1.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
2.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
3.
Drilling rig
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A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, the term rig therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earths crust. Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe, other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas, and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews. Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle. Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs and this frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i. e. completions vs. drilling. New portable drillcat technology uses smaller portable trailer mounted rigs with shorter 3-metre drill pipe, the shorter drill pipe also allows a much smaller mast. Portable trailer mounted drilling rigs have drill ratings from 90 to 200 metres depending on mud pump flow and pressure ratings, other, heavier, truck rigs are more complicated, thus requiring more skill to run. Theyre also more difficult to handle due to the longer 6-to-9-metre drill pipe. Large truck rigs also require a much higher overhead clearance to operate, large truck drills can use over 570 litres of fuel per day, while the smaller Deeprock Style portable drills use a mere 20 to 75 litres of fuel per day. This makes smaller, more portable rigs preferable in remote or hard-to-reach places, Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split and larger production holes. Underground mining uses a variety of drill rigs dependent on the purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling. Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the drilling of wells for the manufacture of salt began by the Song Dynasty in China. The well had a small mouth, as small as a small bowl. Archaeological evidence of the tools used in deep-well dwelling are kept. According to Salt, A World History, a Qing Dynasty well, also located in Zigong, diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception. In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature, in more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a crane and are more usually used to drill water wells
4.
Floating production storage and offloading
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A Floating Production, Storage and Offloading unit is a floating vessel used by the offshore oil and gas industry for the production and processing of hydrocarbons, and for the storage of oil. FPSOs are preferred in frontier offshore regions as they are easy to install, FPSOs can be a conversion of an oil tanker or can be a vessel built specially for the application. A vessel used only to store oil is referred to as a Floating Storage, emerging new type of FLNG facilities will be used. Unlike FPSOs apart of gas production, storage and offloading, they also allow full scale deep processing, same as onshore LNG plant has to offer. First 3 FLNGs are under construction, Prelude FLNG, PFLNG1, oil has been produced from offshore locations since the late 1940s. Originally, all oil platforms sat on the seabed, but as exploration moved to deeper waters and more distant locations in the 1970s, the first oil FPSO was the Shell Castellon, built in Spain in 1977. Today, over 270 vessels are deployed worldwide as oil FPSOs, on July 29,2009, Shell and Samsung announced an agreement to build up to 10 LNG FPSOs, at same Samsung Yard Flex LNG appeared to construct smaller units. Royal Dutch Shell, LNG FPSO, Samsung Heavy Industries at a cost of $12 Billion, in June 2012, Petronas made a contract of procurement engineering, construction, installation and commissioning, a project with the Technip and DSME consortium. The unit is destined for the Kanowit gas field off Sarawak and it is expected to be the Worlds First Floating Liquefaction Unit in operation when completed in 2015. Oil produced from offshore production platforms can be transported to the mainland either by pipeline or by tanker, Floating production, storage and offloading vessels are particularly effective in remote or deep water locations, where seabed pipelines are not cost effective. FPSOs eliminate the need to lay expensive long-distance pipelines from the facility to an onshore terminal. This can provide an attractive solution for smaller oil fields. Furthermore, once the field is depleted, the FPSO can be moved to a new location, a Floating Storage and Offloading unit is essentially a simplified FPSO, without the capability for oil or gas processing. Most FSOs are converted single hull supertankers, an example is Knock Nevis, ex Seawise Giant, which for many years was the worlds largest ship. It has been converted to an FSO for use offshore, FSO, Floating Storage and Offloading FPSO, Floating Production, Storage and Offloading FDPSO, Floating, Drilling and Production, Storage and Offloading FSRU, Floating Storage Regasification Unit. In addition to the records already mentioned, a few more are added in this section. The FPSO operating in the deepest waters is the FPSO BW Pioneer, built, the FPSO is moored at a depth of 2,600 m in Block 249 Walker Ridge in the US Gulf of Mexico and is rated for 80,000 bbl/d. The EPCI contract was awarded in October 2007 and production started in early 2012, the FPSO conversion was carried out at MMHE Shipyard Pasir Gudang in Malaysia, while the topsides were fabricated in modules at various international vendor locations
5.
Nord Stream
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Nord Stream is an offshore natural gas pipeline from Vyborg in the Russian Federation to Greifswald in Germany that is owned and operated by Nord Stream AG. The project includes two parallel lines, the first line was laid by May 2011 and was inaugurated on 8 November 2011. The second line was laid in 2011–2012 and was inaugurated on 8 October 2012, at 1,222 kilometres in length, it is the longest sub-sea pipeline in the world, surpassing the Langeled pipeline. It has a capacity of 55 billion cubic metres, but its capacity is planned to be doubled to 110 billion cubic metres by 2019. Due to EU restrictions on Gazprom, only 22.5 billion cubic metres of its capacity is actually used, the name occasionally has a wider meaning, including the feeding onshore pipeline in the Russian Federation, and further connections in Western Europe. North Transgas cooperated with the German gas company Ruhrgas, a route survey in the Exclusive Economic Zones of Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Germany, and a feasibility study of the pipeline was conducted in 1998. Several routes were considered including routes with onshore segments through Finland, on 24 April 2001, Gazprom, Fortum, Ruhrgas and Wintershall adopted a statement regarding a joint feasibility study for construction of the pipeline. On 18 November 2002, the Management Committee of Gazprom approved a schedule of project implementation, in May 2005, Fortum withdrew from the project and sold its stake in North Transgas to Gazprom. As a result, Gazprom became the shareholder of North Transgas Oy. On 8 September 2005, Gazprom, BASF and E. ON signed an agreement on the construction of a North European Gas Pipeline. On 30 November 2005, the North European Gas Pipeline Company was incorporated in Zug, on 9 December 2005, Gazprom started construction of the Russian onshore feeding pipeline. On 4 October 2006, the pipeline and the company were officially renamed Nord Stream AG. The final report on environmental impact assessment was delivered on 9 March 2009. On 19 March 2007, Nord Stream AG mandated Italian company Snamprogetti, a letter of intent for construction works was signed with Saipem on 17 September 2007 and the contract was concluded on 24 June 2008. A. The supply contracts for the line were awarded to OMK, Europipe. The agreement to take N. V. Nederlandse Gasunie to the consortium as the partner, was signed on 6 November 2007. On 10 June 2008, Gasunie was included in the register of shareholders, on 1 March 2010, French energy company GDF Suez signed with Gazprom a memorandum of understanding to acquire 9% stake in the project. The transaction was closed in July 2010, on 21 December 2007, Nord Stream AG submitted application documents to the Swedish government for the pipeline construction in the Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone
6.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
7.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest
8.
Cape Town
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Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
9.
Enel
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Enel is an Italian multinational manufacturer and distributor of electricity and gas. Enel, which stood for National Board for Electricity, was first established as a public body at the end of 1962. In 1999, following the liberalization of the electricity market in Italy, as of February 2015, the Italian government is the owner of 25. 5% of the companys shares. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, in 1898, the production of electricity in Italy was of 100 million kilowatt hours reaching a value of over $56 billion by 1960. The state subsidized the construction of stations and any necessary construction work in the territory in order to increase the production of electricity. During the Chamber of Deputies assembly of 26 June 1962, the government presented a bill that sanctioned the principles and procedures for the establishment of the Entity for Electricity. Procedures to assess the value of the companies were defined. In this framework,1962 was to be considered a year, in which all income. 1963 was thus the first operational year of the newly formed company and these projects were to be co-financed by the state through the issuing - in 1965 - of bonds of a value of over 200 billion Italian liras. In 1967 Enel’s supervision was redirected from the Committee of Ministers to the interministerial Committee for Economic Planning, during this period, the production of thermoelectric power surpassed for the very first time that of hydroelectric power. In terms of rural electrification the settlements that were not connected to the electricity grid went from 1. 27% in 1960 to 0. 46% in 1964, with over 320,000 new residents connected. In 1968, the work of the 380 kV connection between Florence and Rome began with the aim of joining the high voltage electrical system of the north with that of the south centre. Around the same time international high voltage connections with France and Switzerland were also put in place, in the same years undersea electrical cables were put in place to connect the peninsula and the islands of Elba, Ischia and Sardinia through Corsica. Enel was involved in the Vajont Dam disaster, which place at the Vajont reservoir. On 9 October 1963 a huge landslide of 260 million cubic metres fell into the reservoir, the dam and power plant had been built by SADE and then sold to Edison and had just been transferred as part of the nationalisation process to the newly set up Enel. Approximately two thousand people died in the disaster, Enel and Montedison, were charged at the ensuing trial as the companies responsible for the disaster, a responsibility considered all more serious because of the predictability of the event. The two companies were forced to pay damages to the involved in the catastrophe. This was to be achieved with the use of energy sources, which included hydro, geothermal, increasing the use of coal
10.
Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena
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According to the announcements of BMPS and Banco BPM, Bancao BPM had overtook as the third largest bank in terms of total assets on 31 December 2016. Since the end of 2016, BMPS is struggling to avoid a collapse, founded in 1472 by the magistrates of the city state of Siena, Italy, as a mount of piety, it has been operating ever since. In 1995 the bank, then known as Monte dei Paschi di Siena, was transformed from a corporation to a limited company called Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena. The Fondazione Monte dei Paschi di Siena was created to continue the charitable functions of the bank and to be, until the bailout in 2013, its largest single shareholder. Today Banca MPS has approximately 2,000 branches,26,000 employees and 5.1 million customers in Italy, a subsidiary, MPS Capital Services, handles corporate and investment banking. Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena was founded by order of the Magistrature of the Republic of Siena as Monte di Pietà in 1472, since then the bank has been in operation without interruption to the present day. It is therefore considered the oldest bank in the still operating. The basis of its foundation is the Statuto dei Paschi, written in 1419, the bank consolidated and increased its banking activity during the 17th and 18th centuries. With the unification of Italy, the bank expanded its business throughout the Italian peninsula, initiating new activities, including mortgage loans, MPS was also involved in the bail-out of Cassa di Risparmio di Prato, becoming the major shareholder. In 1995, a decree of the Ministry of the Treasury of the Italian Republic dated 8 August 1995, on 25 June 1999, Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena was listed successfully on the Italian Stock Exchange. After its debut on the Italian Stock Exchange, the bank began a phase of commercial and operational expansion. The bank acquired some regional banks, Banca Agricola Mantovana and Banca del Salento, in 2003, the controlling interests of Cassa di Risparmio di Prato was sold to Banca Popolare di Vicenza in March 2003 for €411.2 million. The bank had started a process to reinforce the structures of production in strategic market segments through the development of product companies. At the conclusion of this plan of expansion, the bank implemented a vast program of opening new branches of the Group, in order to finance this expansion model, the bank entered into some derivatives that were hidden, operations Santorini in 2002 and Alexandria in 2006. From February 2007 to June 2008 Banca MPS sold all the shares in Finsoe, Banca MPS also acquired regional bank Cassa di Risparmio di Biella e Vercelli from Intesa Sanpaolo in December 2007 for about €399 million. The majority owner until the recapitalization, the Fondazione Monte dei Paschi di Siena, in September 2012, even after the dilution, the bank appear poised also to give the national government a greater ownership stake in return for more capital. In December 2012, Cassa di Risparmio di Biella e Vercelli was sold to Cassa di Risparmio di Asti for about €205.5 million, in 2009, the Santorini and Alessandria operations began creating huge losses. In order to them in the banks financial statements, the top management, including Giuseppe Mussari
€8.999 billion (2017)[1]
€126 million (2017)[1]
