sail or sails immediately above the topsail or topsails. It is also known as a gallant or garrant sail, later full rigged ships split the topsail for easier handling. They thus fly two topsails per mast, the lower topgallant sail is immediately above the upper topsail. The upper or only topgallant sail is set from the top of the topgallant mast, a staysail set on a stay running forward and downwards from the top or midpoint of the topgallant mast is called a topgallant staysail
24.
Royal (sail)
–
A royal is a small sail flown immediately above the topgallant on square rigged sailing ships. It was originally called the topgallant royal and was used in light, Royal sails were normally found only on larger ships with masts tall enough to accommodate the extra canvas. Royals were introduced around the turn of the 18th century, but were not usually flown on the mizzenmast until the end of that century. It gave its name to a Dutch term for a light breeze—the Royal Sail Breeze or bovenbramzeilskoelte was a Force 2 wind on the Beaufort Scale
25.
Studding sail
–
A studding sail, studsail or stunsail is an extra sail on a square rigged vessel or 1950s racing skiffs for use in light winds. A studding sail is a sail hoisted alongside a square-rigged sail on an extension of its yardarm. It is named by appending the word studding to the name of the working sail alongside which it is set and these sails provide extra speed in fine weather. Studding sails have also used to increase the sail area of a fore-and-aft spanker. Such a sail extending the leech of a sail is known as a ringtail. Ringtail sails were used by Flying 18 foot skiffs in Sydney Harbour in the 1950s to enlarge the downwind sailing capacity in light airs, sails that extend below the boom to deck level or lower are known as watersails. Seamanship in the age of sail
26.
Bowsprit
–
The bowsprit of a sailing vessel is a spar extending forward from the vessels prow. It provides a point for the forestay, allowing the fore-mast to be stepped farther forward on the hull. The word bowsprit is thought to originate from the Middle Low German word bōchsprēt - bōch meaning bow, early ocean-going vessels tended to tilt the bowsprit, also known in centuries past as a boltsprit, at a high angle, and hung one or two square spritsails from yards. Many types of pleasure and work vessels ship bowsprits, generally short in length. Once popular on large and small, even after the popularization of the Bermuda rig. On some modern racing yachts and dinghies, the bowsprit is retractable, the bowsprit on a tall ship may be of considerable length and carry several forestays supporting the foremast. Headsails are stowed by tying onto the bowsprit when not in use, to minimise the risk of bowsprit and crew handling sail on it being buried in large waves, it is normally angled upwards from the horizontal. Some hang gliders use a bowsprit, rather than a spar to spread their wings, the bowsprit is formed by extending the keel tube about a metre beyond the leading edge of the wing. In 1879 a patent in England by F. W. Brearey was filed that taught bowsprit structure for flying machines, in the modern mid-1900s renaissance in hang gliding a Dial Soap TV commercial featured in 1973 a bowsprit cross-sparless hang glider. Other examples of bowsprit hang gliders were exampled in the manufactured by Bautek in the 1980s
27.
Manila hemp
–
Manila hemp is a type of buff-colored fiber obtained from Musa textilis, a relative of edible bananas, which is also called Manila hemp as well as abacá. It is mostly used for pulping for a range of uses and it was once used mainly to make manila rope, but this is now of minor importance. Abacá is an exceptionally strong fibre, nowadays used for special papers like teabag tissue and it is also very expensive, priced several times higher than woodpulp. Manila envelopes and manila paper take their name from this fibre and it is not actually hemp, but named so because hemp was long a major source of fibre, and other fibres were sometimes named after it. The name refers to the capital of the Philippines, one of the producers of manila hemp. The hatmaking straw made from hemp is called tagal or tagal straw. International Year of Natural Fibres Abaca Plant - Manila Hemp Manila, or Manila Hemp, the fibre of musa textilis
28.
Cotton
–
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
29.
