1.
Serer language
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Serer, sometimes called Serer-Sine Serer proper after its prestige dialect, is a language of the Senegambian branch of Niger–Congo spoken by 1.2 million people in Senegal and 30,000 in the Gambia. It is the language of the Serer people. Serer is one of the Senegambian languages, which are characterized by consonant mutation, the traditional classification of Atlantic is that of Sapir, which found that Serer was closest to Fulani. However, a widely cited misreading of the data by Wilson inadvertently exchanged Serer for Wolof, dialects of Serer are Serer Sine, Segum, Fadyut-Palmerin, Dyegueme, and Niominka. Not all Serer people speak Serer, because the speakers are ethnically Serer, these are commonly thought to be Serer dialects. However, they are not closely related, Serer is significantly closer to Fulani than it is to Cangin, the voiceless implosives are also written ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ⟩, these are highly unusual sounds. The following greetings and responses are spoken in most regions of Senegal that have Serer speakers, in Senegalese culture, greetings are very important. Sometimes, people will spend several minutes greeting each other, the ethnolinguistic classification of Seereer in question. In Africa, Challenges of Multilingualism, ds Altmayer, Claus / Wolff, H. Ekkehard, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, consonant mutation and reduplication in Seereer-Siin. Mc Laughlin, Fiona, Voiceless implosives in Seereer-Siin, Journal of the International Phonetic Association,35, 201–214, doi,10. 1017/S0025100305002215 Crétois, Dakar, Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar. Fal, A. Les nominaux en sereer-siin, Parler de Jaxaaw, senghor, L. S. Lharmonie vocalique en sérère. Journal de la Société des Linguistes
2.
Cangin languages
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The Cangin languages are spoken by 200,000 people in a small area east of Dakar. They are the languages spoken by the Serer people who do not speak the Serer language, because the people are ethnically Serer, the Cangin languages are commonly thought to be dialects of the Serer language. However, they are not closely related, Serer is closer to Fulani than it is to Cangin, the languages are, Lehar and Noon are particularly close, as are Ndut and Palor, though not quite to the point of easy intelligibility. Safen is transparently closer to Lehar–Noon than to Palor–Ndut, Serer language Walter Pichl, The Cangin Group, A Language Group in Northern Senegal, Pittsburg, PA, Institute of African Affairs, Duquesne University, Coll. African Reprint Series,1966, vol.20 Guillaume Segerer & Florian Lionnet 2010, Language Isolates in Africa workshop, Lyon, Dec.4
3.
Wolof language
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Wolof is a language of Senegal, the Gambia, and Mauritania, and the native language of the Wolof people. Like the neighbouring languages Serer and Fula, it belongs to the Senegambian branch of the Niger–Congo language family, unlike most other languages of Sub-Saharan Africa, Wolof is not a tonal language. Wolof originated as the language of the Lebu people and it is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken natively by the Wolof people but also by most other Senegalese as a second language. Wolof dialects vary geographically and between rural and urban areas, dakar-Wolof, for instance, is an urban mixture of Wolof, French, and Arabic. Wolof is the spelling and may refer to the Wolof people or to Wolof culture. Variants include the older French Ouolof and the principally Gambian Wollof, Jolof, jollof, etc. now typically refers either to the Jolof Empire or to jollof rice, a common West African rice dish. Now-archaic forms include Volof and Olof, the English language is believed to have adopted some Wolof words, such as banana, via Spanish or Portuguese, and yum/yummy, from Wolof nyam to taste, nyam in Barbadian English meaning to eat. Wolof is spoken by more than 10 million people and about 40 percent of Senegals population speak Wolof as their native language, in the whole region from Dakar to Saint-Louis, and also west and southwest of Kaolack, Wolof is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Typically when various groups in Senegal come together in cities and towns. It is therefore spoken in almost every regional and departmental capital in Senegal, nevertheless, the official language of Senegal is French. In Serekunda, the Gambias largest town, although only a minority are ethnic Wolofs. The official language of the Gambia is English, Mandinka, Wolof, in Mauritania, about seven percent of the population speak Wolof because of the river that is shared with Senegal. There, the language is used only around the coastal regions. Wolof is one of the Senegambian languages, which are characterized by consonant mutation and it is often said to be closely related to the Fula language because of a misreading by Wilson of the data in Sapir that have long been used to classify the Atlantic languages. Senegalese/Mauritanian Wolof and Gambian Wolof are distinct national standards, they use different orthographies, however, both the spoken and written languages are mutually intelligible. Lebu Wolof, on the hand, is unintelligible with standard Wolof. Note, Phonetic transcriptions are printed between square brackets following the rules of the International Phonetic Alphabet, the Latin orthography of Wolof in Senegal was set by government decrees between 1971 and 1985. The language institute Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar is widely acknowledged as an authority when it comes to spelling rules for Wolof, Wolof is most often written in this orthography, in which phonemes have a clear one-to-one correspondence to graphemes
4.
