1.
Javanese language
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Javanese /dʒɑːvəˈniːz/ is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java and it is the native language of more than 98 million people. Javanese is one of the Austronesian languages, but it is not particularly close to other languages and is difficult to classify and its closest relatives are the neighbouring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese and Balinese. There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia and Singapore, some people of Javanese descent in Suriname speak a creole descendant of the language. The language is spoken in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java, in Suriname, creolized Javanese is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java and it was the court language in Palembang, South Sumatra, until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Javanese is written with the Latin script, Javanese script, Javanese is the tenth largest language by native speakers and the largest language without official status. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people, at least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent and it is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia. There are three dialects of the modern language, Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form a continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible, the phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced respectively, in open syllables, /e o/ are also when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable, otherwise they are /ə/, or identical. In the standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced in open syllables. The Javanese voiced phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, the relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice. A Javanese syllable can have the form, CSVC, where C = consonant, S = sonorant. As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables, words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a root is of the following type
2.
Javanese script
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The Javanese script is a descendant of the Brahmi script and therefore has many similarities with the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia. The Javanese script, along with the Balinese script, is considered the most elaborate and ornate among Brahmic scripts of Southeast Asia, the script was widely used by the court scribes of Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Numerous efforts to standardize the script were made in the late 19th to early 20th-century, with the invention of the scripts first metal type, today, everyday use of the Javanese script has been largely supplanted by the Latin alphabet. There are a total of 53 letters in the Javanese script, each letter represents a syllable, with an inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/, which changes depending on the diacritics around the letter. Each consonant has a form called pasangan which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous syllable. In the word aksara for example, the inherent vowel of the ka is nullified by the use of pasangan in the following letter. Punctuation includes the comma, period, colon, and quotation marks, as well as several decorative marks indicating poetic chapter, text is written from left to right and without word boundaries. Many of the letters are constructed from visually similar components, most notably n-shaped hills and u-shaped valleys, there are only a few components unique to certain characters and even fewer letters that are truly unique, resulting in a very uniform-looking script. The Javanese and Balinese alphabets are both variants of the Kawi script, a Brahmic script developed in Java around the ninth century. It was widely used in religious literature written in palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar, over the Hindu-Buddhist period the letter forms changed into Javanese, and by the 17th century, the script was identifiable as in its modern form. The Javanese script was employed by court scribes centered in Surakarta and Yogyakarta, but the use was widespread among various courts of Java. They are used to write historical accounts, stories, ancient verses, the first Javanese metal type font was produced in the 1830s by the Dutch. Two other cursive type fonts were also produced in the early 20th-century, in 1926, an academic workshop in Sriwedari, Surakarta issued Wewaton Sriwedari or the Sriwedari Resolve as the first standard for Javanese spelling and orthography. Since then, numerous guidelines on Javanese orthography have been published, however, further development was halted abruptly during the second World War when the use of the Javanese script was prohibited during the Japanese occupation. Currently, there are no newspapers or magazines being printed in the Javanese script, everyday use of the script has been largely replaced by the Latin alphabet. As a preservation effort, the Indonesian government prescribed most elementary and its use is also encouraged by the Central Javanese government in road signs and public signage alongside Indonesian as administered in the 2012 local legislation. A single letter in the Javanese script is called an aksara and it can also depend on the speakers dialect, speakers of Western Javanese dialects tend to pronounce the inherent vowel as /a/, while those of Eastern Javanese prefer /ɔ/. Rules determining the inherent vowel of a letter are described in Wewaton Sriwedari as follows, a letter stands for a syllable with the vowel /a/ if the following character contains diacritics
3.
Mount Merbabu
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Mount Merbabu is a dormant stratovolcano in Central Java province on the Indonesian island of Java. The name Merbabu could be translated as Mountain of Ash from the Javanese combined words, Meru means mountain. The active volcano Mount Merapi is directly adjacent on its south-east side, a 1, 500m high broad saddle lies between Merbabu and Merapi, the site of the village of Selo, Java and highly fertile farming land. There are two peaks, Syarif and Kenteng Songo, three U-shaped radial valleys extend from the Kenteng Songo summit in northwesterly, northeastly and southeastly directions. Two known moderate eruptions occurred in 1560 and 1797, the 1797 event was rated 2, Explosive, on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. An unconfirmed eruption may have occurred in 1570, Merbabu can be climbed from several routes originating from the town of Kopeng on the north east sideside, and also from Selo on the southern side. A climb from Kopeng to Kenteng Songo takes between 8 and 10 hours, an area of 57 km² at the mountain has been declared a national park in 2004
4.