Hemp
–
Hemp or industrial hemp, typically found in the northern hemisphere, is a variety of the Cannabis sativa plant species that is grown specifically for the industrial uses of its derived products. It is one of the fastest growing plants and was one of the first plants to be spun into usable fiber 10,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of items including paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, paint, insulation, biofuel, food. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher concentrations of cannabidiol, the legality of industrial hemp varies widely between countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content, then it appears to have been borrowed into Latin, and separately into Slavic and from there into Baltic, Finnish, and Germanic languages. Following Grimms law, the k would have changed to h with the first Germanic sound shift, after which it may have been adapted into the Old English form, hænep. Another possible source of origin is Assyrian qunnabu, which was the name for a source of oil, fiber, cognates of hemp in other Germanic languages, include Dutch hennep, Danish and Norwegian, hamp, German, hanf, and Swedish, hampa. Hemp is used to make a variety of commercial and industrial products including rope, clothes, food, paper, textiles, plastics, insulation, the inner two fibers of the plant are more woody and typically have industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. When oxidized, hemp oil from the seeds becomes solid and can be used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as an agent, for cooking. Hemp seeds have been used in bird feed mix as well, a survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the European Union was used in animal and bird feed. Hemp seeds can be raw, ground into a meal, sprouted. The leaves of the plant can be consumed raw in salads. Hemp can also be made into a liquid and used for baking or for such as hemp milk, hemp juice. Hempseed oil is cold-pressed from the seed and is high in unsaturated fatty acids. In 2011, the U. S. imported $11.5 million worth of products, mostly driven by growth in demand for hemp seed. In the U. S. imported hemp can be used legally in food products,100 grams of hulled hemp seeds supply 586 calories. They are 5% water, 5% carbohydrates, 49% total fat, Hemp seeds are notable in providing 64% of the Daily Value of protein per 100 gram serving. Hempseed amino acid profile is comparable to other sources of such as meat, milk, eggs
30.
Jute
–
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced primarily from plants in the genus Corchorus, which was classified with the family Tiliaceae. The primary source of the fiber is Corchorus olitorius, but it is considered inferior to Corchorus capsularis, Jute is the name of the plant or fiber that is used to make burlap, hessian or gunny cloth. The word jute is probably coined from the word jhuta or jota, Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibers and it is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses of vegetable fibers. Jute fibers are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin and it falls into the bast fiber category along with kenaf, industrial hemp, flax, ramie, etc. The industrial term for jute fiber is raw jute, the fibers are off-white to brown, and 1–4 metres long. Jute is also called the fiber for its color and high cash value. Jute needs a plain alluvial soil and standing water, the suitable climate for growing jute is offered by the monsoon climate, during the monsoon season. Temperatures from 20˚C to 40˚C and relative humidity of 70%–80% are favourable for successful cultivation, Jute requires 5–8 cm of rainfall weekly, and more during the sowing time. Soft water is necessary for the jute production, historical documents state that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, history also suggests that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses. It is highly functional in carrying grains or other agricultural products, tossa jute is a variety thought to be native to India, and is also the worlds top producer. It is grown for fiber and culinary purposes. The leaves are used as an ingredient in a mucilaginous potherb called molokhiya and it is very popular in some Arabian countries such as Egypt, Jordan, and Syria as a soup-based dish, sometimes with meat over rice or lentils. The Book of Job, in the King James translation of the Hebrew Bible מלוח MaLOo-aĤ salty, giving rise to the term Jews Mallow It is high in protein, vitamin C, beta-carotene, calcium, and iron. On the other hand, it is used mainly for its fiber in Bangladesh, in countries in Southeast Asia. Tossa jute fiber is softer, silkier, and stronger than white jute and this variety astonishingly shows good sustainability in the climate of the Ganges Delta. Along with white jute, tossa jute has also cultivated in the soil of Bengal where it is known as paat from the start of the 19th century
31.
Kevlar
–
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, this material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite material components and it is also used to make modern drumheads that withstand high impact. When used as a material, it is suitable for mooring lines. A similar fiber called Twaron with roughly the same structure was developed by Akzo in the 1970s, commercial production started in 1986. Poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide – branded Kevlar – was invented by Polish-American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light but strong tires. The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-phenylene-terephthalate and polybenzamide, formed liquid crystal while in solution, the solution was cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity and usually was thrown away. However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the spinneret, to test her solution and her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her accidental discovery and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose. By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced, however, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar. Kevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1, 4-phenylene-diamine, the result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients the polymer chains in the fibers direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide was the solvent initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of N-methyl-pyrrolidone, as this process had been patented by Akzo in the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued. Kevlar production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning. Several grades of Kevlar are available, Kevlar K-29 – in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement, brake linings, Kevlar K49 – high modulus used in cable and rope products. When Kevlar is spun, the fiber has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa. The polymer owes its high strength to the many inter-chain bonds and these inter-molecular hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl groups and NH centers. Additional strength is derived from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands, the presence of salts and certain other impurities, especially calcium, could interfere with the strand interactions and care is taken to avoid inclusion in its production. Kevlars structure consists of relatively rigid molecules tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures rather like silk protein. Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to temperatures, in fact
32.