Serer religion
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The Serer religion, or a ƭat Roog, is the original religious beliefs, practices and teachings of the Serer people of Senegal in western Africa. The Serer people believe in a supreme deity called Roog. In the Cangin languages, Roog is referred to as Koox, Kopé Tiatie Cac, Kokh Kox, the Serer people are found throughout the Senegambia region. The Serer people believe in a deity called Roog and sometimes referred to as Roog Sene. Serer tradition deals with various dimensions of life, death, space and time, ancestral spirit communications, Roog is the creator deity and is neither the devil nor a genie, but the lord of the creature. However, Roog is always in watch of its children and always available to them, in Serer, Roog Sene is the lifeblood to which the incorruptible and sanctified soul returns to eternal peace after they depart the living world. Roog Sene sees, knows and hears everything, but does not interfere in the affairs of the living world. Instead, lesser gods and goddesses act as Roogs assistants in the physical world and those who live their lives contrary to the teachings will be rightfully in the afterlife. For the ordinary Serers, they addressed their prayers to the pangool as they are the intermediaries between the world and the divine. An orthodox Serer must remain faithful to the spirits as the soul is sanctified as a result of the ancestors intercession between the living world and the divine. The pangool have both a historical significance as well as a religious one, without them, the lamane exploits would not have been possible. In the religious sense, these ancient lamanes created shrines to these pangool, thereby becoming the priests, as such, they became the intermediaries among the land, the people and the pangool. Whenever any member of the lamanic lineage dies, the whole Serer community celebrates in honour of the lives they had lived on earth in accordance with the teachings of the Serer religion. Serer prayers are addressed to the pangool who act as intercessors between the world and the divine. In addressing their prayers to the pangool, the Serers chant ancient songs and offer such as bull, sheep, goat. There is no heaven or hell in the Serer religion, the immortality of the soul and reincarnation is a strongly held belief in Serer religion. The pangool are canonised as saints, and will be called upon and venerated. Acceptance by the ancestors who have departed and the ability to intercede with the divine is as close to heaven after one passes over
5.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
6.
Wolof people
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The Wolof people are a West African ethnic group found in northwestern Senegal, The Gambia, and southwestern coastal Mauritania. In Senegal, the Wolof are the largest ethnic group, while elsewhere they are a minority and they refer to themselves as Wolof, and speak the Wolof language – a West Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. Their early history is unclear and based on traditions that link the Wolof to the Almoravids. The Wolof belonged to the medieval era Wolof Empire of Senegambia region, details of the pre-Islamic religious traditions of Wolof are unknown, and their oral traditions state them to have been adherents of Islam since the founding king of Jolof. In and after the 18th century, the Wolofs were impacted by the violent jihads in West Africa, in the 19th century, as the colonial French forces launched a war against the Wolof kingdoms, the Wolof people resisted the French and converted to Islam. Contemporary Wolofs are predominantly Sufi Muslims belonging to Mouride and Tijaniyyah Islamic brotherhoods, the Wolof people, like other West African ethnic groups, have historically maintained a rigid, endogamous social stratification that included nobility, clerics, castes and slaves. The Wolof were close to the French colonial rulers, became integrated into the colonial administration and they are also referred to as Chelofes, Galofes, Lolof, Jolof, Olof, Volof, Wolluf and Yolof. The term Wolof also refers to the Wolof language and to their states, cultures, older French publications frequently employ the spelling Ouolof, up to the 19th century, the spellings Volof and Olof are also encountered. In English, Wollof and Woloff are found, particularly in reference to the Gambian Wolof, the spelling Jolof is often used, but in particular reference to the Wolof empire and kingdom in central Senegal that existed from the 14th to the 19th centuries. Similarly, a West African rice dish is known in English as jollof rice, the origins of the Wolof people are obscure, states David Gamble – a professor of Anthropology specializing on Senegambia and Africa studies. Their name as the Wolof first appears in the records of 15th century Portuguese travelers, according to Gamble, this migration likely occurred at the end of 11th century when the Ghana Empire fell to the Muslim armies from Sudan. Another oral tradition tells of a legend in Walo, which starts with two villages near a lake in a dispute, a mysterious person arose from the lake to settle the dispute. The villagers detained him, he settled among them and became the one who settled disputes and he was called Ndyadyane Ndyaye, and his descendants were called Ndiayes or Njie, and these led to ruling families of Wolof, Mali and Morocco, according to this mythical legend. The documented history, from 15th-century onwards is a story of rivalry between powerful families, wars, coups and conquests in Wolof society. The Jolof or Wolof Empire was a medieval West African state that parts of Senegal. Its final demise at the hands of French colonial forces in the 1870s-1890s also marks the beginning of the formation of Senegal as a unified state. By the end of the 15th century, the Wolof states of Jolof, Kayor, Baol, the position of king was held by the Burba Wolof and the rulers of the other component states owed loyalty and tribute payments to him. Slavery has been a part of the Wolof people since their earliest known history, in the pre-colonial era, slaves were either born or acquired through purchase or capture
7.
Fula people
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The Fula people or Fulani or Fulɓe, numbering between 20 and 25 million people in total, are one of the largest and a widely dispersed Muslim ethnic group in Sahel and West Africa. The Fula people are believed to have roots in the people from North Africa and the Middle East. As an ethnic group they are bound together by the Fula language, culture, history, their religious affiliation and their efforts to spread Islam in Sahel region and the West Africa. A significant proportion of the Fula – a third, or an estimated 7 to 8 million – are pastoral people, the majority of the Fula ethnic group consisted of semi-sedentary people, as well as sedentary settled farmers, artisans, merchants and nobility. Spread over many countries, they are mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa. Many Fulbe was also taken to the New World during 16th to 19th century Atlantic Slave Trade and they were largely captured from the Senegal and Guinea with a significant percentage also taken from Mali and Cameroon. Some of the Fulbe of note were Bilali Muhammad, Ayuba Diallo, Salih Bilali, Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori, some of Bilali Muhammads known descendants still live on Salepo Island Georgia and he also left descendants in the Bahama Archipelago who are not known. Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori and many others have many descendants in the USA, there are many names used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe. Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term, Fula, from Manding languages, is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fullah. Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa, the French borrowed the Wolof term Pël, which is variously spelled, Peul, Peulh, and even Peuhl. More recently the Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe, which is a noun has been Anglicised as Fulbe. In Portuguese, the terms Fula or Futafula are used, the terms Fallata Fallatah or Fellata are of Kanuri origins, and are often the ethnonyms by which Fulani people are identified by in Sudan. The Fula people are distributed, across the Sahel from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea. Alongside, many speak other languages of the countries they inhabit. Such languages include Hausa, Bambara, Wolof, and Arabic and this is the area known as the Fombina, literally meaning The South in Adamawa Fulfulde, because it represented the most southern and eastern reaches of Fulɓe hegemonic dominance in West Africa. In this area, Fulfulde is the lingua franca. Further east of this area, Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic, the Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal East-West band immediately south of the Sahara, and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps. There are an estimated 20-25 million Fulani people, there are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns, viz, the Nomadic/Pastoral or Mbororo, The Semi-Nomadic and the Settled or Town Fulani
8.
Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
9.
Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
10.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
11.
Guelowar
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The Guelowar was the maternal dynasty in the Serer pre-colonial kingdoms of Sine and Saloum. They were from the Mandinka ethnic group, the offsprings of Mandinka women and Serer men became the kings of Sine and Saloum. The dynasty lasted from the century to 1969, in which year both kings died. The Guelowar family originated from Kaabu in the 14th century and their oral tradition says that they were descended from Mansa Tiramakan Traore (13th century cousin and general of Mansa Sundiata Keita of Mali. Their oral tradition says that they were the descendants of Mansa Bala Diakha. Others say they are descended from the branch of Princess Tenemba. The Mandinkas who conquered the Kaabu married into the noble Bainuk families, the Mandinka also changed their own name and adopted Bainuk surnames. Kaabu was governed by the noble clans of Sanneh and Manneh, with the noble maternal clans of Ñaanco. However, almost all the kings of Kaabu came from the maternal clan. The Guelowars were extended maternal relatives of the Ñaanco and one of their greatest threat to the throne. Here Gravrand has not noticed that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala although the departure of the Guelowar can probably be explained by a war or a conflict of succession, whatever the reason, they left Kaabu c 1335. According to oral tradition they were a mixture of Mandinka, descendants of Mansa Tiramang Trawally of Mali, the Guelowars migrated to the Kingdom of Sine and were granted asylum by The Great Council of Lamanes. Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh - was the first Guelowar king of Sine post Troubang, having served for several years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture, he was elected and crowned the first Guelowar king of Sine in. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, the mainstream view has been that Mandinka Guelowars of Kaabu conquered and subjugated the Serer people. Serer oral tradition speaks of no military conquest, but a union based on marriage, a marriage between the noble Guelowar maternal clan and the noble Serer paternal clans, the descendants of the old Serer Lamanic class. Almost all the kings of Sine and Saloum bore Serer surnames not Mandinka, Maysa Walis paternal descendants did not rule in Sine neither did they rule in Saloum. It was the descendants of the ancient Serer Lamanic class who ruled. Serer language, culture, religion and tradition also prevailed in Sine, the Guelowars were incorporated into Serer society and they saw themselves as Serers
12.
Ghana Empire
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The Ghana Empire, properly known as Awkar was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the camel had changed the ancient more irregular trade routes into a trade running from Morocco to the Niger river. The Ghana Empire grew rich from this increased trade in gold. It furthermore encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the different trade-routes, when Ghanas ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it as mentioned for the first time in written records by Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 830. In the 11th century the Cordoban scholar Abu Ubayd al-Bakri collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom. He claimed that the Ghana could put 200,000 men into the field, more than 40,000 of them archers, as the empire declined it was finally made a vassal to the rising Mali Empire at some point in the 13th century. The origins of Ghana have often been obscured by fights between ethno-historic accounts and interpretations and archaeology, the earliest discussions of its origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of Mahmud Kati and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi. In addressing the origin, the Tarikh al-Fettash provides three different opinions, one that they were Black, another that they were Wangara, which are a Soninke group. Al-Kati favored another interpretation in view of the fact that their genealogies linked them to this group and he says that 22 kings ruled before the Hijra and 22 after. While these early views lead to many interpretations of a foreign origin of Wagadu. In addition, the archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Katis and al-Sadis view of a foreign origin cannot be regarded as reliable, modern scholars, particularly African Muslim scholars, have argued about the extension of the Ghana Empire and tenure of its reign. Islamic religion was very well around the Asian-African-European area. Several such traditions were recorded and published, while there are variants, these traditions called the most ancient polity they knew of Wagadu, or the place of the Wago the term current in the nineteenth century for the local nobility. Upon Dingas death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the kingship, and Dyabe was victorious, founding the kingdom. While Delafosse produced a theory of an invasion by Judeo-Syrians. Raymond Mauny, synthesizing early archaeology, various traditions, and the Arabic materials in 1961 concluded that trade was vital to the empires foundation. While there has not been much study of either traditions or documents, archaeologists have added considerable nuance to the ultimate play of forces. Archaeological research was slow to enter the picture, the Dar Tichitt site had clearly become a complex civilization by 1600 BCE and had architectural and material culture elements that seemed to match the site at Koumbi-Saleh
13.
Serer people
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The Serer people are a West African ethnoreligious group. They are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 15% of the Senegalese population and they are also found in northern Gambia and southern Mauritania. They have had a sedentary settled culture and have known for their farming expertise. In the 20th century, most of them converted to Islam, the Serer society, like other ethnic groups in Senegal, has had social stratification featuring endogamous castes and slaves. The Serer people are referred to as Sérère, Sereer, Serere, Sarer, Kegueme, Seereer. The Serer people are found in contemporary Senegal, particularly in the west-central part of the country. In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old Nuimi and Baddibu as well as the Gambian Kombo, the Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern-day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès, the Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol, the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area. Senegal,1.84 million The Gambia,31,900 Mauritania,3500 The Serer occupy the Sine, the Serer people include the Seex, Serer-Noon, Serer-Ndut, Serer-Njeghene, Serer-Safene, Serer-Niominka, Serer-Palor, and the Serer-Laalaa. Each group speaks Serer or a Cangin language, Serer is the standard English spelling. Seereer or Sereer reflects the Serer pronunciation of the name and are used by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars. The meaning of the word Serer is uncertain, issa Laye Thiaw views it as possibly pre-Islamic and suggests four possible derivations,1. From the Serer Wolof word reer meaning misplaced, i. e. doubting the truth of Islam, from the Serer Wolof expression seer reer meaning to find something hidden or lost. From the Arabic word seereer meaning sahir magician or one who practices magic, from a Pulaar word, meaning separation, divorce, or break, again referring to refusing Islam. Professor Cheikh Anta Diop citing the work of the 19th century French archeologist and egyptologist - Paul Pierret, Diop went on to write, That would be consistent with their present religious position, they are one of the rare Senegalese populations who still reject Islam. Their route is marked by the stones found at about the same latitude from Ethiopia all the way to the Sine-Salum. Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and this lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system and their own oral traditions recite legends on they being part of, or related to the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River valley area
14.
Senegal
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Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country in West Africa. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania in the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast, and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal also borders The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegals economic and political capital is Dakar and it is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia, and owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north. The name Senegal comes from the Wolof Sunuu Gaal, which means Our Boat, Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres and has an estimated population of about 15 million. The climate is Sahelian, but there is a rainy season, the territory of modern Senegal has been inhabited by various ethnic groups since prehistory. Organized kingdoms emerged around the century, and parts of the country were ruled by prominent regional empires such as the Jolof Empire. The present state of Senegal has its roots in European colonialism, which began during the mid-15th century, the establishment of coastal trading posts gradually led to control of the mainland, culminating in French rule of the area by the 19th century, albeit amid much local resistance. Senegal peacefully attained independence from France in 1960, and has since been among the politically stable countries in Africa. Senegals economy is centered mostly on commodities and natural resources, major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, and ship construction and repair. As in most African nations, agriculture is a sector, with Senegal producing several important cash crops, including peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, tomatoes, melons. Owing to its stability, tourism and hospitality are also burgeoning sectors. A multiethnic and secular nation, Senegal is predominantly Sunni Muslim with Sufi, French is the official language, although many native languages are spoken and recognized. Since April 2012 Senegals president has been Macky Sall, Senegal has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Senegal is named after the Senegal River, the etymology of which is contested, one popular theory is that it stems from the Wolof phrase sunu gaal, which means our canoe, resulting from a miscommunication between 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. The our canoe theory has been embraced in modern Senegal for its charm. It is frequently used in appeals to national solidarity, frequently heard in the media, modern historians believe the name probably refers to the Sanhaja, Berbers who lived on the northern side of the river. A competing theory is that it derives from the town of Sanghana
15.
Mandinka people
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The Mandinka is a West African ethnic group with an estimated global population of eleven million. The Mandinka are the descendants of the Mali Empire, which rose to power under the rule of the Malinké/Maninka king Sundiata Keita, the Mandinka are a one ethnic group within the larger linguistic family of the Mandé peoples, who account for more than twenty million people. Originally from Mali, the Mandinka gained their independence from previous empires in the 13th century and they migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Through a series of conflicts, the Fula jihads, particularly the Fula-led Imamate of Futa Jallon, over 99% of Mandinka in contemporary Africa are Muslim. The Mandinka people live primarily in West Africa, particularly in The Gambia, major populations of the Mandinka people also live in Mali, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Niger and Mauritania. Although widespread, in most countries, the Mandingo are not the largest ethnic group, most Mandingos live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages, their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a chief, Mandingo has been an oral society where mythologies, history and knowledge is verbally transmitted from one generation to next. Between the 16th and 19th century, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people and these intermixed, creating a Creole culture, with the Mandika people significantly influencing the African heritage peoples now found in the Caribbean, Brazil and the southern United States. The Mandés were initially a part of many fragmented kingdoms that formed after the collapse of Ghana empire in the 11th century, during the rule of Sundiata Keita, these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the Niger River basin under Sundiatas general Tiramakhan Traore. This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest and this migration began in the later part of the 13th century. Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, with the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly Fouta Djallon and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and it also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as the Wolof people, particularly the Jolof Empire. The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka peoples original, the Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional religious beliefs into Islam. In Ghana, for example, the Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and other non-Muslim, the Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas. In 1324, Sultan Mansa Musa who ruled Mali, went on Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with caravan carrying gold. Shihab al-Umari, the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner – a professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African, the Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to Islam, another legend gives a contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married Muhammads grand daughter
16.
Kaabu
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The Kaabu Empire, also written Gabu, Ngabou, and N’Gabu, was a Mandinka kingdom of Senegambia centered within modern northeastern Guinea-Bissau but extending into Casamance in Senegal. It rose to prominence in the thanks to its origins as a former province of the Mali Empire. After the decline of the Mali Empire, Kaabu became an independent kingdom and it was eventually annexed by Futa Jallon during the 19th century Fula jihads prior to the incorporation of the area into the Portuguese and French spheres of influence during the Scramble for Africa. The Mandinka arrived in Guinea-Bissau around the year 1200, one of the generals of Sundiata Keita, Tirmakhan Traore, conquered the area making Kaabu one of Malis western tinkuru, or provinces in the 1230s. By the beginning of the 14th century, much of Guinea-Bissau was under the control of the Mali Empire, as in many places that saw Mandinka migrations, much of Guinea-Bissaus native population was dominated or assimilated. Resisters being sold into slavery via the trade routes to Arab buyers. Although the rulers of Kaabu were Mandinka, many of their subjects were from groups who had resided in the region before the Mandinka invasion. After the middle of the 14th century, Mali saw a decline due to raids by the Mossi to their south. During the 16th century, Mali lost many of its provinces reducing it to not much more than the Mandinka heartland, succession disputes between heirs to Malis throne also weakened its ability to hold even its historically secure possessions in Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. Free of imperial oversight, these lands splintered off to independent kingdoms. The most successful and longest lasting of these was Kaabu, which became independent in 1537, Kaabus governor, Sami Koli, became the first ruler of an independent Kaabu. He was the grandson of Tiramakhan Traore, Kaabu carried on the legacy of the Mali Empire much in the same way the Byzantine Empire preserved the culture and social structure of the Roman Empire. The rulers of the Kaabu Kingdom believed their right to rule came from their history as an imperial province, the kings of independent Kaabu discarded the title of Farim Kaabu for Kaabu Mansaba. At the Kaabu capital of Kansala, the Kaabu Mansaba controlled the increasingly valuable slave trade with Europeans and they specifically traded with the Portuguese, supplying many slaves to the Cape Verde Islands and the Americas. Among the provinces of the Kabu empire were Firdu, Pata, Kamako, Jimara, Patim Kibo, Patim Kanjaye, Kantora, Pakane Mambura, Kudura, Nampaio, Kaabu, despite its ties to Mali, appears to have run in a quite different matter. Mali was established as a federation of chiefs, and the government operated with an assembly of nobles to which the Mansa was largely responsible, Kaabu, however, was established as a military outpost. So it is of surprise that the kingdoms government was militaristic. The ruling class was composed of warrior-elites made rich by slaves captured in war and these nobles were known as Nyancho or the Manneh and the Sanneh and held much of the power in the state
17.
Kingdom of Sine
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The Kingdom of Sine was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal. The inhabitants are called Siin-Siin or Sine-Sine, over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. }The actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear and they were led by a matrilineal clan known as the Gelwaar. Serer oral history says that after Maysa Wali assimilated into Serer culture and served as advisor to the laman council of electors, he was chosen by the lamans. Almost a decade later he elected the legendary Ndiadiane Ndiaye and founder of the Jolof Empire to rule the Kingdom of Jolof. He was the first Senegambian king to voluntarily gave his allegiance to Ndiadiane Ndiaye and asked others to do so and it is for this reason that scholars propose the Jolof Empire was not an empire founded by conquest but by voluntary confederacy of various states. Around early 1550, both Sine and its sister Serer Kingdom overthrew the Jolof and became independent Kingdoms, the historian Sylviane Diouf states that Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute. The rulers of Sine as well as Jolof continued to follow the Traditional African religion, the rulers of Sine retained their titles throughout the colonial period and did not lose all official recognition until 1969 after the death of Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof. Since he had never set foot in Serer country, his accounts about the Serer people were based on what his Wolof interpreters were telling him. Barbacini is a corruption of the Wolof phrase Buur ba Sine meaning King of Sine, the economic base of Sine was agriculture and fishing. Millet and other crops were grown, Sine was very reluctant to grow groundnut for the French market, in spite of French colonial directives. It was less dependent on groundnut than other states and their religious philosophy of preserving the ecosystem affected groundnut production in Sine. Even after mass production was adopted, succession struggles in the late 19th century between the royal houses hampered production. However, the Kingdom of Sine was less susceptible to hunger and indebtedness and it was very common for people from other states to migrate to the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum in search of a better life. The inhabitants of Sine rarely migrated, some of the kings government include, the Lamanes, the heir apparents such as the Buumi, Thilas and Loul, the Great Farba Kaba, the Farba Binda and the Great Jaraff. The following diagram gives a version of the political structure of Sine. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Diop, Cheikh Anta & Modum, Egbuna P
18.
Sine-Saloum
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Sine-Saloum is a region in Senegal located north of the Gambia and south of the Petite Côte. It encompasses an area of 24,000 square kilometers, about 12% of Senegal, the western portion contains the Saloum Delta, a river delta at the junction of the Saloum and the North Atlantic. It is in region that the Saloum Delta National Park is located. 145,811 hectares of the Delta were designated a UNESCO Heritage Site in 2011, because it flows so slowly, this delta allows saltwater to travel deep inland. Long ago, the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were rivals, in 1984, the area was divided into two administrative regions, Kaolack and Fatick. Primary economic activities in the 2000s consisted of fishing, salt production, peanut farming, transportation is difficult because of the many islands. A secondary economy is the construction of fishing boats, much of the region consists of mangrove swamps. The upper reaches of the rivers adjoin the Sahel region and are affected by its desertification, the salinity of the water increased during the 1970s instance of the Sahel drought and mismanagement of the rivers upstream has been described as a factor. Mangroves are disappearing, and freshwater fish are disappearing with them, the villagers have difficulty obtaining freshwater. Sometimes water pumps are donated by international organizations, but spare parts are difficult to find when the pumps fail, the change in water salinity is affecting the ecosystem as much as it is changing the lifestyle of the inhabitants of the region. Sine-Saloum has long feared by even Europes most distinguished mariners because the sandbanks move. This danger to outsiders has long protected the region and preserved its individual villages, labour Party of Sine Saloum Tourism in Senegal M. Klein. Un exemple d’économie coloniale, le Sine-Saloum, de 1887 à1940, Paris, Université de Paris VII. Frans J. Schepers. Oiseaux deau dans le Delta du Sine-Saloum et la Petite Côte, Sine-Saloum at Au-Senegal. com Sine-Saloum at Senegalaisement. com
19.
Maad Saloum
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Maad Saloum means king of Saloum, in the Serer language. The ancient Kingdom of Saloum now part of present-day Senegal was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom and their kings bore the title Maad or Mad. The royal title was used interchangeably with that of their ancient kings. From 1493 to 1969, at least forty-nine kings were crowned Maad Saloum, during this Guelowar period, Maad Saloum Mbegan Ndour was the first Serer king of the maternal clan Guelowar to have reigned in Saloum. Maad Saloum Fode NGouye Joof was the last king of Saloum and he reigned from 1935 to 1969 - the year of his death
20.
Serer prehistory
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The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern-day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years. Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion, Some of these Serer relics included gold, silver and metals. The known objects found in Serer countries, are divided into two types,1 and these are the traces left by the proto-populations with which the Sereer were in contact when they came from the Fuuta. Laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in parts of the ancient Serer kingdom of Saloum. The sand tumulus, on the hand which resembles ancestral tombs still built by Serers are observed everywhere including the Kingdom of Sine, Jegem. The following table lists the sites in some of the Serer countries with their densities. Note, Some of these are now regions with their cities, towns and villages, Shell mounds are found in the islands. In the provinces of the Gandun, Numi, Saloum and south-western Sine around Joal,139 sites have been identified and these relics are very numerous and imposing. The graves of the ancestors were also very often sanctified as Fangool. Such relics associated with the ancestors are often venerated relics, for example, the relics evoking memories of migration or foundation of states are sometimes sacralised. The family relics in other Serer countries which are brought from Takrur or Kaabu by the founders were noted in places of worship of the village or province history. This may be stone, wood, musical instruments, ceremonial objects used by the Saltigue or Yaal Pangool and these relics kept by families since ancient times remain largely unknown. There are two types of Serer relics relating to two lineages that come into play in the organisation of the Serer people, kucarla - which means paternal lineage or paternal inheritance. ƭeen yaay - which means maternal lineage or maternal inheritance
21.
Serer history
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Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, the actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe, the Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building and transporting people over the river. The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time and it did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, in the Senegambia region, the Serer people were ruled by Lamanes. The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants, godfrey Mwakikagile proposed that the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society. The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof and they were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties. However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof became assimilated into Wolof culture, the actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear, but in the late 14th century Mandinka migrants entered the area. They were led by a clan known as the Gelwaar. Marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye and Joof to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties, according to Serer oral tradition a king named Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh – was the first Guelowar king of Sine. Having served for years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, in reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. Njaajan Njie (English spelling in Gambia, Ndiandiane Ndiaye or NDiadian NDiaye – French spelling in Senegal, or Njaajaan Njaay - in the Serer language, umar, is the traditional founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary, one suggests that he was the first and only son of a noble and saintly Arab father Abdu Darday and a Tukuler woman, Fatamatu Sail. This gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to Takrur. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, njaajan Njie was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor. In 1446, a Portuguese caravel carrying the Portuguese slave trader - Nuno Tristão, none of the adult passengers of that caravel survived. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese, one of them was left with the task to charter the caravel back to Portugal
22.
Timeline of Serer history
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This is a timeline of the history and development of Serer religion and the Serer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania. This timeline merely gives an overview of their history, consisting of calibrated archaeological discoveries in Serer countries, Serer religion, politics, royalty, dates are given according to the Common Era. For a background to these events, see Roog, Serer religion, Serer creation myth, Serer prehistory, Lamane, States headed by Serer Lamanes, Serer history, the Takrur period represents the prehistory of the Serer people. The Senegalese, Namandiru and Waalo period inaugurates Serer history,800 AD, John Trimingham lists states on the Senegal,800 States on the Senegal, Sanghana, Takrur, Silla, and Galam. Many of the Serer village and town names they have founded still survives today,850 AD, A state centered around Tekrur may have developed at this time, either as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley. Or according to John Donnelly Fage formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara, early 11th century, According to Serer tradition Lamane Jegan Joof founded Tukar. 1030, War Jabi usurped the throne of Tekrur following a revolution, from this point to 1042, the Serers of Tekrur became the subject of persecution and jihads by the African converts to Islam such as the Fula and Toucouleurs with their Almoravid allies. The Serers defeated the Muslim coalition army forcing them to refuge in Mauritania. This era marks the exodus of the Serers of Tekrur and those who survived the wars and refused to convert migrated southwards to what later became known as the Serer Kingdoms of Sine, Saloum and previously Baol, rather than convert to Islam. In the south, they were granted asylum by their distant Serer relatives, endorsed by the Great Council of Lamanes, Trimingham notes that, Tekrur was the first in the region to adopt Islam but lost completely its Serer identity. War Jabi died in 1040 and was succeeded by his son Leb, Leb is reported to have been fighting for the Almoravids in 1056 probably as a result of the subjugation of Tekrur by the Almoravids in 1042 and a well enforced Sharia law. Economically, the Kingdom of Tekrur benefit with the introduction of Islam and it also created political ties with the North. Many Fulanis/Toucouleurs were part of the Almoravid army that conquered parts of Europe,1235, Mansa Jolofing ransacked the caravan of gold sent by Sundiata Keita for the purchase of horses in Jolof. After this, Mansa Sundiata sent his general and cousin Tiramakhan Traore to Jolof to assassinate the Mansa Jolofing, 1285/7, Lamane Jaw on the throne of Jolof. During his reign, Mansa Sakoura launched an expedition in Senegal, conquered Jolof,1290, Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof, ancestor of the Joof dynasty of Sine and Saloum succeeded to the throne of Laah in Baol. 1350–1400, The Kingdom of Sine renamed, the Guelowar period starts from 1350. Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh elected first Guelowar king to rule in one of the Serer countries. Nominated and elected by the Serers of Sine and the Great Council of Lamanes whose Council he served as adviser for 15 years and gave his sisters
23.
Tumulus
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A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
24.
Marabout
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A marabout is a Muslim religious leader and teacher in West Africa, and in the Maghreb. The marabout is often a scholar of the Quran, or religious teacher, others may be wandering holy men who survive on alms, Sufi Murshids, or leaders of religious communities. Still others keep alive syncretic pre-Islamic traditions, making amulets for good luck, presiding at various ceremonies, telling the future, the common practice of receiving gifts or money for this service is disapproved of by orthodox Muslims. Here, Sufi believers follow a marabout, elsewhere known as a Murshid, Marabout was also adopted by French colonial officials, and applied to most any imam, Muslim teacher, or secular leader who appealed to Islamic tradition. Those who devote themselves to prayer or study, either based in communities, religious centers, in Senegal and Mali, these Marabouts rely on donations to live. Often there is a bond to support a specific marabout that has accumulated over generations within a family. Marabouts normally dress in traditional West African robes and live a simple, the spread in sub-Saharan Africa of the marabouts role from the 8th through 13th centuries created in some places a mixture of roles with pre-Islamic priests and divines. Thus many fortune tellers and self-styled spiritual guides take the name marabout, the recent diaspora of West Africans has brought this tradition to Europe and North America, where some marabouts advertise their services as fortune tellers. Contemporary marabouts in Senegal advertise on television and have hot lines, CNRS Editions, Paris ISBN 978-2-271-06087-7 Magopinaciophilie, An article discussing Europeans who collect calling card like advertisements by marabouts. Lofficiel du Marabout, Parisian advertisement collection, magopinaciophiles, A collection of French flyers. The term Marabout appears during the Muslim conquest of North Africa and it is derived from the Arabic word Mourabit or mrabet, religious students and military volunteers who manned the Ribats at the time of the conquest. Today marabout means Saint in the Berber language, and refers to Sufi Muslim teachers who head a lodge or school called a zaouïa, associated with a school or tradition. The pronunciation of that word varies according to the spoken Berber dialect, for example, it is pronounced Amrabadh in the Riff dialect. The marabout is known as Sayyed to Arabic speaking Maghribians, many cities in Morocco got their names from local marabouts, and the name of those cities usually begins with Sidi followed by the name of the local marabout. The standard Arabic for saint is Waliy, a marabout may also refer to a tomb of a venerated saint, and such places have become holy centers and places of pious reflection. The roots of this tradition can be traced back to ancient times when the Berbers believed in the polytheistic religions, herodotus mentioned the tradition too, when he has spoke of the Nasamones bringing animal sacrifices to the tombs of holy men. Note that these are not places of pilgrimage, but are rather places of reflection and inspiration for the pious. Béja Zaouïa de Sidi Salah Zlaoui, béja Zaouïa de Sidi Bou Arba
25.
Juju
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Juju or ju-ju is a spiritual belief system incorporating objects, such as amulets, and spells used in religious practice, as part of witchcraft in West Africa. The term has been applied to traditional West African religions, juju is sometimes used to enforce a contract or ensure compliance. The witch doctor casting the spell requires a payment for this service, juju is also commonly used in an attempt to affect the outcome of football games. