1.
Forest Park (St. Louis)
–
Forest Park is a public park located in the western portion of the city of St. Louis, Missouri, United States. It is a prominent civic center and covers 1,371 acres, opened in 1876, more than a decade after its proposal, the park has hosted several significant events, including the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904 and the 1904 Summer Olympics. Since the early-2000s, it has carried out a $100 million restoration of its facilities through a public-private partnership aided by its Master Plan, changes have extended to improving landscaping and habitat as well. The parks acreage includes meadows and trees and a variety of ponds, manmade lakes, for several years, the park has been restoring prairie and wetlands areas of the park. It has reduced flooding and attracted a greater variety of birds and wildlife. An 1864 plan for a park in the city limits was rejected by St. Louis voters. In 1872, St. Louis developer Hiram Leffingwell proposed a 1, the next year another developer, Andrew McKinley, prepared another proposal that met legal challenges. The tract selected that became Forest Park included a heavily forested 1, using McKinleys proposal as a guide, in 1874 the General Assembly passed the Forest Park Act, which established the park and created a county-wide property tax to fund it. In November 1874, the Missouri Supreme Court upheld the new law and referred all questions of land ownership and value to the circuit court. The largest parcels of land needed for the park belonged to Thomas Skinker, Charles P. Chouteau, Julia Maffitt, and William Forsyth, the city purchased the land for a price of $849,058, with another million dollars dedicated to maintenance and improvement. The state of the parkland in 1876 was rural, on the eastern and western edges of the park were unpaved roads. Flowing through the lowlands and turning southeast in the park was the River des Peres. The southwestern part of the park was heavily forested land, a railroad right-of-way cut through the northeast corner of the park. Maximillian G. Kern and Julius Pitzman, the Prussian-born St. Louis Surveyor, the park was dedicated June 24,1876 with a crowd of about 50,000 in attendance. Officials and a band occupied a music stand and podium, and dedicated a statue of Edward Bates, by the early 1890s, streetcar lines reached the park, carrying nearly 3 million visitors a year. After the closing of the city zoo during this period, its animals were moved to a facility in the park, in 1901, Forest Park was selected as the location of the 1904 Worlds Fair, known as the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The fair opened April 30,1904 and closed December 1,1904, in addition to the fair, the park hosted the diving, swimming, and water polo events for the 1904 Summer Olympics. Fifteen sports offered Olympic competition events, but women could compete only in archery, the 1904 Games were the first time that African Americans were allowed to compete
Forest Park (St. Louis)
–
The World's Fair Pavilion in Forest Park
Forest Park (St. Louis)
–
The
Great Forest Park Balloon Race is an annual hot air balloon competition and show
Forest Park (St. Louis)
–
The 1904 Flight Cage, an
aviary in the
St. Louis Zoo
Forest Park (St. Louis)
–
The Missouri History Museum opened in Forest Park in 1913.
2.
St. Louis, Missouri
–
St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
St. Louis, Missouri
–
From top left:
Forest Park Jewel Box,
MetroLink at
Lambert-St. Louis International Airport,
Apotheosis of St. Louis at the
Saint Louis Art Museum, The
Gateway Arch and the St. Louis skyline,
Busch Stadium, and the
St. Louis Zoo
St. Louis, Missouri
–
An illustrated map by F. Graf; Saint Louis in 1896.
St. Louis, Missouri
–
South Broadway after a May 27, 1896, tornado
St. Louis, Missouri
–
Westward view of St. Louis skyline, September 2008.
3.
Missouri
–
Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited what we now call Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe
Missouri
–
A physiographic map of Missouri.
Missouri
–
Flag
Missouri
–
The
Bell Mountain Wilderness of southern Missouri's
Mark Twain National Forest
Missouri
–
External video
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
–
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1,1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event, more than 60 countries and 43 of the 45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people. Historians generally emphasize the prominence of themes of race and empire, from the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. In 1904, St. Louis hosted a Worlds Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, an additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The fundraising mission was aided by the support of President of the United States William McKinley. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1,1904, the fairs 1, 200-acre site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles of roads and it was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres, exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U. S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, over 19 million individuals were in attendance at the fair. In conjunction with the Exposition the U. S, post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives Kessler, who designed many parks in Texas. A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park, there are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener, second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park, finally, Olmsteds sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design, Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city. Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery, many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited. Florence Hayward, a freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the Worlds Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners, Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
–
The Government Building at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
–
Palace of Liberal Arts
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
6.
The Apotheosis of St. Louis
–
Apotheosis of St. Louis is a statue of King Louis IX of France, namesake of St. Louis, Missouri, located in front of the Saint Louis Art Museum in Forest Park. Prior to the completion of the Gateway Arch, the statue was the symbol of the city. It has served in the iconography of St. Louis for more than a century, the bronze statue that stands in Forest Park today was donated to Forest Park by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company following the 1904 Worlds Fair. It is a replica of a statue that stood on the concourse of the Plaza of St. Louis. The original artist, Charles Henry Niehaus, offered to create a version of the plaster model for a $90,000 commission. However, the took a lower $37,500 bid from a local artist. Niehaus sued the company for infringement of his property rights. It was unveiled on October 4,1906, on the north side of the pedestal is the inscription, Presented to the City of St. Louis by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in commemoration of the Universal Exposition of 1904 held on this site. On either side is, Saint Louis, the statue featured heavily in St. Louis iconography until the completion of the Gateway Arch in the 1960s. The statue in profile is the image on the arms and Distinctive Unit Insignia of the 138th Infantry Regiment of the U. S. Army and it was used as part of the logo for the St. Louis Browns in the 1930s and 40s. In 2008 it was resurrected by St. Louis Soccer United for use on their logo and this transmutation was made legitimate by the reconciling of Arc with Arch. Over the years, Saint Louis sword has broken or stolen a number of times. It was replaced in 1970,1972,1977 and 1981, stealing, and later returning, the sword was considered a rite of passage for students in the engineering program at nearby Washington University. The statue was restored in 1999 by Russell-Marti Conservation Services for $23,000, the Apotheosis of St. Louis, Statue of Saint Louis, King Louis IX of France
The Apotheosis of St. Louis
–
Apotheosis of St. Louis
The Apotheosis of St. Louis
The Apotheosis of St. Louis
The Apotheosis of St. Louis
–
Positioned before the Art Museum
7.
Charles Henry Niehaus
–
Charles Henry Niehaus, was an American sculptor. Niehaus was born in Cincinnati, Ohio to German parents and he began working as a marble and wood carver, and then gained entrance to the McMicken School of Design in Cincinnati. He studied at the Royal Academy in Munich, Germany, the effect of the German study was that he retained much of the Neo-Classical flavor in his art while most other sculptors of his generation were drawn towards Beaux-Arts realism. He returned to America in 1881 and he moved to Rome, Italy, where he worked on the commissions, and made a study of ancient sculpture. He modeled three major male nudes during his years in Rome, including The Scraper and Caestus and he returned to New York City in 1885, and opened a studio. In 1887, he created a statue of Ohioan William Allen, monuments by Niehaus can be found in many American cities. Several of the works authored by him are equestrian statues, as was the case with other sculptors of his day he also fashioned a fair amount of architectural sculpture. In 1900 Niehaus married noted horticulturalist Regina Armstrong and moved to New Rochelle, New York, James A. Garfield, Piatt Park, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1882-87. The Scraper, Brookgreen Gardens, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina,1883, Caestus, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, 1883-85. Bas-relief panel of Surrender of the Hessians, Trenton Battle Monument, Trenton, New Jersey, William Rudolf ODonovan sculpted the colossal George Washington statue atop the monument, and statues of two Continental soldiers flanking the entrance. Thomas Eakins modeled two other bas-relief panels, moses, Main Reading Room, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.1894. Edward Gibbon, Main Reading Room, Library of Congress, Washington, samuel Hahnemann Monument, Scott Circle, Washington, D. C. Hackley Park, Muskegon, Michigan, Bust of Charles Hackley,1890, replicas of Niehauss Abraham Lincoln are at the Buffalo History Museum in Buffalo, New York, and at Library Park in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Bust of Robert Blum, Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio, the Driller, Edwin Drake Memorial, Woodlawn Cemetery, Titusville, Pennsylvania,1901. Equestrian Statue of General Forrest, Nathan Bedford Forrest Grave, Forrest Park, Memphis, Tennessee, apotheosis of St. Louis, Forest Park, St. Louis, Missouri,1906. William McKinley, McKinley Memorial Mausoleum, Canton, Ohio,1907, Niehaus also modeled the lunette bas-relief over the entrance. Benjamin Harrison, Indiana World War Memorial Plaza, Indianapolis, Indiana,1908, James W. Beardsley, Beardsley Park, Bridgeport, Connecticut,1909. John Paul Jones, John Paul Jones Memorial, West Potomac Park, Washington, Niehauss plaster original is at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland
Charles Henry Niehaus
–
Charles Henry Niehaus in 1896.
Charles Henry Niehaus
–
The Driller (1901), Edwin Drake Memorial, Titusville, Pennsylvania.
Charles Henry Niehaus
–
Apotheosis of St. Louis (1906),
Forest Park, St. Louis, Missouri.
Charles Henry Niehaus
–
James A. Garfield (1882–87),
Piatt Park, Cincinnati, Ohio.
8.
Art museum
–
An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
Art museum
–
The Louvre in
Paris,
France, is one of the world's largest museums and
the most visited art museum in the world.
Art museum
–
The Gallery of
Cornelis van der Geest,
Willem van Haecht, 1628. A private picture gallery as an early precursor of the modern museum.
Art museum
–
University of Tartu Art Museum is the oldest museum in
Estonia.
Art museum
–
The art collection at the
Palace of Versailles in
France was periodically open for 'respectable' public viewing.
9.
Paintings
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
Paintings
–
The
Mona Lisa, by
Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.
Paintings
–
Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (
Ming Dynasty)
Paintings
–
Circus Sideshow (
French: Parade de cirque),
Georges Seurat, 1887–88
Paintings
–
Cave painting of aurochs, (
French: Bos primigenius primigenius),
Lascaux,
France,
prehistoric art
10.