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
–
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene is a subset of the thermoplastic polyethylene. Also known as polyethylene, or high-performance polyethylene, it has extremely long chains. The longer chain serves to transfer load more effectively to the backbone by strengthening intermolecular interactions. This results in a tough material, with the highest impact strength of any thermoplastic presently made. UHMWPE is odorless, tasteless, and nontoxic and it embodies all the characteristics of high-density polyethylene with the added traits of being resistant to concentrated acids and alkalis as well as numerous organic solvents. Its coefficient of friction is lower than that of nylon and acetal, and is comparable to that of polytetrafluoroethylene. Polymerization of UHMWPE was commercialised in the 1950s by Ruhrchemie AG, today UHMWPE powder materials, which may be directly molded into a products final shape, are produced by Ticona, Braskem, DSM and Mitsui. Processed UHMWPE is available either as fibers or in consolidated form. Because of its resistance to wear and impact, UHMWPE continues to find increasing industrial applications, including the automotive, since the 1960s, UHMWPE has also been the material of choice for total joint arthroplasty in orthopedic and spine implants. UHMWPE fibers, commercialized in the late 1970s by the Dutch chemical company DSM, are used in ballistic protection, defense applications. UHMWPE is a type of polyolefin and it is made up of extremely long chains of polyethylene, which all align in the same direction. It derives its strength largely from the length of each individual molecule, each chain is bonded to the others with so many van der Waals bonds that the whole of the inter-molecule strength is high. In this way, large tensile loads are not limited as much by the weakness of each van der Waals bond. When formed to fibers, the chains can attain a parallel orientation greater than 95%. In contrast, Kevlar derives its strength from strong bonding between relatively short molecules and its melting point is around 130 to 136 °C, and, according to DSM, it is not advisable to use UHMWPE fibers at temperatures exceeding 80 to 100 °C for long periods of time. It becomes brittle at temperatures below −150 °C, the simple structure of the molecule also gives rise to surface and chemical properties that are rare in high-performance polymers. For example, the groups in most polymers easily bond to water. Because olefins have no such groups, UHMWPE does not absorb water readily, nor wet easily, for the same reasons, skin does not interact with it strongly, making the UHMWPE fiber surface feel slippery
33.
Standing rigging
–
Standing rigging comprises the lines, wires, or rods which support each mast or bowsprit on a sailing vessel. This term is used in contrast to running rigging, which elements of rigging which adjust the position. Standing rigging is placed under tension to keep each mast securely in position, early sailing vessels used rope of hemp or other fibers, which gave way to wire ropes of various types. Galvanized steel was common for the first half of the 20th century, continuing as an option to its 1960s successor material—stainless steel cables. In the late 20th Century, racing yachts adopted composite fiber lines for standing rigging, with the goal of reducing weight, on modern yachts, standing rigging is often stainless steel wire, stainless steel rod or synthetic fiber. Semi-rigid stainless steel wire is by far the most common as it combines extreme strength, unlike rigid stainless steel rod, it is comparatively easy to recognize wear and stress as individual strains break often near a swage fitting, and can be inspected while standing. Solid rod stainless steel is more aerodynamic so is used in extreme racing yachts. Great care must be used when swaging fittings onto stainless steel rod as this can start minute cracking, rod-type stays fail suddenly, often where the rod bends around a spreader. Bending can induce unseen stress fractures, most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the following types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay, and upper and lower shrouds. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment was supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds
34.
Stainless steel
–
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure, Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present, unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form, since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation and this layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough, Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are made of stainless steel. This also influences its use in kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% chromium. The chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous, the layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, when forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel. However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile, nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling, low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication
35.
