1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
3.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
6.
Waterfall
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A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of drops in the course of a stream or river. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of an iceberg or ice shelf. Waterfalls are commonly formed in the course of a river. At these times the channel is narrow and deep. When the river courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly, as the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it plucks material from the riverbed. Whirlpools created in the turbulence as well as sand and stones carried by the increase the erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream, often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one, eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. Waterfalls normally form in an area due to erosion. After a long period of being formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed, a river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a trough, where a stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. Waterfalls can be grouped into ten classes based on the average volume of water present on the fall using a logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls, young Wrote Waterfalls, form and process this work made waterfalls a much more serious topic for research for modern Geoscientists. Ledge waterfall, Water descends vertically over a cliff, maintaining partial contact with the bedrock. Block/Sheet. Classical, Ledge waterfalls where fall height is equal to stream width. Curtain, Ledge waterfalls which descend over a larger than the width of falling water stream
7.
Upper Mississippi River
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The Upper Mississippi River is the portion of the Mississippi River upstream of Cairo, Illinois, United States. From the headwaters at Lake Itasca, Minnesota, the flows approximately 2000 kilometers to Cairo. The collapse of ice dams holding back Glacial Lake Duluth and Glacial Lake Grantsburg carved out the Dalles of the St. Croix River, the Upper Mississippi River valley likely originated as an ice-marginal stream during what had been referred to as the “Nebraskan” glaciation. Current terminology would place this as Pre-Illinoian Stage, the Driftless Area is a portion of North America left unglaciated at that ice ages height, hence not smoothed out or covered over by previous geological processes. Considering the history of Glacial Lake Missoula, something like this is believed to have happened, the Upper Mississippi from below St. Anthony Falls downstream to St. Paul, Minnesota is a gorge with high limestone bluffs carved by the waterfall. Upstream of the waterfall the land slopes gently to rivers edge, downstream of downtown St. Paul the river enters its wide preglacial valley. The states of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Iowa, along with the government, have preserved certain areas of the land along this reach of the river. There are three National Park Service sites along the Upper Mississippi River, the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other two National Park Service sites along the river are, Effigy Mounds National Monument and the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, unlike the Lower Mississippi, much of the upper river is a series of pools created by a system of 29 locks and dams. The structures were authorized by Congress in the 1930s, and most were completed by 1940, a primary reason for damming the river is to facilitate barge transportation. The dams regulate water levels for the Upper River and play a part in regulating levels on the Lower Mississippi. On the upper reaches near the Minnesota-Wisconsin border, the floodplain is between 1.5 and 5 kilometers wide. South of St. Louis, Missouri, the floodplain is approximately 80 kilometers wide. Major tributaries to the Upper Mississippi River include the Missouri, Illinois, Minnesota, St. Croix, Black, the Upper Mississippi provides habitat for more than 125 fish species and 30 species of freshwater mussels. Three national wildlife refuges along the river cover a total of 465 square kilometers, the largest of them, the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge, is over 420 kilometers long, reaching from the Alma, Wisconsin area down to Rock Island, Illinois. The refuge consists of blufflands, marshes, bottomland forest, islands, channels, backwater lakes and it is part of the Mississippi Flyway. Although the river is cleaner than it was in recent decades. The five states bordering the Upper Mississippi River are working together to water quality issues
8.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
9.
Lock (water navigation)
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A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
10.
Dam
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A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
11.
Anthony of Padua
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Saint Anthony of Padua, born Fernando Martins de Bulhões, also known as Anthony of Lisbon, was a Portuguese Catholic priest and friar of the Franciscan Order. He was born and raised by a family in Lisbon, Portugal. He was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 January 1946 and he is also the patron saint of lost things. Fernando Martins was born in Lisbon, Portugal and his wealthy and noble family arranged for him to be instructed at the local cathedral school. At the age of fifteen, he entered the community of Canons Regular at the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Vincent on the outskirts of Lisbon. In 1212, distracted by frequent visits from family and friends, he asked to be transferred to the motherhouse of the congregation, there the young Fernando studied theology and Latin. After his ordination to the priesthood, Fernando was named guestmaster, while he was in Coimbra, some Franciscan friars arrived and settled at a small hermitage outside Coimbra dedicated to Saint Anthony of Egypt. Fernando was strongly attracted to the simple, evangelical lifestyle of the friars, news arrived that five Franciscans had been beheaded in Morocco, the first of their order to be killed. King Afonso ransomed their bodies to be returned and buried as martyrs in the Abbey of Santa Cruz, inspired by their example, Fernando obtained permission from church authorities to leave the Canons Regular to join the new Franciscan Order. Upon his admission to the life of the friars, he joined the small hermitage in Olivais, adopting the name Anthony, Anthony then set out for Morocco, in fulfillment of his new vocation. However, he fell ill in Morocco and set sail back for Portugal in hope of regaining his health. On the return voyage the ship was blown off course and landed in Sicily, from Sicily he made his way to Tuscany where he was assigned to a convent of the order, but he met with difficulty on account of his sickly appearance. He was finally assigned to the hermitage of San Paolo near Forlì, Romagna. There he had recourse to a one of the friars had made in a nearby cave, spending time in private prayer. One day, in 1222, in the town of Forli, on the occasion of an ordination, a number of visiting Dominican friars were present, Anthony objected but was overruled, and his sermon created a deep impression. Not only his voice and arresting manner, but the entire theme and substance of his discourse and his moving eloquence. Everyone was impressed with his knowledge of scripture, acquired during his years as an Augustinian friar, at that point, Anthony was sent by Brother Gratian, the local Minister Provincial, to the Franciscan province of Romagna, based in Bologna. He soon came to the attention of the founder of the order, Francis had held a strong distrust of the place of theological studies in the life of his brotherhood, fearing that it might lead to an abandonment of their commitment to a life of real poverty
12.