Central Java
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Central Java is a province of Indonesia. This province is located in the middle of Java, the province is 32,800.69 km2 in area, approximately a quarter of the total land area of Java. Its population was 33,753,023 at the 2015 Census, Central Java is also a cultural concept that includes the Special Region and city of Yogyakarta as well as the Province of Central Java. However, administratively the city and its surrounding regencies have formed a special region since Indonesian independence. Located in the middle of the island of Java, the Central Java province is bordered by West Java, a small portion of its south region is the Yogyakarta Special Region province, fully enclosed on the landward side by the Central Java province. To the north and the south, the Central Java province faces the Java Sea, Central Java includes offshore islands such as Karimun Jawa Islands in the north, and Nusakambangan in the southwest. Yogyakarta is historically and culturally part of the Central Java region, the average temperature in Central Java is between 18–28 degrees Celsius and the relative humidity varies between 73–94 percent. While a high level of humidity exists in most low-lying parts of the province, the highest average annual rainfall of 3,990 mm with 195 rainy days was recorded in Salatiga. The geography of Central Java is regular with small strips of lowlands near the northern and southern coast with mountain ranges in the centre of the region, to the west lies an active stratovolcano Mount Slamet, and further east is the Dieng Volcanic Complex on Dieng Plateau. Southeast of Dieng lies the Kedu Plain, which is bordered to the east side by the volcanoes of Mount Merapi. South of Semarang, lies Mount Ungaran, and to the north-east of the city lies Mount Muria on the most northern tip of Java, to the east near the border with East Java lies Mount Lawu, where its eastern slopes are in the East Java province. Due to its volcanic history, volcanic ash makes Central Java highly fertile agriculture land. Paddy fields are extensive, except in the southeastern Gunung Kidul region partly due to the concentration of limestone. The largest rivers are the Serayu in the west, which empties into the Indian Ocean, on the eve of the World War II in 1942, Central Java was subdivided into 7 residencies which corresponded more or less with the main regions of this area. These residencies were Banjoemas, Kedoe, Pekalongan, Semarang, and Djapara-Rembang plus the so-called Gouvernement Soerakarta, however, after the local elections in 1957 the role of these residencies were reduced until they finally disappeared. Nowadays Central Java is divided into 29 regencies and 6 cities and these contemporary regencies and cities can further be subdivided into 565 districts. These districts are subdivided into 7,804 rural communes or villages and 764 urban communes. Java has been inhabited by humans or their ancestors since prehistoric times, in Central Java and the adjacent territories in East Java remains known as Java Man were discovered in the 1890s by the Dutch anatomist and geologist Eugène Dubois
5.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Provinces of Indonesia
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Indonesian territory is composed of 34 provinces. A province is the highest tier of the local government divisions of Indonesia, provinces are further divided into regencies and cities, which are in turn subdivided into sub-districts. Each province has its own government, headed by a governor. The governor and members of representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Five provinces have special status, Aceh, for the use of the law as the regional law of the province. Special Region of Yogyakarta, a sovereign monarchy within Indonesia with the sultan Hamengkubuwono as hereditary Governor, SR Yogyakarta refused to call themselves as the province according to Law No. 12/2012 about The Speciality of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Papua, for implementation of sustainable development. West Papua, for granting implementation of sustainable development, the provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units. This clickable map shows provinces of Indonesia as of 25 October 2012, click on a province name to go to its main article. A considerable number of new provinces have been proposed in addition to the 34 existing provinces of Indonesia, as of 2013, the government has targeted the creation of eight new provinces by 2020, by splitting several of the existing provinces. On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces
9.
Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
10.
Chinese Indonesians
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Chinese Indonesians, are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups, primarily the Han Chinese. Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia and their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China. Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be throughout the history of Indonesia. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive, in some cases, government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars, clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools, one group supported political reforms in mainland China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of policies as a solution to the Chinese Problem. Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesias literature, architecture, the Chinese Indonesian population of Sumatra accounts for nearly half of the groups national population. Although they are more urbanized than Indonesias indigenous population, significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in a shift in the population pyramid. Emigration has contributed to a population, and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in programs to the Peoples Republic of China. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese, the first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island, including shipbuilding and their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430, in the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century, the Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming Dynastys interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, the Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year, several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again
11.
Batak
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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
12.
Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
13.
Melanesians
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Melanesians are the dominant inhabitants of Melanesia. Most speak one of the many Papuan languages, though a few such as Moluccans. Melanesians occupy islands from Eastern Indonesia to as far east as the islands of Vanuatu, early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate and he described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens, a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian races surrounding them. In 1832 Dumont DUrville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work and he classified the peoples of Oceania into four racial groups, Malaysians, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. DUrvilles model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to Melanesians rather than Mélaniens, Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from the indigenous Australians. Dumont DUrville combined the two peoples into one group, the original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in complex changes in genetics, languages. Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area and this Polynesian theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. The study was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians, both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines. They left little evidence in Melanesia. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands, for instance, populations developed differently along the coasts than in more isolated valleys. Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more species have been discovered since the late 20th century. He has found people of New Guinea share 4%–6% of their genome with the Denisovans. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals, both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair
14.