Hot-dip galvanization
–
Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization. Galvanized steel can be welded, however, one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes, galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 °F. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the metallic layer. Like other corrosion protection systems, galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere, however, zinc is a more electropositive metal in comparison to steel. The process of hot-dip galvanizing results in a bond between zinc and steel with a series of distinct iron-zinc alloys. The resulting coated steel can be used in much the way as uncoated. A typical hot-dip galvanizing line operates as follows, Steel is cleaned using a caustic solution and this removes oil/grease, dirt, and paint. The caustic cleaning solution is rinsed off, the steel is pickled in an acidic solution to remove mill scale. The pickling solution is rinsed off, a flux, often zinc ammonium chloride is applied to the steel to inhibit oxidation of the cleaned surface upon exposure to air. The flux is allowed to dry on the steel and aids in the process of the liquid zinc wetting and adhering to the steel, the steel is dipped into the molten zinc bath and held there until the temperature of the steel equilibrates with that of the bath. The steel is cooled in a tank to reduce its temperature. Lead is either added to primary Z1 grade zinc or already contained in used secondary zinc, a third, declining method is to use low Z5 grade zinc. Steel strip can be hot-dip galvanized in a continuous line, hot-dip galvanized steel strip is extensively used for applications requiring the strength of steel combined with the resistance to corrosion of zinc. Roofing and walling, safety barriers, handrails, consumer appliances, one common use is in metal pails. Other modern techniques have largely replaced hot-dip for these sorts of roles and this includes electrogalvanizing, which deposits the layer of zinc from an aqueous electrolyte by electroplating, forming a thinner and much stronger bond. In 1742, French chemist Paul Jacques Malouin described a method of coating iron by dipping it in molten zinc in a presentation to the French Royal Academy. In 1772 Luigi Galvani, galvanizings namesake, discovered the process that takes place between metals during an experiment with frog legs. In 1801 Alessandro Volta furthered the research on galvanizing when he discovered the electro-potential between two metals, creating a corrosion cell
36.
Papyrus
–
The word papyrus /pəˈpaɪrəs/ refers to a thick precursor to modern paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus. Papyrus can also refer to a document written on sheets of papyrus joined together side by side and rolled up into a scroll, the plural for such documents is papyri. Papyrus is first known to have used in ancient Egypt. It was also used throughout the Mediterranean region and in Kingdom of Kush, the Ancient Egyptians used papyrus as a writing material, as well as employing it commonly in the construction of other artifacts such as reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the fourth millennium BCE, the earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast. The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the Great Pyramid of Giza, in the first centuries BCE and CE, papyrus scrolls gained a rival as a writing surface in the form of parchment, which was prepared from animal skins. Sheets of parchment were folded to form quires from which book-form codices were fashioned, early Christian writers soon adopted the codex form, and in the Græco-Roman world, it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices. Codices were an improvement on the scroll, as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking. Papyrus had the advantage of being cheap and easy to produce. Unless the papyrus was of quality, the writing surface was irregular. Its last appearance in the Merovingian chancery is with a document of 692, the latest certain dates for the use of papyrus are 1057 for a papal decree, under Pope Victor II, and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by more inexpensive paper introduced by Arabs who originally learned of it from the Chinese, by the 12th century, parchment and paper were in use in the Byzantine Empire, but papyrus was still an option. Papyrus was made in several qualities and prices, pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville described six variations of papyrus which were sold in the Roman market of the day. These were graded by quality based on how fine, firm, white, grades ranged from the superfine Augustan, which was produced in sheets of 13 digits wide, to the least expensive and most coarse, measuring six digits wide. Materials deemed unusable for writing or less than six digits were considered commercial quality and were pasted edge to edge to be used only for wrapping, until the middle of the 19th century, only some isolated documents written on papyrus were known. They did not contain literary works, the first modern discovery of papyri rolls was made at Herculaneum in 1752. Until then, the papyri known had been a few surviving from medieval times. The English word papyrus derives, via Latin, from Greek πάπυρος, Greek has a second word for it, βύβλος
37.
Coir
–
Coir, or coconut fibre, is a natural fibre extracted from the husk of coconut and used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes and mattresses. Coir is the material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. Other uses of brown coir are in upholstery padding, sacking, white coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets. The English word coir comes from the Malayalam and Tamil word kayar, ropes and cordage have been made from coconut fibre since ancient times. Indian navigators who sailed the seas to Malaya, Java, China, arab writers of the 11th century AD referred to the extensive use of coir for ship ropes and rigging. A coir industry in the UK was recorded before the half of the 19th century. Coir fibres are found between the hard, internal shell and the coat of a coconut. The individual fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with walls made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls, each cell is about 1 mm long and 10 to 20 µm in diameter. Fibres are typically 10 to 30 centimetres long, the two varieties of coir are brown and white. Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance and it is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. Mature brown coir fibres contain more lignin and less cellulose than fibres such as flax and cotton, so are stronger, white coir fibres harvested from coconuts before they are ripe are white or light brown in color and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are generally spun to make yarn used in mats or rope, the coir fibre is relatively waterproof, and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by saltwater. Fresh water is used to process brown coir, while seawater and it must not be confused with coir pith, or formerly cocopeat, which is the powdery material resulting from the processing of the coir fibre. Coir fibre is locally named coprah in some countries, adding to the confusion, green coconuts, harvested after about six to 12 months on the palm, contain pliable white fibres. Brown fibre is obtained by harvesting fully mature coconuts when the nutritious layer surrounding the seed is ready to be processed into copra, the fibrous layer of the fruit is then separated from the hard shell by driving the fruit down onto a spike to split it. A well-seasoned husker can manually separate 2,000 coconuts per day, machines are now available which crush the whole fruit to give the loose fibres. These machines can process up to 2,000 coconuts per hour, the fibrous husks are soaked in pits or in nets in a slow-moving body of water to swell and soften the fibres
38.
Running rigging
–
Running rigging varies between vessels that are rigged fore and aft and those that are square-rigged. In centuries past, a ships rigging was typically fashioned from rope, in the 19th century this was commonly referred to as Manilla, a reference to the origin of much good quality rope. On modern vessels, running rigging is likely to be made from synthetic fibers, since the 1990s, several new synthetic fibers have become common, particularly on racing and other high-performance sailing boats. These fibers include Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene, Vectran, fore-and-aft rigged vessels have rigging that supports, shapes, and adjusts the sails to optimize their performance in the wind. Halyards, are used to raise sails and control luff tension, in large yachts the halyard returns to the deck but in small racing dinghies the head of the sail is attached by a short line to the head of the mast while the boat is lying on its gunwale. Topping lifts, which hold booms and yards aloft, barber haulers, which adjust the spinnaker/jib sheeting angle by pulling the sheet/sail inboard at right angles to the sheet. Consists of either a ring or clip on the attached to cordage which is secured and adjusted via fairlead. Kicking straps / boom vangs, which control a boom-footed sails leech tension by exerting downward force mid-boom. Normally this is a system of highly geared blocks, of stainless steel wire and low stretch cordage but recently some sail boats have a short spar instead. When sailing downwind the kicking strap is tensioned to stop the boom lifting, cunninghams, which tighten the luff of a boom-footed sail by pulling downward on a cringle in the luff of a mainsail above the tack. The idea is to flatten the sail in heavier weather or when sailing to windward. In its simplest form a steel hook that goes through the cringle. From the hook a cordage tail passes through a turnblock on the deck at the base of the mast, often the tail is split so the cunningham can be operated from either sidedeck in a racing dinghy. Downhauls, which lower a sail or a yard, and can be used to adjust the tension on the luff of a sail, outhauls, which control the foot tension of a boom-footed sail. This is one of the controls for sail fullness. In a racing boat the boom outhaul runs from the sail clew through a block along the inside of the boom. For simplicity many small racing craft have the boom attached to a powerful hyfield lever mounted on the boom or deck. The lever is let off for down wind sailing, so the sail becomes full
39.
Shroud (sailing)
–
On a sailboat, the shrouds are pieces of standing rigging which hold the mast up from side to side. There is frequently more than one shroud on each side of the boat, usually a shroud will connect at the top of the mast, and additional shrouds might connect partway down the mast, depending on the design of the boat. Shrouds terminate at their ends at the chain plates, which are tied into the hull. They are sometimes held outboard by channels, a ledge that keeps the shrouds clear of the gunwales, shrouds are attached symmetrically on both the port and starboard sides. For those shrouds which attach high up the mast, a structure projecting from the mast must be used to increase the angle of the shroud at the attachment point, providing more support to the mast. On most sailing boats, such structures are called spreaders, on large sailing ships, however, particularly square-riggers, the shrouds end at the projections and their loads are carried into the mast slightly further down by futtock shrouds
40.