History of Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the largest city by population in the U. S. state of Minnesota, and the county seat of Hennepin County. Fort Snelling was established in 1819, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, when land became available for settlement, two towns were founded on either side of the falls, Saint Anthony, on the east side, and Minneapolis, on the west side. The two towns merged into one city in 1872. Early development focused on sawmills, but flour mills eventually became the dominant industry and this industrial development fueled the development of railroads and banks, as well as the foundation of the Minneapolis Grain Exchange. Through innovations in milling techniques, Minneapolis became a center of flour production. As the city grew, the culture developed through its churches, arts institutions, the University of Minnesota, although the sawmills and the flour mills are long gone, Minneapolis remains a regional center in banking and industry. The two largest milling companies, General Mills and the Pillsbury Company, now merged under the General Mills name, the city has rediscovered the riverfront, which now hosts parkland, the Mill City Museum, and the Guthrie Theater. Minneapolis grew up around Saint Anthony Falls, the waterfall on the Mississippi River. French explorer Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut explored the Minnesota area in 1680 on a mission to extend French dominance over the area, while exploring the St. Croix River area, he got word that some other explorers had been held captive. The prisoners included Michel Aco, Antoine Auguelle, and Father Louis Hennepin, on that expedition, Father Hennepin explored the falls and named them after his patron saint, Anthony of Padua. He published a book in 1683 entitled Description of Louisiana, describing the area to interested Europeans, as time went on, he developed a tendency to exaggerate. A1691 edition of the described the falls as having a drop of fifty or sixty feet. Hennepin may have been including nearby rapids in his estimate, as the current total drop in level over the series of dams is 76 ft. The citys land was acquired by the United States in a series of treaties and purchases negotiated with the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota, england claimed the land east of the Mississippi and France, then Spain, and again France claimed the land west of the river. In 1787 land on the east side of the river became part of the Northwest Territory and in 1803 the west side part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1805, Zebulon Pike purchased two tracts of land from the Dakota Indians, in return, he distributed about $200 in trading goods and sixty gallons of liquor, and promised a further payment from the United States government. The United States Senate eventually approved a payment of $2,000, Fort Snelling was established in 1819 to extend United States jurisdiction over the area and to allay concerns about British fur traders in the area. The soldiers initially camped at a site on the side of the Minnesota River
13.
Third Avenue Bridge (Minneapolis)
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The Third Avenue Bridge is a landmark structure of the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota, originally known as the St. Anthony Falls Bridge. It carries road traffic across the Mississippi River and right over the upper fringes of Saint Anthony Falls, the multi-arched bridge meets with Third Avenue in downtown Minneapolis at its south end, but curves as it crosses the river, and connects with Central Avenue on its north end. The shallow S curve in the bridge was built to avoid fractures in the bedrock that supports the bridge piers. The road is also designated Minnesota State Highway 65, construction began in 1914, and it opened four years later in 1918. The bridge, which uses arches of an open design, has been modified since that time. The 2, 223-foot crossing was designed by city engineer Frederick W. Cappelen and it cost US$862,254.00 at the time. List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River Bridges 2005, Third Avenue Bridge - Saint Anthony Main, Third Avenue Bridge - Minneapolis Riverfront District Bridges 2005. Climbing the Mississippi River Bridge by Bridge, Volume Two, Minnesota, media related to Third Avenue Bridge at Wikimedia Commons
14.
I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge
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The I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge crosses the Saint Anthony Falls of the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota in the U. S. carrying north-south traffic on Interstate Highway 35W. The ten-lane bridge replaced the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, which collapsed on August 1,2007 and it was planned and is maintained by the Minnesota Department of Transportation. The planning, design, and construction processes were completed faster than normal because Interstate 35W is an artery for commuters. The bridge opened September 18,2008, well ahead of the goal of December 24. The bridge opened in 1967, and was expected to carry 66,000 vehicles per day, though intended to last fifty years, it collapsed after forty. Originally, the bridge was striped for two lanes in each direction, in 1988, the four shoulders were converted to traffic lanes, accommodating four lanes in each direction. This allowed an increase in traffic flow, by 2004, an estimated 141,000 vehicles crossed the bridge each day. Within hours of the bridges demise, politicians pledged to rebuild the bridge at an accelerated pace. Federal transportation officials pledged US$5 million for the cleanup and recovery, U. S. President George W. Bush signed the legislation on August 6,2007, after visiting the site on August 4. After months of wrangling with Congress over spending proposals, President Bush signed the bill that included funding for the bridge on December 26,2007. Rybak said, Transit needs to play role in this or otherwise we would need to build a much wider bridge in the future. At a public forum in Roseville, hundreds of Twin Cities residents participated in a discussion about the bridge design, the overriding theme of the crowd was a desire to plan for the bridges use of mass transit. Commissioner Molnau, in conjunction with Metropolitan Council Chairman Peter Bell, but Pawlenty, responding to constituents and the mayor, directed Mn/DOT to design the bridge to be light rail-ready. He said the estimated additional $20 to $35 million would be paid for by the state, after the collapse of the bridges predecessor, Mn/DOT announced to potential contractors that they should express their intention to bid on the project by August 8,2007. Mn/DOT announced on August 9 that five companies/consortia had been approved to bid on the project, the lead designer was Figg Engineering, with Ayres Associates providing hydraulic and scour analyses. TKDA of Saint Paul was the engineer of record for the highways, second street bridges, retaining walls, lighting. Disincentives for missing the completion date of December 24,2008 included a $200,000 per day penalty, while incentives to finish early could have been as much as $27 million. On December 17,2007, the first slab of concrete,200 feet long,13.5 feet wide, and 4.5 feet thick, was poured off-site, which began to shape the bridge
15.
Albert Bierstadt
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Albert Bierstadt was an American painter best known for his lavish, sweeping landscapes of the American West. To paint the scenes, Bierstadt joined several journeys of the Westward Expansion, though not the first artist to record these sites, Bierstadt was the foremost painter of these scenes for the remainder of the 19th century. Born in Germany, Bierstadt was brought to the United States at the age of one by his parents and he later returned to study painting for several years in Düsseldorf. He became part of the Hudson River School in New York and their style was based on carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting, sometimes called luminism. An important interpreter of the landscape, Bierstadt, along with Thomas Moran, is also grouped with the Rocky Mountain School. Bierstadt was born in Solingen, Germany, the son of Christina M. and Henry Bierstadt, the following year, in 1831, his family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At an early age Bierstadt developed a taste for art and made clever crayon sketches in his youth, in 1851, he began to paint in oils. He returned to Germany in 1853 and studied painting for several years in Düsseldorf with members of its school of painting. After returning to New Bedford in 1857, he taught drawing and painting briefly, in 1858 he exhibited a large painting of a Swiss landscape at the National Academy of Design, which gained him positive critical reception and honorary membership in the Academy. Bierstadt began painting scenes in New England and upstate New York, a group of artists known as the Hudson River School portrayed its majestic landscapes and craggy areas, as well as the light affected by the changing waters. In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander and he returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches that resulted in numerous finished paintings. In 1863 he traveled west again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition. He continued to visit the American West throughout his career, during the American Civil War, Bierstadt paid for a substitute to serve in his place when he was drafted in 1863. He completed one Civil War painting Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War in 1862, Bierstadts painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langleys Tavern in Virginia. Bierstadts painting received a review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy, he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, in 1867 he traveled to London, where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He traveled through Europe for two years, cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his work overseas, Bierstadts technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West. It accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them, the immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape
16.
Sioux
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The Sioux /ˈsuː/ are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nations many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on divisions, the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. The Santee Dakota reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota, the Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota, collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota, the actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton, are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting, the name Sioux was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640, the name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning little snakes. The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker, the Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning Northern Iroquoian, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake. An alternative explanation is derivation from an exonym na·towe·ssiw, from a verb meaning to speak a foreign language. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag, presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper, the historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, meaning Seven Council Fires. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate, the seven nations that comprise the Sioux are, Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ. The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, the seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850, today the Teton, Santee and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton/Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean friend or ally, referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60
17.