Sculptures
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Sculptures
–
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul a Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Sculptures
–
Michelangelo 's
Moses, (c. 1513–1515), housed in the church of
San Pietro in Vincoli in
Rome. The sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by
Pope Julius II for his
tomb.
Sculptures
–
Assyrian
lamassu gate guardian from
Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE
Sculptures
–
Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory with shell inlay
11.
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Washington University in St. Louis is a private research university located in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Founded in 1853, and named after George Washington, the university has students and faculty from all 50 U. S. states, twenty-five Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Washington University, nine having done the major part of their pioneering research at the university. Washington Universitys undergraduate program is ranked 19th by U. S. News & World Report, the university is ranked 23rd in the world in 2016 by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Washington University is made up of seven graduate and undergraduate schools that encompass a range of academic fields. To prevent confusion over its location, the Board of Trustees added the phrase in St. Louis in 1976, Washington University was conceived by 17 St. Louis business, political, and religious leaders concerned by the lack of institutions of higher learning in the Midwest. Missouri State Senator Wayman Crow and Unitarian minister William Greenleaf Eliot, grandfather of the poet T. S. Eliot, the universitys first chancellor was Joseph Gibson Hoyt. Crow secured the university charter from the Missouri General Assembly in 1853, early on, Eliot solicited support from members of the local business community, including John OFallon, but Eliot failed to secure a permanent endowment. Washington University is unusual among major American universities in not having had a financial endowment. The institution had no backing of an organization, single wealthy patron. During the three following its inception, the university bore three different names. In 1854, the Board of Trustees changed the name to Washington Institute in honor of George Washington, naming the University after the nations first president, only seven years before the American Civil War and during a time of bitter national division, was no coincidence. During this time of conflict, Americans universally admired George Washington as the father of the United States, the Board of Trustees believed that the university should be a force of unity in a strongly divided Missouri. In 1856, the University amended its name to Washington University, although chartered as a university, for many years Washington University functioned primarily as a night school located on 17th Street and Washington Avenue in the heart of downtown St. Louis. Owing to limited resources, Washington University initially used public buildings. Classes began on October 22,1854, at the Benton School building, at first the university paid for the evening classes, but as their popularity grew, their funding was transferred to the St. Louis Public Schools. Eventually the board secured funds for the construction of Academic Hall, later the university divided into three departments, the Manual Training School, Smith Academy, and the Mary Institute. In 1867, the university opened the first private law school west of the Mississippi River. By 1882, Washington University had expanded to numerous departments, which were housed in buildings across St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis
–
William Greenleaf Eliot, first president of the Board of Trustees
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Washington University in St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis
–
The Washington University crest at the entrance to
Francis Field
Washington University in St. Louis
–
Brookings Hall Quad
12.
Cass Gilbert
–
Not to be confused with American architect C. P. H. Gilbert Cass Gilbert was a prominent American architect and his public buildings in the Beaux Arts style reflect the optimistic American sense that the nation was heir to Greek democracy, Roman law and Renaissance humanism. Gilberts achievements were recognized in his lifetime, he served as president of the American Institute of Architects in 1908-09, Gilbert was a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order. C. Gilbert was born in Zanesville, Ohio, the middle of three sons, and was named after the statesman Lewis Cass, to whom he was distantly related, Gilberts father was a surveyor for the United States Coast Survey. At the age of nine, Gilberts family moved to St. Paul, Minnesota and he attended preparatory school but dropped out of Macalester College. He began his career at age 17 by joining the Abraham M. Radcliffe office in St. Paul. In 1878, Gilbert enrolled in the program at MIT. Gilbert later worked for a time with the firm of McKim, Mead. He was commissioned to design a number of stations, including those in Anoka, Willmar. He won a series of house and office-building commissions in Minnesota, as a Minnesota architect he was best known for his design of the Minnesota State Capitol dome and the downtown St. Paul Endicott Building. His goal was to move to New York City and gain a national reputation, the completion of the Minnesota capitol gave Gilbert his national reputation and in 1898 he permanently moved his base to New York. His break-through commission was the design of the Alexander Hamilton U. S, custom House in New York City. Commission of Fine Arts from 1910 to 1916, in 1906 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1908. Gilbert served as President of the Academy from 1926 to 1933, modernists embraced his work, John Marin painted it several times, even Frank Lloyd Wright praised the lines of the building, though he decried the ornamentation. C. In particular, his Union Station in New Haven lacks the common of the Beaux-Arts period. Gilberts drawings and correspondence are preserved at the New-York Historical Society, the Minnesota Historical Society, the University of Minnesota, Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minnesota. Cretin Hall, Loras Hall, the Service Center, a building, the refectory building, the administration building in 1894. Only Cretin, Loras, the Service Center, and Grace still stand, Minnesota State Capitol, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1895–1905. Designed in High Renaissance style, the building is not merely a replica of the United States Capitol and its brick dome is held in hoops of steel
Cass Gilbert
–
Gilbert in 1907
Cass Gilbert
–
Gilbert's
Woolworth Building in New York City was the world's tallest building when it was built in 1913
Cass Gilbert
–
The top of the Woolworth Building
Cass Gilbert
–
Battle Hall
13.
Baths of Caracalla
–
The Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy, were the second largest Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between AD212 and 217, during the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. They would have had to install over 2,000 t of material every day for six years in order to complete it in this time. Records show that the idea for the baths were drawn up by Septimius Severus and this would allow for a longer construction timeframe. Today they are a tourist attraction, the baths remained in use until the 6th century when the complex was taken by the Ostrogoths during the Gothic War, at which time the hydraulic installations were destroyed. The bath was free and open to the public, the earthquake of 847 destroyed much of the building, along with many other Roman structures. The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal and it was in use up to the 19th century. The Aqua Antoniniana aqueduct, a branch of the earlier Aqua Marcia and it was most likely reconstructed by Garbrecht and Manderscheid to its current place. At the 1960 Summer Olympics, the hosted the gymnastics events. The baths were the archaeological site in Rome damaged by an earthquake near LAquila in 2009. They were again damaged, though minor, in August 2016 by an earthquake in central Italy, the baths were originally ornamented with high quality sculptures. One of the statues is the colossal 4 m statue of Asclepius. The Caracalla bath complex of buildings was more a leisure centre than just a series of baths, the baths were the second to have a public library within the complex. Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two separate and equal sized rooms or buildings, one for Greek language texts and one for Latin language texts. The baths consisted of a central frigidarium measuring 55.7 by 24 m under three groin vaults 32.9 m high, a double pool tepidarium, and a caldarium 35 m in diameter, the north end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool. The natatio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area, the entire bath building was on a raised platform 6 m high to allow for storage and furnaces under the building. The libraries were located in exedrae on the east and west sides of the bath complex, the entire north wall of the complex was devoted to shops. The reservoirs on the wall of the complex were fed with water from the Marcian Aqueduct. The mithraeum was approximately 23 m long and 10 m wide with a cross-vaulted ceiling, the bath complex covered approximately 25 ha
Baths of Caracalla
–
Baths of Caracalla
Baths of Caracalla
Baths of Caracalla
–
One of the statues that adorned the baths was the
Farnese Hercules.
Baths of Caracalla
–
A section of the complex mosaic floor tiling found in the baths
14.
Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum
–
The Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum is an art museum located on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis, within the universitys Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts. It was founded in 1881 as the St. Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts and it is the oldest art museum west of the Mississippi River. Its collection was formed in part by acquiring significant works by artists of the time. The Museum contains strong holdings of 19th-, 20th-, and 21st-century European and American paintings, sculptures, prints, installations, and photographs. The collection also includes some Egyptian and Greek antiquities, Old Master prints, and the Wulfing Collection of approximately 14,000 ancient Greek, Roman, the museum moved to its current home, designed by Pritzker Prize-winner Fumihiko Maki, in 2006. The museum was established in 1881 as part of Washington University in St. Louis, under the name of the St. Louis School, ives served as the museums first director, and during his tenure, the collection focused on contemporary American artists, notably William Merritt Chase. In 1906, the museum was relocated to the Palace of Fine Arts in Forest Park, in that year, the City Museum of Art was formed, and began to acquire works separately from the private university collection. The university collection would remain on loan to the museum until 1960. In 1941, H. W. Janson joined the museum and began to focus on collecting contemporary European artwork, in order to finance this project, he organized the sale of over 600 objects. Notable acquisitions during this period include works by Pablo Picasso, Max Ernst, Janson also arranged for a permanent home for the museums collection, and in 1960, the museum moved to Steinberg Hall, located on the main university campus. At this time, the museum was renamed as the Washington University Gallery of Art. Recently, the museum has continued to focus on the acquisition of works, including pieces by Jackson Pollock, Robert Rauschenberg. In 2004, the museum was renamed, this time as the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, as a division of the new Sam Fox School of Visual Art. Two years later, in 2006, the moved to a new building adjacent to the old Steinberg Hall. The 65, 000-square-foot expansion was designed by Fumihiko Maki, and is home to the Washington University Art and Architecture library. The Sam Fox School was established in 2005 to link strong studio programs in art and architecture with the resources. Creation of the Sam Fox School follows a nearly $60 million investment in new and renovated art, architecture, the five-building complex includes two new buildings by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Fumihiko Maki, including the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum building. The Sam Fox School is dedicated to the creation, study, the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum has four exhibition spaces, the Barney A. Ebsworth Gallery, Garen Gallery, Bernoudy Permanent Collection Gallery, and teaching gallery
Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum
–
Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap
Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum
–
Academics
15.
Halsey Cooley Ives
–
Halsey Cooley Ives was the founder of the Saint Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts. The institution later became two distinct bodies, the Saint Louis Art Museum, and the Washington University School of Art which includes the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum. Ives was also a painter, but is best remembered for the organization, administration. Ives was born in Montour Falls, New York, then called Havana, to Hiram DuBoise Ives and he studied in the School of Art at South Kensington in England, and took courses at other art schools. During the Civil War he was employed as a draftsman by the United States Government, after the war, he traveled throughout the country and into Mexico, working as a designer and decorator. He settled in Saint Louis, to part of the faculty at Washington University. In 1874 Ives started a free evening drawing class and this was the beginning of the Saint Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts, formally inaugurated in 1879. The museum and school formed the art department at Washington University and his work drew the attention of influential and powerful people in the city. Through the financial support of Wayman Crow a new building for the museum was completed on what is now Locust street in 1881 and he was selected because of his famous broad-mindedness, his interest in the equal representation of all forms of art. In 1894 Ives was appointed by the National Bureau of Education to examine and report upon courses of instruction and methods of work in art museums. He began in Giza and traveled all over the old world, tracing the development of art throughout history, through the efforts of Ives in the 1890s, then a member of the city council, an ordinance was passed authorizing the erection of an art building in Forest Park. There was, however, no funding for such a structure and it was not until the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, or St. Louis Worlds Fair, that such a plan could become a reality. Ives was chosen to be the Chief of the Department of Art at the exposition and this would be his sixth participation in such an exhibition. At the close of the Exposition, the structure that had housed the art show of the fair, was presented to the city of Saint Louis as the permanent home of the art collection Ives ran. Ives introduced a bill into the General Assembly for an art tax to support the maintenance of the museum, the bill was approved by the citizens of Saint Louis by a nearly 4-to-1 margin. However, the citys controller refused to distribute the tax to the board of control, as it was not a municipal entity. The controllers position was upheld in 1908 by the Missouri Supreme Court and this caused the formal separation of the museum from the university in 1909. As a result, the became a public entity
Halsey Cooley Ives
–
Halsey Cooley Ives (1894-94), by
Anders Zorn. Oil on canvas,
Saint Louis Art Museum.
Halsey Cooley Ives
–
Ives and
Charles M. Kurtz, c. 1893
16.
Auditorium
–
An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances at venues such as theatres. For movie theatres, the number of auditoriums is expressed as the number of screens, auditoria can be found in entertainment venues, community halls, and theaters, and may be used for rehearsal, presentation, performing arts productions, or as a learning space. The audience in a theatre are usually separated from the performers by the proscenium arch. The price charged for seats in each part of the auditorium usually varies according to the quality of the view of the stage. The seating areas can include some or all of the following, Stalls, orchestra or arena, balconies or galleries, one or more raised seating platforms towards the rear of the auditorium. In larger theatres, multiple levels are stacked vertically above or behind the stalls, the first level is usually called the dress circle or grand circle. The highest platform, or upper circle is known as the gods, especially in large opera houses, where the seats can be very high. Boxes, generally placed immediately to the front, side and above the level of the stage and they are often separate rooms with an open viewing area which generally seat only a handful of people. These seats are considered the most prestigious of the house. A state box or royal box is provided for dignitaries. Seating arrangement, Seating arrangements in a seating layout will either be identified as “multiple-aisle” or “continental. ”These terms are commonly found in design standards manuals, building codes. Each size is unique, with specific guidelines governing row size, row spacing, basically, a multiple-aisle arrangement will have a maximum of 14-16 chairs per row with access to an aisle-way at both ends. In a continental arrangement, all seats are located in a central section, here the maximum quantity of chairs per row can greatly exceed the limits established in a multiple-aisle arrangement. In order to compensate for the length of rows allowed, building codes will require wider row spacing, wider aisles. Although it would seem like more space is called for, a seating plan is often not any less efficient than a multiple-aisle arrangement. In fact, if it’s carefully planned, an arrangement can frequently accommodate more seating within the same space. In other countries, sports venues have luxury boxes, where access is open to anyone who can afford tickets, auditorium Building List of concert halls Music venue Noise mitigation Smoking ban Concert hall acoustics on-line exhibition
Auditorium
–
The auditorium of the
Vienna State Opera.
Auditorium
–
The auditorium of the Municipal Theatre.
17.
Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)
–
Forest Park is a public park located in the western portion of the city of St. Louis, Missouri, United States. It is a prominent civic center and covers 1,371 acres, opened in 1876, more than a decade after its proposal, the park has hosted several significant events, including the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904 and the 1904 Summer Olympics. Since the early-2000s, it has carried out a $100 million restoration of its facilities through a public-private partnership aided by its Master Plan, changes have extended to improving landscaping and habitat as well. The parks acreage includes meadows and trees and a variety of ponds, manmade lakes, for several years, the park has been restoring prairie and wetlands areas of the park. It has reduced flooding and attracted a greater variety of birds and wildlife. An 1864 plan for a park in the city limits was rejected by St. Louis voters. In 1872, St. Louis developer Hiram Leffingwell proposed a 1, the next year another developer, Andrew McKinley, prepared another proposal that met legal challenges. The tract selected that became Forest Park included a heavily forested 1, using McKinleys proposal as a guide, in 1874 the General Assembly passed the Forest Park Act, which established the park and created a county-wide property tax to fund it. In November 1874, the Missouri Supreme Court upheld the new law and referred all questions of land ownership and value to the circuit court. The largest parcels of land needed for the park belonged to Thomas Skinker, Charles P. Chouteau, Julia Maffitt, and William Forsyth, the city purchased the land for a price of $849,058, with another million dollars dedicated to maintenance and improvement. The state of the parkland in 1876 was rural, on the eastern and western edges of the park were unpaved roads. Flowing through the lowlands and turning southeast in the park was the River des Peres. The southwestern part of the park was heavily forested land, a railroad right-of-way cut through the northeast corner of the park. Maximillian G. Kern and Julius Pitzman, the Prussian-born St. Louis Surveyor, the park was dedicated June 24,1876 with a crowd of about 50,000 in attendance. Officials and a band occupied a music stand and podium, and dedicated a statue of Edward Bates, by the early 1890s, streetcar lines reached the park, carrying nearly 3 million visitors a year. After the closing of the city zoo during this period, its animals were moved to a facility in the park, in 1901, Forest Park was selected as the location of the 1904 Worlds Fair, known as the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The fair opened April 30,1904 and closed December 1,1904, in addition to the fair, the park hosted the diving, swimming, and water polo events for the 1904 Summer Olympics. Fifteen sports offered Olympic competition events, but women could compete only in archery, the 1904 Games were the first time that African Americans were allowed to compete
Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)
–
The World's Fair Pavilion in Forest Park
Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)
–
The
Great Forest Park Balloon Race is an annual hot air balloon competition and show
Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)
–
The 1904 Flight Cage, an
aviary in the
St. Louis Zoo
Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)
–
The Missouri History Museum opened in Forest Park in 1913.
18.
David Chipperfield
–
Sir David Alan Chipperfield CBE RA RDI RIBA is a British architect. He established David Chipperfield Architects in 1985, Rowan Moore, the architecture critic of the Guardian of London, described his work as serious, solid, not flamboyant or radical, but comfortable with the history and culture of its setting. He deals in dignity, in gravitas, in memory and in art, David Chipperfield Architects is a global architectural practice with offices in London, Berlin, Milan, and Shanghai. Chipperfield was born in London in 1953, and graduated in 1976 from Kingston School of Art in London and he studied architecture at the Architectural Association in London, receiving his diploma in architecture in 1977. He worked in the offices of several architects, including Douglas Stephen, Norman Foster and Richard Rogers, before founding his own firm, David Chipperfield Architects. His firm opened an office in Tokyo in 1989 and his first completed projects in London were the gallery of botany and the entrance hall for the Museum of Natural History, and restaurant Wagamama, both in London. His first major project in Britain was the River and Rowing Museum in Henley-on-Thames and he also began to build in Germany, designing an office building in Dusseldorf. Other projects in the 1990s included the Circus Restaurant in London, the latter shop featured a curtain of glass six meters high around the two lower floors, and an austere modernist interior with dark gray sandstone floors and white walls. In 1997 he began one his most important projects, the reconstruction and restoration of the Neues Museum in Berlin and he also constructed his first project in the United States, an extension of the Museum of ethnology and natural history in Anchorage, Alaska. In 2013 he opened the Jumex Museum in Mexico City, and his most remote project was the Museum of Naga, on a site in the desert 170 kilometers northeast of Khartoum in Sudan, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. He designed a structure to preserve the remains of two ancient temples and a well, dating to 300 B. C. -300 A. D. The building, built of the stone, blends into reddish mountains around it. In 2015, Chipperfield won a competition to redesign the modern and he also began his first ground-up building in New York City, the Bryant, a thirty-three story hotel and condominium project next to Bryant Park in Manhattan. The building is a blend of modernist and traditional forms and materials and it was inspired by the form of traditional boat sheds, as well as the traditional barns of Oxfordshire. The building occupies a space of 2300 square meters, and is lifted above the ground on concrete pillars to avoid flooding, the exterior and parts of the interior are covered in planks of non-treated oak, matching the local rural architecture. The roofs and sunscreens are of steel, The entrance has glass walls. The Des Moines Public Library in Des Moines, Iowa, covers an area of 110,000 square feet, the two-story building has no front or back, instead it fans out into three wings. A glass tunnel allows passers-by to stroll through the library, the Museum of Modern Literature is located in the town of Marbach, Germany, the birthplace of the poet Schiller. and benefits from a panoramic view of the Neckar River
David Chipperfield
–
Sir David Chipperfield
David Chipperfield
–
Neues Museum, Berlin
David Chipperfield
–
Housing building in Madrid
David Chipperfield
–
City of Justice, Barcelona
19.
Landscape architect
–
A landscape architect is a person who is educated in the field of landscape architecture. The title landscape architect was first used by Frederick Law Olmsted and this definition of the profession of landscape architect is based on the International Standard Classification of Occupations, International Labour Office, Geneva. Some notable Australian landscape architects include William Guilfoyle, Ina Higgins, Edna Walling, after at least two years of recognised professional practice, graduates may submit for further assessment to obtain full professional recognition by the AILA. The Landscape Institute is the recognised body relating to the field of Landscape architecture throughout the UK, to become a recognised landscape architect in the UK takes approximately 7 years. To begin the process, one has to study a course by the Landscape Institute to obtain a bachelors degree in Landscape Architecture or a similar field. Following this one must progress onto a Postgraduate Diploma in the field of Landscape Architecture covering the subject in far greater detail such as urban planning, construction. Following this, the trainee must complete the Pathway to Chartership and those in this field work both to create an aesthetically pleasing setting and also to protect and preserve the environment in an area. The actual activities however are common to most human cultures around the globe for several millennia, in the U. S. a need to formalize the practice and name were resolved in 1899 with the formation of the American Society of Landscape Architects. Developing policies and plans and implementing and monitoring proposals for conservation and recreation such as national parks. Contributing to the planning, aesthetic and functional design, location, management and maintenance of such as roads, dams, wind farms and other energy. Undertaking landscape assessments including environmental and visual impact assessments to prepare policies or inform new developments, monitoring the realisation and inspecting the construction of proposals to ensure compliance with plans, specifications of work, cost estimates and time schedules. Project management of large scale landscape planning and design projects including management of other such as engineers, architects. Acting as a witness in Development and Environment Courts Kerb 15. Launched by Charles Waldheim, April 2007, content includes articles and interviews from Charles Waldheim, Mohsen Mostafavi, Alejandro Zaera-Polo, Kathryn Gustafson, Bart Brands and Richard Weller. Landscape design software List of landscape architects Job Description at the U. S. Department of Labor
Landscape architect
–
Business card for
Humphry Repton by
Thomas Medland
Landscape architect
–
An example of landscape architecture. (The Italian Garden, Gardens of the world, Berlin-Marzahn, Germany)
20.
Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum
–
HOK, formerly Hellmuth, Obata + Kassabaum, is an American worldwide design, architecture, engineering and urban planning firm. As of 2016, HOK is the largest U. S. -based architecture-engineering firm, the firm maintains more than 1,800 professional staff across a global network of 23 offices and is active in all major architectural specialties. Its senior leaders are located in different locations across the world. HOK was established in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1955, the design firm started with 26 employees and its three founders. The practices first building designs were schools in St. Louis suburbs, another prominent school they designed was the Saint Louis Priory School. Also in 1968, HOK launched its interior design practice, HOK also expanded into Washington, DC, after winning the commission to design the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. In 1973, HOK established a presence in New York by acquiring Kahn & Jacobs, in 1979, George Kassabaum was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. In 1983, HOK formed HOK Sport Venue Event, which became a leader in designing sport stadiums, arenas, in January 2009, the Board of HOK Group, Inc. and managers of HOK Sports Facilities, LLC transferred ownership of HOK Sport to leaders of that practice. The company became an independent firm, and rebranded itself as Populous, HOKs first office outside the United States opened in Hong Kong in 1984. In 1987, the opened a London office and then, in 1995. In November 1994, HOK acquired CRSS Architects, Inc. based in Houston, Texas, adding offices in Houston, HOK established its first offices in Canada in 1997 with the acquisition of Urbana Architects. In 2004, George Hellmuths nephew, William Hellmuth, was named president of the firm, by 2007, international work represented more than 40% of HOKs annual revenue. In 2008, HOK opened an office in Mumbai, India, in 2010, it established an office in Seattle, Washington. In 2012, HOK Chairman Bill Valentine retired after 50 years with the firm, HOK Chief Executive Officer Patrick MacLeamy, FAIA, assumed the role of chairman. In 2013, HOK acquired the New York and Shanghai offices of hospitality design firm BBG-BBGM, bBG-BBGMs office in Washington, D. C. continues to operate as BBGM. In 2014, ORO Editions published “HOK Tall Buildings, ” a 300-page book exploring the design of the contemporary high-rise, the acquisition enabled HOK to launch a new global Sports + Recreation + Entertainment design practice and to open new offices in Kansas City and Columbus, Ohio. In January 2016, HOK announced that Bill Hellmuth, the president, would succeed Patrick MacLeamy as CEO. MacLeamy continued to serve as chairman of HOK, in 1983, HOK introduced HOK Draw, computer-aided drafting software products that specialized in conceptual architectural design
Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum
–
HOK
Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum
–
HOK founding partners George Hellmuth,
Gyo Obata and George Kassabaum
Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum
–
Priory Chapel at
Saint Louis Abbey
Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum
–
National Air and Space Museum in
Washington, D.C.
21.
The Americas
–
The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
The Americas
–
CIA political map of the Americas in
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection
The Americas
–
The Americas
The Americas
–
Parkin Site, a Mississippian site in Arkansas, circa 1539.
The Americas
–
World map of
Waldseemüller (Germany, 1507), which first used the name America (in the lower-left section, over South America)
22.
Islamic
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islamic
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islamic
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islamic
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
23.
Contemporary art
–
Contemporary art is the art of today, produced by artists who are living in the twenty-first century. Contemporary art provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary society and the relevant to ourselves. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that challenge traditional boundaries and defy easy definition. In vernacular English, modern and contemporary are synonyms, resulting in some conflation of the modern art. Some define contemporary art as art produced within our lifetime, recognizing that lifetimes, however, there is a recognition that this generic definition is subject to specialized limitations. The classification of art as a special type of art, rather than a general adjectival phrase. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded in 1910 by the critic Roger Fry and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in public museums. A number of other institutions using the term were founded in the 1930s, such as in 1938 the Contemporary Art Society of Adelaide, Australia, particular points that have been seen as marking a change in art styles include the end of World War II and the 1960s. There has perhaps been a lack of natural break points since the 1960s, and definitions of what contemporary art in the 2010s vary. Art from the past 20 years is likely to be included, and definitions often include art going back to about 1970, the art of the late 20th and early 21st century. Many use the formulation Modern and Contemporary Art, which avoids this problem, smaller commercial galleries, magazines and other sources may use stricter definitions, perhaps restricting the contemporary to work from 2000 onwards. One of the many people have in approaching contemporary artwork is its diversity - diversity of material, form, subject matter. It is distinguished by the lack of a uniform organizing principle, ideology, or -ism that we so often see in other. Broadly speaking, we see Modernism as looking at modernist principals - the focus of the work is self-referential, likewise, Impressionism looks at our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism. Contemporary art, on the hand, does not have one. Its view, instead, is refracted, prismatic, and multi-faceted, reflecting the diversity of the world today, in all of its complexities, contemporary art reflects life as we know it. It can be, therefore, contradictory, confusing, and open-ended, there are, however, a number of common themes that have appeared in contemporary works. Post-modern, post-structuralist, feminist, and Marxist theory have played important roles in the development of theories of art
Contemporary art
–
History of art
Contemporary art
–
The
Museum of Contemporary Art in
Miami, Florida.
24.
Decorative Arts
–
The decorative arts are arts or crafts concerned with the design and manufacture of beautiful objects that are also functional. It includes interior design, but not usually architecture, the decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the fine arts, namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale sculpture, which generally have no function other than to be seen. The distinction between the decorative and the arts has essentially arisen from the post-Renaissance art of the West. This distinction is less meaningful when considering the art of other cultures and periods. For example, Islamic art in many periods and places consists entirely of the arts, often using geometric and plant forms. The distinction between decorative and fine arts is not very useful for appreciating Chinese art, and neither is it for understanding Early Medieval art in Europe, large-scale wall-paintings were much less regarded, crudely executed, and rarely mentioned in contemporary sources. They were probably seen as a substitute for mosaic, which for this period must be viewed as a fine art. The term ars sacra is sometimes used for medieval Christian art done in metal, ivory, textiles, illuminated manuscripts have a much higher survival rate, especially in the hands of the church, as there was little value in the materials and they were easy to store. Most European art during the Middle Ages had been produced under a different set of values. The lower status given to works of art in contrast to fine art narrowed with the rise of the Arts and Crafts Movement. This aesthetic movement of the half of the 19th century was born in England and inspired by William Morris. The movement represented the beginning of an appreciation of the decorative arts throughout Europe. Many converts, both professional artists ranks and from among the intellectual class as a whole, helped spread the ideas of the movement. The influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement led to the arts being given a greater appreciation and status in society. Until the enactment of the Copyright Act 1911 only works of art had been protected from unauthorised copying. The 1911 Act extended the definition of a work to include works of artistic craftsmanship
Decorative Arts
–
The front side of the
Cross of Lothair (c. 1000), a classic example of "Ars Sacra"
Decorative Arts
–
Surahi,
Mughal, 17th Century CE.
National Museum, New Delhi
Decorative Arts
–
Chinese bowl,
Northern Song Dynasty, 11th or 12th century, porcelaneous pottery with
celadon glaze
25.
Modernism
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
Modernism
Modernism
–
Eugène Delacroix 's
Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a
Romantic work of art
Modernism
–
A
Realist portrait of
Otto von Bismarck
Modernism
–
Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper,
The Art Institute of Chicago
26.
Ocean
–
An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
Ocean
–
Surface of the
Atlantic Ocean meeting
Earth 's
planetary boundary layer and
troposphere.
Ocean
–
Artist's conception of subsurface ocean of Enceladus confirmed April 3, 2014.
Ocean
–
Two models for the composition of Europa predict a large subsurface ocean of liquid water. Similar models have been proposed for other celestial bodies in the Solar System
Ocean
–
Diagram showing a possible internal structure of
Ceres
27.
Mesoamerican
–
It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas along with Norte Chico in present-day northern coastal Peru. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures, while Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important. Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf coast of Mexico and extended inland, frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala and Oaxaca laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica and this Formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of such as El Mirador, Calakmul and Tikal. Mesoamerica is one of three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around AD600, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. During the early period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec. Towards the end of the period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico, Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area, and the term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico, 10° and 22° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. A main distinction groups these different niches into two categories, the lowlands and the altiplanos, or highlands. In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatan to the humid southern Pacific, several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid, the Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups, the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands, the southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize
Mesoamerican
–
Maya Ruins of
Tazumal in
Santa Ana, El Salvador
Mesoamerican
–
Mesoamerica and its cultural areas
Mesoamerican
–
Landscape of the Mesoamerican highlands
Mesoamerican
–
Tikal is one of the largest archaeological sites, urban centers, and tourist attractions of the
pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the
Petén Basin in what is now northern
Guatemala.
28.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
29.
Printmaking
–
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
Printmaking
–
Rembrandt,
Self-portrait,
etching, c.1630.
Printmaking
–
Mount Fuji, from the
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, color
woodcut by
Katsushika Hokusai
Printmaking
–
Francisco Goya, There is No One To Help Them,
Disasters of War series,
aquatint c.1810.
Printmaking
–
External video