Boom vang
–
A boom vang or kicking strap is a line or piston system on a sailboat used to exert downward force on the boom and thus control the shape of the sail. The Collins English Dictionary defines it as A rope or tackle extended from the boom of a mainsail to a deck fitting of a vessel when running. The vang typically runs from the base of the mast to a point about a third of the way out the boom. Due to the force necessary to change the height of the boom while a boat is under sail. Hydraulic piston vangs are used on sailboats and controlled by manual or electric hydraulic pumps. The term kicking strap is normally shortened to kicker whilst sailing, on some sailing boats, such as the 49er, rather than a set of lines pulling the boom downwards, a rigid member is used to push the boom down. By controlling leech tension, the boom vang is one of the three methods of controlling sail twist, on small sailboats and some cruising sailboats a vang may be omitted. If a vang is not installed, then the sheet has to try to control both horizontal and vertical angles of the boom, when the boom is near the centerline, the sheet is nearly vertical, and can exert downward force on the boom. As the sheet is loosened to increase the angle of the boom and sail. A vang works with the sheet to apply the force on the boom at all horizontal angles. While under sail, the force to the vang is supplied by the sail itself. When the sail is furled, a topping lift supplies the force on the boom. Some line vang systems incorporate a piston to provide the lift force. Hydraulic vangs can inherently act in the topping lift role
41.
Sheet (sailing)
–
In sailing, a sheet is a line used to control the movable corner of a sail. Sheet derives from Old English scéata meaning the corner of a sail. Fore-and-aft rigs comprise the vast majority of sailing vessels in use today, including effectively all dinghies, the sheet on a fore-and-aft sail controls the angle of the sail to the wind, and should be adjusted to keep the sail just filled. Most smaller boats use the Bermuda rig, which has two or three sets of sheets, The mainsheet is attached to the boom, and is used to control the mainsail. In a rig with no boom on the mainsail, the mainsheet would attach directly to the mainsail clew, a mainsheet is a rope connected to the boom which allows a sailor to control the speed of a boat. The jib sheet attaches to the clew of the jib, the jib has a sheet on each side, only one of which will be in use at one time. The spinnaker sheet attaches to the clew of the spinnaker, if carried, a symmetrical spinnaker has two sheets, an active one and a lazy one, in the same way as a jib, but they are attached to the sails two separate clews. On boats larger than thirty feet, the spinnaker will also be fitted with guys. On smaller boats the lazy sheet is used as a guy, on the smallest boats, a sheet is often a simple rope, pulled by hand, on larger boats, usually on the mainsheet, it is often a system using several blocks to provide mechanical advantage. Square-rigged vessels are much less common, and are large ships. Nevertheless, they too have sheets on the corners of their square sails. They are then not adjusted significantly while sailing until the sail is to be handed again, the lowest sails, the courses, are trimmed using the sheets as these sails are loose footed and are secured to yards only at the head
42.
Halyard
–
In sailing, a halyard or halliard is a line that is used to hoist a ladder, sail, flag or yard. The term halyard comes from the phrase, to haul yards, halyards, like most other parts of the running rigging, were classically made of natural fibre like manila or hemp. A square rig sail with a halyard is mounted on a yard that is free to slide on a short section of the mast. The halyard is used to raise the yard when setting the sail, a gaff rigged sail has two, a throat halyard to lift the end of the gaff nearer the mast, and a peak halyard to lift the outer end. A more modern triangular sail has only one halyard which is attached at its uppermost point, halyards can be attached a number of ways to the head of a triangular sail. The most common methods are as follows, A shackle through a headboard on the sail, a bowline through a hole in the head. A half hitch with a knot, preferred over a bowline because it allows the sail to get closer to the top of the mast. The other end of the halyard is attached to the mast at its foot by way of a cleat. It is convention in some places to fasten the main halyard on the side of the mast. This allows quicker access to the lines in a time-critical situation, jumping the halyard is a technique used to raise a large sail quickly by employing a few crew members to work simultaneously on the halyard. The person jumping stands next to the mast and manually grabs the halyard as high as he can and pulling it down as fast and far as possible. While this crew member reaches for the next heave, a crew member tails or takes up the slack created by the jumper. When the person jumping can no longer pull up the sail simply by hanging on the halyard, to sweat the halyard is to take as much slack out of it as possible. This may be done with a winch, or manually, to manually sweat a halyard, the sweater grasps the line and, in a fluid motion, hauls it laterally towards himself, then down toward the deck, letting the tailer take up the new slack
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
.png)
_fore_course.png)