Anishinaabe language
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Ojibwe /oʊˈdʒɪbweɪ/, also known as Chippewa or Otchipwe, is an Indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian language family. Ojibwe is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names, there is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects. The relative autonomy of the dialects of Ojibwe is associated with an absence of linguistic or political unity among Ojibwe-speaking groups. The latter two cover approximately the territory as Central Ojibwa, which he does not recognize. Ojibwe is a relatively healthy indigenous language, the Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only. The Algonquian language family of which Ojibwe is a member is itself a member of the Algic language family, other Algic languages being Wiyot, Ojibwe is sometimes described as a Central Algonquian language, along with Fox, Cree, Menominee, Miami-Illinois, Potawatomi, and Shawnee. The most general indigenous designation for the language is Anishinaabemowin speaking the language, with varying spellings. Some speakers use the term Ojibwemowin, the general term in Oji-Cree is Anihshininiimowin, although Anishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers. Some speakers of Saulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language as Nakawemowin, the Ottawa dialect is sometimes referred to as Daawaamwin, although the general designation is Nishnaabemwin, with the latter term also applied to Jibwemwin or Eastern Ojibwe. Other local terms are listed in Ojibwe dialects, English terms include Ojibwe, with variants including Ojibwa and Ojibway. The related term Chippewa is more commonly employed in the United States, Ojibwe and Potawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation, in a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as Ojibwayan, although no supporting evidence is adduced. The Central languages share a significant number of common features, groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated to Kansas and Oklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma. The presence of Ojibwe in British Columbia has been noted, current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from the 2000 United States census, the Red Lake, White Earth, and Leech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singing hymns in the Ojibwe language. As of 2011, Ojibwe is the language of Red Lake. Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a language with a number of dialects. Conventionally regarded as a language consisting of a continuum of dialectal varieties since
18.
Louis Hennepin
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Baptized Antoine, was a Roman Catholic priest and missionary of the Franciscan Recollet order and an explorer of the interior of North America. Antoine Hennepin was born in Ath in the Spanish Netherlands, in 1659, Béthune, the town where he lived, was captured by the army of Louis XIV of France. Henri Joulet, who accompanied Hennepin and wrote his own journal of their travels, at the request of Louis XIV the Récollets sent four missionaries to New France in May 1675, including Hennepin, accompanied by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle. In 1678, Hennepin was ordered by his superior to accompany La Salle on an expedition to explore the western part of New France. Hennepin was 39 when he departed in 1679 with La Salle from Quebec City to construct the 45-ton barque Le Griffon, sail through the Great Lakes, Hennepin was with La Salle at the construction of Fort Crevecouer in January 1680. In February, La Salle sent Hennepin and two others as a party to search for the Mississippi River. The party followed the Illinois River to its junction with the Mississippi, shortly thereafter, Hennepin was captured by a Sioux war party and carried off for a time into what is now the state of Minnesota. In September 1680, thanks to Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut, Hennepin, Hennepin returned to France and was never allowed by his order to return to North America. Local historians credit the Franciscan Récollet friar as the first European to step ashore at the site of present-day Hannibal, in 1683, he published a book about Niagara Falls called A New Discovery. The Regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton created a mural, Father Hennepin at Niagara Falls for the New York Power Authority at Lewiston, wreckage is located west of South Haven, Michigan. Hennepin Island is in the Mississippi River at St. Anthony Falls, Father Hennepin Bluffs Park lies on the east bank of the Mississippi River adjacent to Hennepin Island. It is administered by the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board and features picnic areas, a bandshell, Hennepin Room at the Minneapolis Hilton The Father Hennepin Memorial stands on the grounds of Saint Marys Basilica in Minneapolis. Its lyrics tell a story of Fr. Hennepin and his leap from the Hennepin Avenue Bridge over the Mississippi River, the truth of much of Hennepins accounts has been called into question — or flatly denied — notably by American historian Francis Parkman. Hennepin has been denounced by many historians and historical critics as an arrant falsifier, certain writers have sought to repel this charge by claiming that the erroneous statements are in fact interpolations by other persons. The weight of the evidence is however adverse to such a theory
19.
Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
20.
Jonathan Carver
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Jonathan Carver was a settler-colonialist who sought to further the colonies westward expansion through invasion and control of indigenous territories. He was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts and then moved with his family to Canterbury and he later married Abigail Robbins and became a shoemaker. He is believed to have had seven children, in 1755 Carver joined the Massachusetts colonial militia at the start of the French and Indian War. In 1757, Carver, a friend of Robert Rogers, enlisted with Burkes Rangers, Burkes Rangers would in 1758 become a part of Rogers Rangers. During the war he studied surveying and mapping techniques and he was successful in the military and eventually became captain of a Massachusetts regiment in 1761. Two years later he quit the army with a determination to explore the new territories acquired by the British as a result of the war, there was a great incentive to discover this route. The king and Parliament had promised a vast prize in gold for any such discovery, the eastern route to the Pacific was around the Cape of Good Hope. That route was both lengthy and contested by competing European powers, eventually, he coerced the Naudowessie people into signing over large swaths of their land on May 1,1767. Carver, Minnesota, Carver County, Minnesota and Jonathan Association in Chaska, Minnesota were named in honor of Jonathan Carver for his exploration, Carver left Fort Michilimackinac at present-day Mackinaw City, Michigan in the spring of 1766. Taking large fur-trading canoes, he traveled the well-utilized trade routes of the French, there was a small Metis settlement at the foot of Green Bay, as well as a French monastery nearby in De Pere, Wisconsin. Carver resupplied here and then continued and he traveled up the Fox River to the Winnebego Indian village at the north end of Lake Winnebago at the site of the present city of Neenah, Wisconsin. Continuing up the Fox River he eventually arrived at the Grand Portage a well used portage between the Fox River and the Wisconsin River. This was a fur trade location because from here furs could proceed from the Great Lakes to the Wisconsin River, hence to the Mississippi. Carver crossed to the Wisconsin River and then traveled down the Mississippi emerging at the great trade encampment at Prairie du Chien, rather than turn south towards New Orleans, his expedition turned north into what is now Minnesota. By the late summer he had reached the Saint Anthony Falls at what is now Minneapolis and he spent some time with the tribe near the falls but turned south, down the Mississippi to find a more suitable place to spend the winter. During this portion of the trip he discovered Carvers Cave and he spent the winter in a tribal village in what is now eastern Iowa. The next spring he encountered James Tute and James Stanley Goddard and they continued exploring and mapping up the Mississippi River through what is now Minnesota, and Wisconsin. They then headed for Grand Portage on Lake Superior, hoping that Rogers had sent supplies there for them
21.