Time in Indonesia
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The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
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Vehicle registration plates of Indonesia
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All motorized vehicles including motorcycles in Indonesia are required to have registration plates. The plates need to be displayed in front and at the back of the vehicles. Except for some cases, every vehicle license plate in Indonesia follows the following format, LL NNNN LL where L are letters of the Latin alphabet. The first single or double letters denote the area of registration and this is followed by numbers, which can range from one to four digits. This is then followed by one or two letters although they may be optional, for example, DK1855 BS is a vehicle registered in Bali region, because it begins with DK. A smaller numbers being added to the bottom or the top of the plate, indicates the month and year where the plate will expire, a new format was recently introduced which have three ending letters, due to the increase of motorized vehicle numbers. At first, this format is used for motorcycles since July 2008 until present, for cars in Jakarta, Tangerang, Bekasi, in the last three letters of this new format, the first letter divides the Jakarta area into sub areas. For example, The first letter of the number plate for Jakarta vehicles is B. For example, B1886 CC indicates it is from Jakarta, but under the new system, the B indicator is not enough. There are now three ending letters and it is representing Jakarta, because the three cities are represented as sub areas of Jakarta, because the distance from Jakarta and those three cities are very near. The lettering convention to denote area of registration is a legacy of the Dutch colonial era, instead, they follow the old system of Dutch Karesidenan or residencies. In General, plates that start with K are from Kalimantan Island, D for the group of islands east of Java, such as Bali, Lombok. B is generally used in Sumatra but only alongside another letter - B as a letter is only for vehicles registered in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. Red on white, Vehicles that have not been registered yet, Black on yellow, Public transportation, such as buses, taxis, angkot, auto rickshaws and trucks. Black on Red, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, commonly used by foreign embassies or vehicles belonging to International organizations. Black on White, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, commonly used by foreign embassies or vehicles belonging to International organizations. White on Blue, Belongs to rickshaws in Surabaya, mainly coded SB Black on green, Free Zone vehicles. Blue on white, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, but this one is used before it has been registered
16.
Languages of Indonesia
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More than 700 living languages are spoken in Indonesia. Most belong to the Austronesian language family, with a few Papuan languages also spoken, the official language is Indonesian, a variant of Malay, which was used in the archipelago, borrowing heavily from local languages of Indonesia such as Javanese, Sundanese and Minangkabu. The Indonesian language is used in commerce, administration, education and the media. Most books printed in Indonesia are written in the Indonesian language, below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. Most of them belong to Austronesian languages family and these languages are arranged according to the numbers of native speakers. There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009, Indonesian Papua, which is adjacent to Papua New Guinea, has the most languages in Indonesia. Indonesias Minister of Education and Culture Muhammad Nuh affirmed in January 2013 that the teaching of languages as school subjects will be part of the national education curriculum. Nuh stated that much of the worry about the teaching of local languages being left out of the curriculum is misplaced. Several prominent languages spoken in Indonesia sorted by language family are, most languages spoken in Indonesia belong to this family, which in return are related to languages spoken in Madagascar, Philippines, New Zealand, Hawaii and various Polynesian countries. Javanese language, spoken in Yogyakarta, Central Java and East Java, also found throughout Indonesia and by migrants in Suriname. Most populous Austronesian language by number of first language speaker, Lampung language, two distinct but closely related languages spoken in Lampung, South Sumatra and Banten. Rejang language, spoken in Bengkulu province, malayo-Sumbawan languages, Malay/Indonesian languages, spoken throughout Indonesia. Acehnese language, spoken in Aceh, especially part of Sumatra island. Minangkabau language, spoken in West Sumatra, banjar language, spoken in South, East, and Central Kalimantan. Sundanese language, spoken in West Java, Banten and Jakarta, madurese language, spoken in Madura, Bawean and surrounding islands off the coast of Java. Sasak language, spoken in Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, barito languages, Maanyan language, related to Malagasy language spoken in Madagascar. Northwest Sumatran languages, Batak languages, seven closely related languages spoken by the Batak people in the highlands of North Sumatra, Nias language, in Nias island off the western coast of North Sumatra. Simeulue language, in Simeulue island off the western coast of Aceh, Gayo language, in Gayo highlands in central Aceh
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Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
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Batak languages
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The Batak languages are spoken by Batak of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Historically they were written using Batak script but the Latin script is now used for most writing, there are considered to be two main Batak language groups, Northern Batak and Southern Batak. Simalungun has been considered an intermediary, but more recent studies suggest that it is a part of the Southern Batak group, within Northern Batak, a study noted 76% cognate words between Karo and Batak, 81% with Pakpak, 80% with Simalungun, and 30% with Malay. Karo and Toba Batak are mutually unintelligible, Northern Batak, Pak-Pak Dairi, Karo Southern Batak, Simalungun, Angkola–Batak Mandailing, Batak Toba Mandailing and Angkola are closer related to each other than to Toba. The geographical influences on the Batak languages can be seen in the map to the right, Lake Toba separates the Karo from direct contact with the Toba. http, //unicode-table. com/en/sections/batak/
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Cities of Indonesia
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This is the list of regencies and cities of Indonesia. Both regencies and cities are second-level administrative subdivision in Indonesia, immediately below the provinces, in Indonesia, both regency and city are at the same administration level, each having their own local government and legislative body. The difference between a regency and a city lies in demography, size and economy, generally, a regency comprises a rural, larger area than a city. A city usually has non-agricultural economic activities, a regency is headed by a regent, known locally as bupati, while a city is headed by a mayor. All regents, mayors and members of legislatures are elected via elections to serve for a five year term which can be renewed once. Each regency or city is divided further into districts more commonly known as kecamatan, an administrative city is a city without its own local legislatures. The mayor of a city is directly appointed by the Governor. This type of city in Indonesia is only found in Jakarta which consisted of 5 administrative cities and 1 administrative regency, following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1 January 2001, regencies and municipalities became the key administrative units responsible for providing most governmental services. The list below groups regencies and cities in Indonesia by provinces, each regency has an administrative centre, the regency seat. The Indonesian title of bupati is originally a loanword from Sanskrit originating in India, related titles which were also used in precolonial Indonesia are adipati and senapati. A regency is a subdivision of a province in Indonesia. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as municipality. Regencies and cities are divided into Districts, the English name regency comes from the Dutch colonial period, when regencies were ruled by bupati and were known as regentschap. Bupati had been regional lords under the pre-colonial monarchies of Java, when the Dutch abolished or curtailed those monarchies, the bupati were left as the most senior indigenous authority. They were not strictly speaking native rulers because the Dutch claimed full sovereignty over their territory, regencies in Java territorial units were grouped together into Residencies headed by exclusively European Residents. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the terms bupati, since the start of Reformasi in 1998 a remarkable secession of district governments has arisen in Indonesia. This process has become known as pemekaran, following the surge of support for decentralisation across Indonesia which occurred following the end of the Soeharto era in 1998, key new decentralisation laws were passed in 1999. Subsequently, there was a jump in the number of regencies from around 300 at the end of 1998 to over 490 in 2008 ten years later, the agreement will be forwarded on for government approval
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Semarang
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Semarang, is a city on the north coast of the island of Java, Indonesia. It is the capital and largest city of the province of Central Java, the built-up area had 3,183,516 inhabitants at the 2010 census spread on 2 cities and 26 districts. Greater Semarang has a population of close to 6 million, and is located at 6°58′S 110°25′E, a major port during the Dutch colonial era, and still an important regional center and port today, the city has a dominant Javanese population. In 1678, Sunan Amangkurat II promised to control of Semarang to the Dutch East India Company as a part of a debt payment. In 1682, the Semarang state was founded by the Dutch colonial power, the VOC, and later, the Dutch East Indies government, established tobacco plantations in the region and built roads and railroads, making Semarang an important colonial trading centre. The historic presence of a large Indo community in the area of Semarang is also reflected by the fact a creole mix language called Javindo existed there, Semarang was handed by the Sultan of Mataram to the Dutch East Indies in 1678. The city was pictured as a settlement with a pious Muslim area called Kauman, a Chinese quarter. In fact, the city of Semarang was only referred to the Dutch quarter while the ethnic settlement were considered as villages outside the city boundary. The city, known as de Europeesche Buurt, was built in classical European style with church located in the centre, wide boulevards and streets skirted by beautiful villas. According to Purwanto, the urban and architectural form of settlement is very similar to the design principles applied in many Dutch cities. Due to the long and costly Java War, there were not much of funding from the Dutch East Indies government, the majority of land was used for rice fields and the only small improvement was the development of surrounding fortress. The existence of the market, in the years, become a primary element. The project was followed by the development of the Netherlands Indies railway. Colombijn marked the development as the shift of urban functions, from the former river orientation to all facing the roads. Improved communication, as the result of the Mail and Railway projects, had brought an economic booming for the city in the 1870s, urban growth had made acutely dense the urban kampong, reaching the number of 1000 inhabitants per hectare and degrading the quality of living condition. In this early 20th century, mortality rate was high due to the overcrowding and lack of hygiene that triggered the invasion of cholera. In 1917, a housing project was implemented in the Southern part of Semarang called Candi Baru. Thomas Karsten, the advisor for city planning, transformed the concept of ethnic segregation that divided previous urban settlements into a new housing district plan based on economic classes
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Surakarta
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Surakarta is a city in Central Java. The 46 km2 city adjoins Karanganyar Regency and Boyolali Regency to the north, Karanganyar Regency and Sukoharjo Regency to the east and west, on the eastern side of Solo lies Solo River. Its built-up area made of Surakarta Municipality and 59 districts spread on 7 regencies was home to 3,649,254 inhabitants as of 2010 census, Surakarta is the birthplace of the current President of Indonesia, Joko Widodo. He served as Mayor of Surakarta from 2005 to 2012, the water sources for Surakarta are in the valley of Merapi, a total of 19 locations, with a capacity of 3,404 l/second. The average source water height is 800–1,200 m above sea level, in 1890–1927 there were only 12 wells in Surakarta. Today, underground wells in 23 locations produce about 45 l/second. The total reservoir capacity is 9,140 m3 and can serve 55, under the Köppen climate classification, Surakarta features a tropical monsoon climate. The city has a wet season spanning from October through June. On average Surakarta receives just under 2200 mm of rainfall annually, with its wettest months being December, January, as is common in areas featuring a tropical monsoon climate, temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year. Surakartas average temperature is roughly 30 degrees Celsius every month, Surakarta City and its surrounding regencies, Karanganyar, Sragen, Wonogiri, Sukoharjo, Klaten, and Boyolali, are collectively called the ex-Surakarta Residency. After Surakarta became a city, it was divided into five districts, each led by a camat, furthermore, the government of Indonesia officially defines a broader region as Surakartas extended metropolitan zone, with the acronym Subosukawonosraten as the city and 6 surrounding regencies. Though obviously not a metropolitan area as some of its regencies are not particularly suburbanized. Both the metropolitan area and extended areas border Yogyakartas metropolitan area, one of the earliest censuses held in Surakarta Residency was in 1885. At that time, with an area of about 5,677 km², there were 1,053,985 people in Surakarta Residency, the area,130 times the current area of Surakarta, had a population density of 186 people/km². The capital of the residency itself in 1880 had 124,041 people living in it, according to the 2009 census, there were 245,043 males and 283,159 females in Surakarta. 119,951 of the population were 14 years or younger,376,180 were between 15 and 64, and 32,071 were above 65, the number of households was 142,627 and the average number of household members was 3.7. The population growth in the last 10 years was about 0. 565% per year, the labor force of Solo in 2009 was 275,546, of whom 246,768 were working, while 28,778 were seeking work. Another 148,254 people aged 15 and above were not in the labor force, the mean working week in Solo was 47.04 hours, and 212,262 people worked more than 35 hours per week compared to 34,506 who worked less than that
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Mount Telomoyo
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Mount Telomoyo is a stratovolcano in Central Java, Indonesia. The volcano was constructed over the flank of the eroded Pleistocene-age Soropati volcano. The Soropati volcano collapsed during the Pleistocene, leaving a U-shaped depression, mount Telomoyo grows on the southern side of the depression, reaching over 600 metres above the depressions rim
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Plumpungan Inscription
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The Plumpungan Inscription is a stone monolith carving which found in the area of Salatiga, a small town in Central Java in Indonesia. The monolith is located about 4 km from Salatiga township, towards Beringin village, //Srir = astu swasti prajabyah sakakalatita 672/4/31/. //dharmmartham ksetradanam yad = udayajananam yo dadatisabhaktya 4, hampragramam triaramyamahitam = anumatam siddhadewyasca tasyah 5. Tasyaitad = bhanunamno bhuwi bhatu yaso jiwitamcatwa nityam 1, tahun Saka telah berjalan 672/4/31 pada hari Jumat 2. Dari beliau, demi agama untuk kebaktian kepada yang Maha Tinggi, telah menganugerahkan sebidang tanah atau taman, yaitu desa Hampra yang terletak di wilayah Trigramyama dengan persetujuan dari Siddhdewi berupa daerah bebas pajak atau perdikan 5. Ditetapkan dengan tulisan aksara atau prasasti yang ditulis menggunakan ujung mempelam 6, dengan bangunan suci atau candi ini. The Saka year is 672/4/31 on Friday 2, from Him, for the faith, for the congregation to the Almighty, has given a land or park, for their prosperity 4. Which is the village of Hampra, located in the vicinity of Trigramyama with the blessing of Siddhewi as a tax-free are, noted with writing or monolith which uses the tip of palm 6. From Him who is called Bhanu. with this building or temple. Always find eternal life Monolith of Plumpungan in Google Maps
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Indian national calendar
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The Indian national calendar, sometimes called the Saka calendar, is the official civil calendar in use in India along with the Vikram Samvat calendar. It is used, alongside the Gregorian calendar, by The Gazette of India, in broadcasts by All India Radio and in calendars. The Saka calendar is used in Java and Bali among Indonesian Hindus. Nyepi, the Day of Silence, is a celebration of the Saka new year in Bali, nepals Nepal Sambat evolved from the Saka calendar. The term may also refer to the Hindu calendar, the Saka era is also commonly used by other calendars. The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal zodiac normally used with Hindu calendar, in leap years, Chaitra has 31 days and starts on March 21 instead. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, the names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a date belongs to. Years are counted in the Saka Era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year - if the result is a year in the Gregorian calendar. Its structure is like the Persian calendar, despite this effort, local variations based on older sources such as the Surya Siddhanta may still exist. Senior Indian Astrophysicist Meghnad Saha was the head of the Calendar Reform Committee under the aegis of the Council of Scientific, other members of the Committee were, A. C. Banerjee, K. K. Daftari, J. S. Karandikar, Gorakh Prasad, R. V. Vaidya and it was Saha’s effort, which led to the formation of the Committee. The task before the Committee was to prepare an accurate calendar based on scientific study, the Committee had to undertake a detailed study of different calendars prevalent in different parts of the country. The task was complicated by the fact that religion and local sentiments were integral to those calendars. Indias first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in his preface to the Report of the Committee, published in 1955, wrote, “They represent past political divisions in the country…. ”Usage started officially at Chaitra 1,1879, Saka Era, or March 22,1957, Dionysian Era. However, government officials seem to ignore the New Years Day of this calendar in favour of the religious calendar. Mapping Time, The Calendar and its History by E. G, Calendars and their History Indian Calendars Positional astronomy in India Indian National Calendar abstract
25.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
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Dutch East India Company
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It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
27.
Magelang
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Magelang is one of six cities in Central Java, each of which is governed by a mayor rather than a bupati. It is located in the middle of the Magelang Regency, between Mount Merbabu and Mount Sumbing in Central Java Province, Indonesia, Magelang is located 43 km north of Yogyakarta,15 km north of Mungkid and 75 km south of Semarang, the capital of Central Java. Magelang City is a city which is located in a fertile agricultural area. The western border is Progo River and the Eastern Boones Elo River, the city is divided into three districts and several sub-districts. Magelang was then known as a village called Mantyasih, which is now known as Meteseh, there are three stele of historical importance in Magelang, namely Poh, Gilikan and Mantyasih, all of which are written on a plate of copper. Poh and Mantyasih were written under the rule of King Balitung of Mataram Kingdom, in those stele, the villages of Mantyasih and Glanggang were mentioned. They became Meteseh and Magelang respectively, the village Mantyasih was made by the king as tax-free village which was led by a patih. Also mentioned are Mount Susundara and Mount Wukir Sumbing which is now known as Mount Sindoro, when Britain colonised Magelang in the eighteenth century, Magelang became the seat of the government and was made to the same level as a regency with Mas Ngabehi Danukromo as its first leader. Mas Ngabehi Danukromo built Alun-Alun, bupati residence and a mosque, Magelang became the capital of Karesidenan Kedu in 1818. After the Dutch defeated the British, Magelang was made as the central of economy because its strategic location, the Dutch government built drinking water tower in 1918 which provides the city with water. The roads were remade using asphalt, the city has historically been a military post, dating back to the Dutch East Indies colonial era. It subsequently acted as a stronghold for Indonesian pro-independence movements against the Dutch government during the resistance period. Currently, it is a host of two landmarks, The National Military Academy, and the only military-associated school, Taruna Nusantara. After the independence of Indonesia, Magelang became kotapraja and then kotamadya, the composition of demography based on its religion and belief, Magelang people has varied and different belief and religion. Majority of Magelang citizen are Muslim, but there are minority groups such as Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, as of February 2010, Magelang has a total population of 118,227. Magelangs population was 58,311 men and 59,916 women, Magelang is the closest major town to Borobudur, a ninth-century Buddhist monument located about 40 km north west of Yogyakarta. The Canggal Temple, also located in the Magelang regency, has a Sanskrit transcription bearing the name of the first Mataram Kingdom ruler, there is white water rafting on the Elo River, located in the district of Magelang. Elo river disgorges from Mount Merbabu, Mount Telomoyo and Mount Ungaran, the river is ideal for white water rafting because the characters of flow and flooding are relatively stable, so it is relatively safe to be forded in both the dry and rainy seasons
28.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
29.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
30.
Semarang Regency
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Semarang is a regency in Central Java province in Indonesia. Geographically, it is located between 1101454,75110393 East Longitude and 7357730 South Latitude, Semarang Regency area is 95,020 Ha. It is recorded that 70,602 Ha is non rice field area, air temperature in this regency is relatively cold because it is located in the height of 3181450 m asl. Ungaran Barat District is the lowest area, and Getasan District is the highest, in 2005 there was 97 rainy days and in 2007 was 83 rainy days. Bawen District is an area with the most rainy days intensity, Semarang Regency comprises nineteen districts, tabulated below with their populations at the 2010 Census, Budha Gaya Watugong Shrine. Budha Gaya Watugong shrine complex has great artistic value, with the height of 39 metres, it represents the highest pagoda in Indonesia. It was built in 2005, and its located in front of Makodam IV Diponegoro Semarang, in this seven-floors building, there are some Welas Asih Goddess statues lied on its second until sixth floor, and also has 20 Kwan Im statues. Museum of train is located in Ambarawa town, Semarang Regency and this museum has 12 collections of ancient locomotive from various type, among other things made in Dutch, Germany and Swiss. This temple lies 5 km from Bandungan toward the foot-hills of Ungaran mountain, at the height of 1, gedong Songo group consist of nine Hindu temples which was built in the middle of the 9th century. Penggaron forest height is about 350 metres above sea level with temperature of 20 °C until 26 °C with fresh and this forest recreation site lies within 17 kilometres from Semarang and only 2 kilometres from Ungaran so making its area very close to the urban areas. Dominated by pine forest, though other species can also be found and it lies 38 kilometres from Semarang city or 3 kilometres from Ambarawa. Rawapening is located on hillside of mount Telomoyo, mount Ungaran and mount Kendalisodo, precisely resides in Ambarawa, Bawen, Tuntang, visitors can stop over for a while and enjoy the beautiful scenery which has an area space of 2,270 ha. Tlogo Coffee Plantation is located in Delik village, Semarang regency of Central Java province and it is an area with the width of 415 hectare and height 400 until 675 metres above sea level. Cold weather and clean air which are free from pollution will bring enjoyable moment and beautiful panorama
31.
Enclave and exclave
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An enclave is a territory, or a part of a territory, that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state. Territorial waters have the same attributes as land, and enclaves may therefore exist within territorial waters. An exclave is a portion of a state or territory geographically separated from the part by surrounding alien territory. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is partly surrounded by another state. Vatican City and San Marino, enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, unlike an enclave, an exclave can be surrounded by several states. The Azeri exclave of Naxçıvan is an example of an exclave. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states, while exclaves always constitute just a part of a sovereign state. A pene-enclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country, pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters, a pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a part of Vorarlberg, Austria. The word enclave is French and first appeared in the century as a derivative of the verb enclaver. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land, the first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526. Later, the term began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes. This French word eventually entered the English and other languages to denote the same concept although local terms have continued to be used, in India, the word pocket is often used as a synonym for enclave. In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, in English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars. The word exclave, modeled on enclave, is a extension of the concept of enclave. Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons, in particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory, thus, over time enclaves have tended to be eliminated. This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the Indo-Bangladesh enclaves in all, the residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless
32.
Yogyakarta (city)
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Yogyakarta is a city on Java, Indonesia. It is renowned as a center of education, classical Javanese fine art and culture such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry and puppet shows. Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Special Region and was the Indonesian capital during the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949, one of the districts in Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital of the Mataram Sultanate between 1575 and 1640. The city is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya from the Ramayana epic, yogya means suitable, fit, proper, and karta, prosperous, flourishing. While urbanization sprawls, Yogyakarta-Magelang and Surakarta are being agglomerated in a few years, according to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as Mataram became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya. Around the year 929, the centre of the kingdom was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, the exact cause of the move is still uncertain, however, a severe eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle probably caused the move. Historians suggest that, some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram, during the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as Mataram and recognized as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by a Duke titled Bhre Mataram. During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by kings nephew, Kotagede was established as the capital of the Mataram Sultanate. During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, the Sultanate Mataram reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, after two changes of capital, the capital of Mataram Sultanate moved to Kartasura. During the reign of Pakubuwono II, a war broke out in Mataram Sultanate. The civil war was fought between Prince Mangkubumi and his brother, Sunan Pakubuwono II. It started when Sunan Pakubuwono II agreed to cooperate with the VOC, ceded some Mataram territory to the Dutch and his younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi stood against the agreement due to concerns that his people would become slaves under Dutch rule. Prince Mangkubumi defeated the Pakubuwono forces and declared sovereignty in the Kingdom of Yogjakarta occupying the southern parts of the former Mataram Sultanate, the Yogyakarta Sultanate was established as a result of the Treaty of Giyanti by Prince Mangkubumi, who later ascended the throne as Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. Officially, the creation of Yogyakarta Sultanate is dated at 7 October 1756 as a result of war among the princes of The Mataram Sultanate. This civil war marked the end of the Mataram Sultanate and resulted in the birth of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, during the British occupation of Java, rumors of plans by the Javanese court to stage a rebellion caused uneasiness among the colonial authorities. On 20 June 1812, Stamford Raffles led a 1, 200-strong British force to attack the royal city, the Javanese were surprised by the attack and were easily subdued. In one day the city of Yogyakarta fell, with the city destroyed, the event completely stripped the sultanate of its remaining power and influence. The sack also left the court humiliated and fueled a rebellion which would be known as Java War, in 1942 the Japanese Empire invaded Dutch East Indies and ruled Java until they were defeated in 1945
33.
Tropical monsoon climate
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Tropical monsoon climates have monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C in every month of the year and feature wet and dry seasons, as Tropical savanna climates do. Tropical monsoon climates however features its driest month seeing on average less than 60 mm and this latter fact is in direct contrast to a tropical savanna climate, whose driest month sees less than 60 mm of precipitation and also less than 100 – of precipitation. In essence, a monsoon climate tends to either see more rainfall than a tropical savanna climate or have less pronounced dry seasons. Additionally, a monsoon climate tends to see less variance in temperatures during the course of the year than a tropical savanna climate. This climate has a driest month which nearly always occurs at or soon after the winter solstice for that side of the equator, there are generally two versions of a tropical monsoon climate, Less pronounced dry seasons. Regions with this variation of the monsoon climate typically see copious amounts of rain during the wet season. However, unlike most tropical climates, a sizeable amount of precipitation also falls during the dry season. In essence, this version of the monsoon climate generally has less pronounced dry seasons than tropical savanna climates. Extraordinarily rainy wet seasons and pronounced dry seasons and this variation features pronounced dry seasons similar in length and character to dry seasons observed in tropical savanna climates. However, this is followed by a period of extraordinary rainfall. In some instances, up to 1,000 mm of precipitation is observed per month for two or more consecutive months, Tropical savanna climates generally do not see this level of sustained rainfall. Tropical monsoon climates are most commonly found in South and Central America, however, there are sections of South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, the Caribbean and North America that also feature this climate. The major controlling factor over a tropical climate is its relationship to the monsoon circulation. The monsoon is a change in wind direction. In Asia, during the summer there is a flow of air. In the “winter” an offshore air flow is prevalent, the change in direction is due to the difference in the way water and land heat. October is the hottest month no matter whether is it in the southern or northern hemisphere and this is because October is the shoulder season of the year as if it is the end of the wet season and no winter winds blowing. Changing pressure patterns that affect the seasonality of precipitation occur in Africa though it generally differs from the way it operates in Asia
34.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
35.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
36.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
37.
Catholicism
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
38.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
39.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
40.
Confucianism
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Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life. In the Han dynasty, Confucian approaches edged out the proto-Taoist Huang-Lao, the disintegration of the Han political order in the second century CE opened the way for the doctrines of Buddhism and Neo-Taoism, which offered spiritual explanations lacking in Confucianism. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty of 618-907, in the late Tang, Confucianism developed in response to Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism. This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams, the abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The New Culture intellectuals of the twentieth century blamed Confucianism for Chinas weaknesses. In the late twentieth century Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy, with particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic. While Tiān has some characteristics that overlap the category of deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle, Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of the Tiān. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rén, yì, and lǐ, and zhì. Rén is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion and it is the virtue-form of Heaven. Yì is the upholding of righteousness and the disposition to do good. Lǐ is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life according to the law of Heaven. Zhì is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of rén and yì. In the 20th century Confucianisms influence diminished greatly, in the last decades there have been talks of a Confucian Revival in the academic and the scholarly community and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches. In late 2015 many Confucian personalities formally established a national Holy Confucian Church in China to unify the many Confucian congregations, strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to Confucianism. In the Chinese language, the character rú 儒 meaning scholar or learned man is used both in the past and the present to refer to things related to Confucianism. The character rú in ancient China has diverse meanings, Some examples include, weak, soft, to tame, to comfort and to educate or to refine. Rújiā contains the character jiā, which means family. Rújiào and Kǒngjiào contain the Chinese character jiào, the teaching or transmission, used in such terms as education
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North Sumatra
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North Sumatra, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the island of Sumatra, and its capital is Medan, after independence, the first session of the National Committee of Regions, Sumatra was then divided into three sub-provinces namely North Sumatra, Central Sumatra and South Sumatra. North Sumatra province itself is an amalgamation of three regions called residency namely, Residency of Aceh, East Sumatra Residency, and residency of Tapanuli. With the publication of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No, date 15 April 1948 subsequently determined as the anniversary of North Sumatra Province. In early 1949, the reorganization of government back in Sumatra, with the decision of the Government Emergency R. I. No.22 / Govt / Emergency Government on May 17,1949, furthermore, the Government Emergency Decree R. I. on December 17,1949, established the province of Aceh and Tapanuli Province / East Sumatra. Then, with a Government Regulation in lieu of Law No.5 Year 1950 on August 14,1950, such provisions shall be lifted and reshaped North Sumatra Province. No.24 of 1956, promulgated on December 7,1956, established an autonomous region of Aceh province, the province of North Sumatra stretches across the island of Sumatra between the Indian Ocean and the Strait Malacca. It borders Aceh province on the northwest and Riau and West Sumatra provinces in the southeast and it has an area of 72,981 km². The province contains a broad, low plain along the Strait of Malacca on which the provincial capital, Medan, is located. In the south and west, the rises to the mountain range that runs the length of Sumatra. Several large islands in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Sumatra are currently part of North Sumatra, most notably Nias Island, there are 419 islands in propisi North Sumatra. The outer islands is the island Simuk, and the island Berhala in the Strait of Sumatra, Nias archipelago consists of the island as the main island and other smaller islands in the vicinity. Nias Islands located off the coast of western Indian Ocean, administration center located in Gunung Sitoli. Batu Islands consist of 51 islands with four islands, Sibuasi, Pini, Tanahbala. Pulautelo administrative center on the island Sibuasi, Batu Islands located in the southeast of the island of Nias. Other islands in the North Sumatra, Imanna, Pasu, Bawa, Hamutaia, Batumakalele, Lego, Masa, Bau, Simaleh, Makole, Jake, in North Sumatra, there are currently two national parks, the Gunung Leuser National Park and Batang Gadis National Park. According to the Ministerial Decree, No.44 of 2005, but this figure character is de jure alone
Indonesia
Central Java
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