Zebulon Pike
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Zebulon Montgomery Pike was an American brigadier general and explorer for whom Pikes Peak in Colorado was renamed. As a U. S. Pikes expeditions coincided with other Jeffersonian expeditions, including the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis expedition. Pikes second expedition crossed the Rocky Mountains into southern Colorado, which led to his capture by the Spanish, later in 1807, Pike and some of his men were escorted by the Spanish through Texas and released near American territory. In 1810, Pike published an account of his expeditions, a book so popular that it was translated into Dutch, French, and German, for publication in Europe. He later achieved the rank of general in the Army and served during the War of 1812. Pike was born during the Revolutionary War, on January 5,1779, near Lamberton, now called Lamington, in Somerset County, New Jersey. The younger Pike grew to adulthood with his family at a series of outposts in Ohio and he was commissioned as a second lieutenant of infantry in 1799 and promoted to first lieutenant later that same year. Pike was descended from John Pike, who immigrated from England as a child in 1635 and helped found Woodbridge, Pike, though he left no male descendants. This paternal line descends from an ancestor of the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries. Zebulon Pike, Jr. married Clarissa Harlow Brown in 1801 and they had one child who survived to adulthood, Clarissa Brown Pike, who later married President William Henry Harrisons son, John Cleves Symmes Harrison. Pikes military career included working on logistics and payroll at a series of frontier posts, General James Wilkinson, appointed Governor of the Upper Louisiana Territory and headquartered there, became his mentor. In 1805, Wilkinson ordered Pike to find the source of the Mississippi River, so Pike traveled into the northern Louisiana Territory, newly purchased from France. Over 100 years later, France released official records showing General Wilkinson received personal trade concessions, additional objectives of this exploratory expedition into the southwestern part of the Louisiana Territory were to evaluate natural resources and establish friendly relations with Native Americans. Beginning July 15,1806, Pike led what became known as the Pike Expedition, General Wilkinsons son James served as one of his lieutenants, although it now seems that Wilkinson planned that the Spanish who controlled Mexico would capture him and his men. In early November 1806, Pike and his team sighted and tried to climb to the summit of the later named after him. They made it as far as Mt. Rosa, located southeast of Pikes Peak and they had already gone almost two days without food. They then continued south, searching for the Red Rivers headwaters, however, they had crossed the border, whether through confusion or deliberation. Spanish authorities captured Pike and some of his party in what was then northern New Mexico on February 26,1807
22.
Stone Arch Bridge (Minneapolis)
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The Stone Arch Bridge is a former railroad bridge crossing the Mississippi River at Saint Anthony Falls in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is the arched bridge made of stone on the entire length of Mississippi River. The bridge was built to connect the system to the new Union Depot. The bridge was completed on 1883, costing an amazing sum of $650,000 during the time,117 Portland Avenue is the general address of the historic complex. For a time, the bridge was dubbed Hills Folly until the value of Hills new bridge as a rail link became evident. The structure is now used as a pedestrian and bicycle bridge and it is an Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 as a part of the Saint Anthony Falls Historic District. In 1880, Minneapolis was a flourishing city with major commerce mostly located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, while smaller. At that time, the Hennepin Avenue bridge was overused and in desperate need of upkeep, the city’s network of railroads, which was crucial for urbanization, was also located on the east side of the river. With the rapid increase in commercialization, Minneapolis businessmen sought a plan to accommodate the flow of traffic. The idea was to build a depot, similar to the St. The initial planning was conducted during a meeting held near the end of 1881, the stockholders met for the first time immediately the following year and Col. Charles C. Smith was selected as the head engineer. The bridge has been altered somewhat from its original appearance, when the lock and dam was built at Saint Anthony Falls, two of the arches were replaced with a truss so barges could pass through the locks. Later, in 1965, flood waters undermined three of the piers and caused the bridge to sag fourteen inches, the bridge was repaired by strengthening the piers and reinforcing underneath two of the arches. When it was in service, the bridge carried trains of many railroads to and from the Minneapolis Great Northern Depot. The bridge ceased to be used as a bridge in 1978. The most recent renovations—including indirect lighting—were completed in late 2005, the lighting was paid for by private donations. During the summer months, the Stone Arch Bridge is a focus of festivals in the area of St. Anthony Main. The Stone Arch Festival of the Arts occurs Fathers Day weekend, fireworks displays on the Fourth of July and during the Minneapolis Aquatennial in late July also bring crowds, fireworks are launched from nearby Hennepin Island
23.
Fort Snelling
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Fort Snelling, originally known as Fort Saint Anthony, was a military fortification located at the confluence of Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers in Hennepin County, Minnesota. Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, a National Park Service unit, Fort Snelling also refers to an unorganized territory in Hennepin County, Minnesota, containing the former fortification. The Census in 2000 enumerated a population of 442. The Minnesota Historical Society now runs the fort, located atop a bluff along the river, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources runs Fort Snelling State Park, protecting the land at the bottom of the bluff. Fort Snelling once encompassed both parcels, the fort is a National Historic Landmark and has been named a national treasure by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike in 1805 acquired Pikes Purchase for the United States, significant settlement began in the late 1810s. Following the War of 1812, the United States Department of War built a chain of forts and these forts primarily protected the northwestern territories from Canadian and British encroachment. The Army founded Fort Saint Anthony in 1819, colonel Josiah Snelling commanded the 5th Infantry Regiment. Its soldiers constructed the original Fort Saint Anthony from 1820 to 1824, during construction, most soldiers lived at Camp Coldwater, which provided drinking water to the fort throughout the 19th century. The post surgeon began recording meteorological observations at Fort Saint Anthony in January 1820, upon its completion in 1825, the Army renamed the fort as Fort Snelling in honor of its commander and architect. At Fort Snelling, the garrison attempted to keep the peace between the Dakota people. Colonel Snelling suffered from dysentery, and bouts of the illness made him susceptible to anger. Recalled to Washington, he left Fort Snelling in September 1827, colonel Snelling died in summer 1828 from complications due to dysentery and a brain fever. John Marsh, a native of Danvers, Massachusetts, came to the fort during the early 1820s, at the fort, he set up the first school for children of the officers. He also developed a relationship with the local Sioux tribe. He had been studying medicine at Harvard for two years before deciding to leave school without earning a degree and he used this opportunity to read medicine under the tutelage of the post physician, Dr. Purcell. The physician died before Marsh completed the course, so he still had no medical degree. In 1830 Fort Snelling was the birthplace of John Taylor Wood, John Emerson purchased the slave Dred Scott in Saint Louis, Missouri, but he later worked and lived at Fort Snelling during much of the 1830s, having brought Dred and his wife Harriet Scott with him
24.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
25.
Mississippi National River and Recreation Area
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This includes the stretch of Mississippi River which flows through Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. This stretch of the upper Mississippi River includes natural, historical, recreational, cultural, scenic, scientific and this is the only national park dedicated exclusively to the Mississippi River. It is located in parts of Anoka, Dakota, Hennepin, Ramsey, the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is a long name and therefore is frequently referred to as MNRRA or MISS. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area was established in 1988 as a new type of National Park known as a partnership park. Unlike traditional national parks, MISS is not a land owner. Some of the most prominent attractions within the park include the St. Anthony Falls Historic District, the Historic Fort Snelling and the adjacent Fort Snelling State Park, there are many additional attractions, trails, and programs all within the Minneapolis–St. The Minneapolis visitor center offers three free tours daily of the Upper St. Anthony Lock and surrounding area. Each year, the rangers manage community activities, including interpretive sessions, bike rides, and movies, the parks website lists the following locations or features as partner sites. Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Mississippi River Fund The Mississippi River Fund supports stewardship and community engagement programs that support the park and its mission
26.
Ojibwe
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The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, or Chippewa are an Anishinaabeg group of indigenous peoples in North America. They live in Canada and the United States and are one of the largest Indigenous ethnic groups north of the Rio Grande, in Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. In the United States, they have the fourth-largest population among Native American tribes, surpassed only by the Navajo, Cherokee, the Ojibwe people traditionally have spoken the Ojibwe language, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires and the Anishinaabeg, which include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa, the majority of the Ojibwe people live in Canada. There are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe,76,760 Saulteaux and 8,770 Mississaugas, organized in 125 bands, as of 2010, Ojibwe in the US census population is 170,742. Ojibwe are known for their bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, mining and trade in copper. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. The Ojibwe people set the agenda with European-Canadian leaders by signing detailed treaties before they allowed many European settlers into their western areas, in 1745, they adopted guns from the British to defeat the Dakota people in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. The exonym for this Anishinaabeg group is Ojibwe and this name is commonly anglicized as Ojibwa or Ojibway. The name Chippewa is an alternative anglicization, although many variations exist in literature, Chippewa is more common in the United States, and Ojibway predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U. S. since the late 20th century, some 19th-century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies. Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of Lake Superior, marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west, Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is widely spoken. Today, most of the languages fluent speakers are elders, since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language, and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian and its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a Central Algonquian language, however, Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut
27.
Southeast Steam Plant
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The plant was constructed in 1903 to provide electricity for the Twin City Rapid Transit street railway system. It supported the major form of public transportation for 50 years. Minneapolis converted to buses in 1949–1954, and in the early 1950s, the University of Minnesota purchased the plant in 1976 for $1. Captured as the leaves the plant, pressure powers the plant. The plants steam is transported through an 18-mile network of tunnels to the campus buildings, each student pays about $200 for energy and those in residence halls pay $375 a year for heat and air conditioning, water heating and dining services. The plant is university building #059, the universitys Energy Management department, part of Facilities Management, oversees the plant. Foster Wheeler Twin Cities has contracted with the U of M to operate it since 1992, just upstream is the Hennepin Island Hydroelectric Plant operated by Xcel Energy. The universitys Saint Paul, Minnesota campus three miles away has its own plant, in addition the university has generators, pumps and boilers powered by diesel and natural gas, most used only in emergencies, with 11 used as peak shaving units. The university closed the Southeast plant to gut and rebuild the interior, among the cleanest burning power plants in the country, the high temperature fires almost completely consume its fuels—natural gas, coal and wood waste. The plant has tested and been approved for oat hull biofuel, a new fluidized bed boiler is six stories high and capable of burning coal, wood, oat hulls or natural gas. There are two natural gas boilers, one pulverized coal boiler that can also fuel oil. During May and October, the periods of lowest demand, the CFB boiler is not in use, the CFB controls emissions of the acid gases sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride and particulate matter with limestone injection and a fabric filter. The pulverized coal and spreader stoker boilers are equipped with dry gas scrubbers, two boilers have no control equipment but have flue gas recirculation to limit nitrogen oxide emission. The plant emits almost zero sulfur and mercury, the unloading terminal for rail cars and its conveyors are enclosed and equipped with baghouse filters. The outdoor coal bunker is shielded from the wind by concrete retaining walls, storage silos for ash have fabric filters. Environmental groups including the Save Our Riverfront Coalition and Friends of the Mississippi Inc. attempted and failed to move the plant off the river in 1996. Elected officials Phyllis Kahn and Larry Pogemiller, Arne Carlson who was governor of Minnesota, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency approved use of biomass fuels, specifically oat hulls in 2006 but the three years necessary for testing and the approval process lost the source of the hulls. General Mills, makers of the oat cereal Cheerios, had signed a contract by then with U. S. Steel for use in their facility on the Iron Range in northern Minnesota, foster Wheeler University of Minnesota Facilities Management - Energy Management 14th Annual Heritage Preservation Award Winners
28.
Nicollet Island/East Bank, Minneapolis
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Nicollet Island/East Bank is a neighborhood in Minneapolis, Minnesota, situated just across the Mississippi River from Downtown, one of six in the University community. It comprises Nicollet Island and the portion of the eastern riverbank located between Central Avenue and the Burlington Northern-Santa Fe Railroad line, East Hennepin Avenue runs through the middle of the neighborhood, which means it is situated in parts of both Northeast and Southeast Minneapolis. The neighborhood is bounded by Central Avenue, 2nd Avenue NE, due to its proximity to Downtown, the area has seen a wave of gentrification in recent years, with shopping complexes and upscale condominiums built in the area. Minneapolis Neighborhood Profile - Nicollet Island/East Bank Nicollet Island - East Bank Neighborhood Association
29.
Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
30.
Glacial River Warren
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Glacial River Warren or River Warren was a prehistoric river that drained Lake Agassiz in central North America between 11,700 and 9,400 years ago. The enormous outflow from this lake carved a mighty valley now occupied by the much smaller Minnesota River, a part of the uppermost portion of the river channel was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1966. Lake Agassiz was formed from the meltwaters of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Wisconsonian glaciation of the last ice age, Agassiz was an enormous body of water, up to 600–700 ft deep, and at various times covering areas totaling over 110,000 sq mi. The lakes outflow was catastrophic, and carved a gorge through the moraine 1 mi wide and 130 ft deep, which is now known as the Traverse Gap. The channel through the moraine, between Lake Traverse and Big Stone Lake, is now crossed by the divide between the watersheds of the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay and its significance was recognized by designation as a National Natural Landmark under the Historic Sites Act. From Traverse Gap issued Glacial River Warren, from its inception until final abandonment of Agassiz southern outlet, this stream drained the meltwater of that lake to the Mississippi valley. The drainage was not continuous, as Lake Agassiz periodically had other outlets, the Laurentide ice sheet retreated and advanced with climatic variations and these changes in ice cover contributed to isostatic adjustments in the level of the land over which the watercourses ran. These changes in turn uncovered or blocked the other outlets to the sea. While active this turbulent stream cut and eroded a bed up to 5 mi wide and 250 ft deep and this has left a valley which starts at Traverse Gap near Browns Valley, Minnesota, goes southeast to Mankato, then turns northeast to the Twin Cities. Over 1700 years this waterfall retreated upstream and undercut the Mississippi at the site of Fort Snelling, the Mississippi falls migrated upstream to form Saint Anthony Falls and create Minnehaha Falls in Minneapolis. The River Warren falls receded west in the Minnesota River valley until they reached an older buried river valley about 2 mi west of the confluence, from its confluence with the St. Croix the valley continues southeast along the Minnesota-Wisconsin border. River Warrens effects include the creation of bluffs along the valleys of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers, by about 9400 BP, the ice sheet finally retreated sufficiently far to the north that Lake Agassiz permanently took another outlet and receded below the level of Traverse Gap. River Warren then ceased to run, the Lake Agassiz area watershed now feeds the Red River of the North which flows north, ultimately to Hudson Bay. These streams occupy only a small cross-section of River Warrens riverbed, the hydrology of the oversized valley was first explained by General G. K. Warren in 1868. He made a survey of the valley in his search for possible transcontinental railroad routes. Posthumously, in appreciation of this work, the river that was the outlet of Lake Agassiz was named River Warren. Archived from the original on September 10,2008, River Warren boulders, Minnesota, USA, catastrophic paleoflowindicators in the southern spillway of glacial Lake Agassiz. Archived from the original on July 20,2011, ojakangas, Richard W. Matsch, Charles L. Minnesotas Geology
31.
River Warren Falls
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The River Warren Falls was a massive waterfall on the glacial River Warren initially located in present-day Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. The waterfall was 2700 feet across and 175 feet high and these layers were the result of an Ordovician Period sea which covered east-central Minnesota 500 million years ago. The hard limestone cap was formed from fossilized shell fish, about 20,000 years ago, the area was covered by the Superior Lobe of the Laurentide ice sheet, which left the St. Croix moraine on the Twin Cities as it receded. Later the Grantsburg Sublobe of the Des Moines Lobe also covered the area, under these vast layers of ice, tunnel valleys were formed, cutting through the limestone layer with tremendous force, to release ice meltwater and glacier effluence. The result was a series of troughs in the limestone, which were filled by glacial till, sometimes the sediment would be mixed with huge chunks of ice, which would leave voids in the soil, or kettles. These kettles created basins for the Twin Cities Lakes, such as Harriet, connecting the city lakes in several north-south arteries are gorges cut through the bedrock, but filled with sand and sediment. When the great glacial River Warren began running 11,700 years ago, it cut a valley through central Minnesota, through the glacial till. The Minnesota River currently runs in the created by the River Warren. When the river reached present-day St. Paul, the volume of water quickly washed out the till, sand, gravel. The result was the Warren River Falls, plunging 175 feet into a deep gorge, the turbulence caused by huge volumes of falling water washed out the sandstone underneath the falls, causing the thin limestone layer to break off in chunks. By 10,000 years ago, the waterfall had moved upstream to the confluence of the River Warren, by 9400 years ago, it had receded another two miles up to Nine Mile Creek. At that point, Lake Agassiz broke through the ice to the north, River Warren then ceased to flow, but was succeeded by the much smaller Minnesota River which drained a smaller watershed. It carried soil and sediment, but with less energy than its predecessor. It was less able to transport those suspended materials, which precipitated out, eighty feet of this alluvium filled the river valley at Ft. Snelling, and 175 feet were deposited at Saint Paul, refilling much of the gorge. The hydrology of the valley was first explained by General G. K. Warren in 1868. He made a survey of the valley in his search for possible transcontinental railroad routes. Posthumously, in appreciation of this work, the river that was the outlet of Lake Agassiz was named River Warren. When River Warren Falls receded past the confluence of the much smaller Upper Mississippi River, the new falls also receded upstream on the Mississippi, migrating eight miles over 9600 years to where Louis Hennepin first saw it and named St. Anthony Falls in 1680
32.
Sandstone
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Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
33.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
34.
Platteville Limestone
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The Platteville Limestone is the Ordovician limestone formation in the sedimentary sequence characteristic of the upper Midwestern United States. It overlies the thin Glenwood Shale, which overlies the thick Saint Peter Sandstone and it is shot through with dolomitic mottles in an anastomose pattern, this dolotimization occurred after deposition but prior to the development of joints in the rock. This difficult-to-erode unit forms the cap of Saint Anthony Falls and the Mississippi River bluffs in most of the Twin Cities area, many early stone buildings in Minnesota were constructed with this material, which often was quarried at the site. It can often be seen in older neighborhoods as the foundation for a building or a retaining wall, a notable existing example is the Nicollet Island Inn in Minneapolis
35.
St. Peter Sandstone
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The St. Peter Sandstone is an Ordovician formation in the Chazyan stage of the Champlainian series. This sandstone originated as a sheet of sand in clear, shallow water near the shore of a Paleozoic sea and consists of fine-to-medium-size, the extent of the formation spans north-south from Minnesota to Arkansas and east-west from Illinois into Nebraska and South Dakota. The formation was named by Owen after the Minnesota River, then known as the St. Peter River, the type locality is at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers near Fort Snelling, Minnesota. In eastern Missouri the stone consists of sand that is 99. 44% silica. Examples can be seen at Minnehaha Falls in Minneapolis, the bluffs from downtown to Mounds Park in Saint Paul, St. Peter sandstone, also called Ottawa Sand in commercial applications, has a relatively uniform size and shape for each grain. It is used for the manufacture of glass, for filter and molding sand and its purity is especially important to glassmakers. The uniform particle size makes the sand useful for laboratory experiments. St. Unklesbay, A. G, & Vineyard, Jerry D. Missouri Geology – Three Billion Years of Volcanoes, Seas, Sediments, void ratio of sand Argonne National Laboratory, Division of Educational Program Twin Cities Geology - Mississippi National River and Recreation Area
36.
Ordovician
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The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six periods of the Paleozoic Era. The Ordovician spans 41.2 million years from the end of the Cambrian Period 485.4 million years ago to the start of the Silurian Period 443.8 Mya. Lapworth recognized that the fauna in the disputed strata were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian periods. It received international sanction in 1960, when it was adopted as a period of the Paleozoic Era by the International Geological Congress. Life continued to flourish during the Ordovician as it did in the earlier Cambrian period, invertebrates, namely molluscs and arthropods, dominated the oceans. The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event considerably increased the diversity of life, fish, the worlds first true vertebrates, continued to evolve, and those with jaws may have first appeared late in the period. Life had yet to diversify on land, about 100 times as many meteorites struck the Earth during the Ordovician compared with today. The Ordovician Period began with a major extinction called the Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event and it lasted for about 42 million years and ended with the Ordovician–Silurian extinction event, about 443.8 Mya which wiped out 60% of marine genera. The dates given are recent radiometric dates and vary slightly from those found in other sources and this second period of the Paleozoic era created abundant fossils that became major petroleum and gas reservoirs. The boundary chosen for the beginning of both the Ordovician Period and the Tremadocian stage is highly significant and it correlates well with the occurrence of widespread graptolite, conodont, and trilobite species. The base of the Tremadocian allows scientists to relate these species not only to each other and this makes it easier to place many more species in time relative to the beginning of the Ordovician Period. A number of terms have been used to subdivide the Ordovician Period. In 2008, the ICS erected an international system of subdivisions. There exist Baltoscandic, British, Siberian, North American, Australian, the Ordovician Period in Britain was traditionally broken into Early, Middle and Late epochs. The corresponding rocks of the Ordovician System are referred to as coming from the Lower, Middle, the Floian corresponds to the lower Arenig, the Arenig continues until the early Darriwilian, subsuming the Dapingian. The Llanvirn occupies the rest of the Darriwilian, and terminates with it at the base of the Late Ordovician. The Sandbian represents the first half of the Caradoc, the Caradoc ends in the mid-Katian, during the Ordovician, the southern continents were collected into Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole, the small continent Avalonia separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the Rheic Ocean between Gondwana and Avalonia
37.
Franklin Steele
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Franklin Steele was an early and significant settler of Minneapolis, Minnesota in the United States. Born in Chester County, Pennsylvania of Scottish descent, Steele worked in the Lancaster post-office as a young man, where he once met James Buchanan. At that time, the land on both sides of the Mississippi River at St. Anthony Falls was controlled by the U. S. Government as part of the Fort Snelling Reservation, however, by 1837 over 150 squatters had staked unofficial claims on fort property. In 1838, the commander, Joseph Plympton convinced the government to release the east bank of the river for settlement. But Steele surreptitiously staked the first claim on the choicest land before sunrise on the first day of legal settlement, Steeles sister, Abbian, would marry a prominent physician, Thomas R. Potts in 1847. Potts would become the first Mayor of St. Paul, eventually, in 1847, Steele secured financing, in the form of $12,000 for a 9/10 stake in the property. On May 18,1848 president Polk approved the claims made in St. Anthony, the dam extended diagonally into the river 700 feet, was 16 feet high, and was secured to the limestone riverbed. Its thickness tapered from 40 feet wide at its base to 12 feet wide at the top, Steele dispatched logging crews to the Crow Wing River in December 1847 to supply pine for the his sawmill, and by September 1,1848 sawing commenced using two up-down saws. He was able to sell the lumber readily, supplying construction projects in the booming town, the new community at the Falls attracted entrepreneurs from New England, many of whom had experience in lumber and milling. He had hired Ard Godfrey to help build and run the first commercial sawmill at the Falls, Godfrey knew the most efficient ways to use natural resources, like the falls, and the great pine forests, to make lumber products. Godfrey built the first home in St. Anthony, Steele had the town platted in 1849, although St. Anthony was beginning to prosper, the west side of the Mississippi remained firmly under the control of Fort Snelling. Steele knew that whoever could stake their claim on the west bank of St. Anthony Falls would control the half of the vast source of water power. Late in 1849, Steele convinced his friend John Stevens to negotiate a deal to secure 160 acres in present-day Minneapolis, in exchange, Stevens would ferry troops across the river to supply the new Fort Ripley. In the summer of 1851 the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux was negotiated wresting nearly all remaining Minnesotan land from the Indians, in 1852 Congress passed a bill to relinquish 26,000 acres of Ft. Snelling, opening the door for the ultimate development of Minneapolis. By 1854,300 squatters occupied the area, and in 1855 Congress recognized the right to purchase the land they had claimed. The west side quickly developed scores of new mills and consortia and they built a dam diagonally into the river to the north, which, along with Steeles dam created the inverted V-shape, still apparent today. Steele created the St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company in 1856 with three New York financiers, the company struggled for several years, due to poor relations with the financiers, a depression, and the Civil War. In 1868 the firm reorganized with new officers including John Pillsbury, Richard and Samuel Chute, Sumner Farnham, the two communities of Minneapolis and St. Anthony shared the resources of the Falls
38.
James K. Polk
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James Knox Polk was the 11th President of the United States. Polk was born in Pineville, North Carolina, and moved to Tennessee to study law, after building a successful law practice, he was elected to the Tennessee legislature and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825. He left Congress to serve as Governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841, after losing re-election as governor in 1840, and losing in another gubernatorial election in 1842, Polk was a dark horse candidate for president in 1844. Though he entered the convention hoping to be nominated for vice president, in the general election, he defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party in large part due to his promise to annex the Republic of Texas. True to his pledge to serve only one term as President, Polk left office in March 1849. He died of cholera three months later, scholars have ranked him favorably on lists of greatest presidents for his ability to promote, obtain support for, and achieve all of the major items on his presidential agenda. However, he has also criticized for leading the country into war against Mexico. Polk has been called the least known consequential president, James Knox Polk, the first of ten children, was born on November 2,1795 in a log house in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County, just outside Charlotte. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, successful farmer and his mother, Jane Polk, was a descendant of a brother of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. She named her firstborn after her father James Knox, like many early Scots-Irish settlers in the North Carolina mountains, the Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian. While Polks mother Jane remained a devout Presbyterian her entire life, when the parents took the young James to a Presbyterian church to be baptized, the father Samuel refused to declare his belief in Christianity, and the minister refused to baptize the child. In 1803, most of Polks relatives moved to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Middle Tennessee, the family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk turning to land speculation and becoming a county judge. His health was problematic and in 1812 his pain became so unbearable that he was taken to Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, Polk was awake during the operation with nothing but brandy available for anesthetic, but it was successful. The surgery may have left Polk sterile, as he did not sire any children, when Polk recovered, his father offered to bring him into the mercantile business, but Polk refused. In July 1813, Polk enrolled at the Zion Church near his home, a year later he attended an academy in Murfreesboro, where he may have met his future wife, Sarah Childress. At Murfreesboro, Polk proved a promising student, in January 1816, Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina as a second-semester sophomore. The Polk family had connections with the university, then a school of about 80 students, Sam Polk was their land agent for Tennessee. While there, Polk joined the Dialectic Society where he took part in debates
39.
Crow Wing River
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The Crow Wing River is a 113-mile-long tributary of the Mississippi River in Minnesota, United States. Its name is a translation from the Ojibwe language Gaagaagiwigwani-ziibi. A wing-shaped island at its mouth accounts for the rivers name, much of the river is flanked by thick forests. For its first 20 miles the river cuts through low marshy lands, the river broadens and the banks increase in height as it flows southward. Jack pine forest has all but replaced the white and red pine forests on the sandy plains of northern Wadena County. Hazel, blueberries, sweet fern, bearberry, wintergreen, bracken, the Crow Wings lower reaches are flanked by a river bottom forest of elm, ash, cottonwood, box elder, oak, basswood, maple, willow and aspen. Grasslands, bogs and swamps are scattered throughout the river corridor, due to its sandy bottom, limited cover and dearth of deep pools, the Crow Wing is not a good game fish river. Shorthead Redhorse and White Sucker, both fish, are the rivers most common species. The diversity of vegetation along the river supports a variety of wildlife. Canoeists may see turtles, otters, muskrats, beavers, mink, raccoons, gophers, chipmunks, squirrels, bobcats and a small number of black bears also inhabit the river area. It is not unusual to see eagles fishing from the river. Game species include white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse, woodcock and various waterfowl, the Crow Wing supports only a limited number of waterfowl because of sparse aquatic vegetation and a lack of backwater areas. The Dakota Indians held the Crow Wing region until the Ojibwe began moving westward into the region in the early 18th century, by the early 19th century the Ojibwe controlled lands west of the Mississippi and north of the Crow Wing. Signs of Native American presence mark the river corridor, with Native American burial mounds at several sites along the river, fur traders entered the region in the early 18th century. In 1792 the North West Company established the Wadena Trading Post on the west bluff of the river at its junction with the Partridge River, there was considerable overland trade in the area by the 19th century. The Old Otter Tail Trail crossed the river near the Wadena post and was the transportation route between St. Paul and Fort Garry in Winnipeg. Dense forests near the river made Nimrod, Minnesota, an important lumbering center from the 1870s to the early 20th century, by the start of the 20th century most of the virgin timber had been cleared, and the economy came to depend on agriculture
40.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
41.
Sawmill
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A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, the earliest known mechanical mill is the Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating back to the 3rd century AD. Other water-powered mills followed and by the 11th century they were widespread in Spain and North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, the circular motion of the wheel was converted to a reciprocating motion at the saw blade. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand, an early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a source of fuel for firing the boiler, the arrival of railroads meant that logs could be transported to mills rather than mills being built besides navigable waterways. Besides the sawn timber, use is made of all the by-products including sawdust, bark, wood chips, a sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago, a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. After trees are selected for harvest, the step in logging is felling the trees. Branches are cut off the trunk, logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill, debarking removes bark from the logs. Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size, a sawyer uses a head saw to break the log into cants and flitches. Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths, drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried, planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. Shipping transports the lumber to market. The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis and it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa. The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. They are claimed to have introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420
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New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Thomas E. Davis
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Thomas E. Davis was a prolific real estate developer who built residential properties in New York between 1830 and 1860. Davis emigrated from England to New Brunswick, New Jersey, with the intention of setting up a distilling business. When this failed he moved to New York, and with backing from the banking house of J. L. & S. Josephs & Co. began a career in property speculation. In 1831, Davis built Federal style townhouses on both sides of East 8th Street, between Third & Second Avenues, developing the entire block known as St, there are three surviving townhouses from this development, the Hamilton-Holly House at 4 St. Marks Place, the building at 25 St, marks Place, and the best preserved of the three, the Daniel LeRoy House at 20 St. Further developments by Davis in the area included Carroll Place, on the block from Thompson Place to LaGuardia Place, between 1834 and 1835, Davis bought land on Staten Island that ran from the quarantine station to Sailors Snug Harbor. He called the area New Brighton, and built Greek revival style houses on the shoreline, an association of wealthy entrepreneurs was set up to further develop the land and promote the area as a suburb, with easy access to New York via steam ferries. However, almost immediately the financial crisis of 1837 resulted in foreclosure of the association, Davis, with co-partners, re-acquired the development and managed to ride out the recession. Davis lost an amount of money during this period but survived the crash, while the bankers who had initially provided support for Davis, J. L. & S. Josephs. Davis became extremely wealthy, an estate owners list of the period placed Davis third after John Jacob Astor. In the mid 1860s, Davis moved with his family to Italy and he died in Florence on March 16,1878, at the age of 93. Davis and two of his sons-in-law, Frederick C. Gebhard and John F. A. Sanford, Sanford, who had been a frontiersman, was acquainted with the men developing the project and they invited him to invest. He in turn brought in Davis and Gebhard, the relationship between the developers and the New York backers was not good, and finally broke down following the death of Sanford in 1857. Gebhard died in 1865, his brother William H. Gebhard became involved, court action followed, daviss wife was Anne Power, who had been born in Ireland in October 1799. Her brother was John Power, Vicar General of New York, another brother was Irish politician Maurice Power, who married the daughter of Judge Henry Brockholst Livingston. Thomas and Anne Davis had eight children, seven of whom were daughters and they were the only couple to remain in the United States. Their two children were playboy Frederick Gebhard and Isabel, who married Frederick Neilson and their daughter Cathleen married Reginald Claypoole Vanderbilt. Isabel Davis married John Francis Alexander Sanford, a widower twenty-five years older than herself and she moved to Paris after his death with their two children Emilie Sanford and John Francis Sanford
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Panic of 1857
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The Panic of 1857 was a financial panic in the United States caused by the declining international economy and over-expansion of the domestic economy. Because of the interconnectedness of the economy by the 1850s. In Britain, the Palmerston government circumvented the requirements of the Peel Banking Act of 1844, surfacing news of this circumvention set off the Panic in Britain. Beginning in September 1857, the downturn did not last long, however. The sinking of the SS Central America contributed to the panic of 1857, American banks did not recover until after the civil war. By the mid 1850s, the amount of gold mined began to decline, eastern banks became cautious with their loans to the west and some even refused to accept western bank-issued paper currencies. The Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford was handed down in March 1857. After Scott sued for his freedom, Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was an African American and therefore did not have the right to sue in court. The ruling also made the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, and it was clear that the decision would have a significant impact on the development of western territories. Soon after the ruling, the struggle between free soil and slavery in the territories began. The western territories were now opened to the possibility that slavery might expand into them, Kansas land warrants and western railroad securities prices declined slightly just after the Dred Scott decision in early March. This fluctuation in railroad securities proved that political news about future territories called the tune in the land, before 1857, the railroad industry was booming due to large migrations of people to the west, especially in Kansas. With the large influx of people, the became a profitable industry. Many of these never made it past the stage of a paper railroad. Prices of railroad stocks as a whole began to experience a stock bubble, in the meantime, the aforementioned Dred Scott decision lent uncertainty to railroads in general. In July 1857, railroad stocks saw their peak values, on August 11,1857, N. H. Wolfe and Company, the oldest flour and grain company in New York City, failed. The failure shook investor confidence and began a slow selloff in the market continued into late August. On the morning of August 24,1857, the president of Ohio Life Insurance, Ohio Life was an Ohio-based bank with a second main office in New York City
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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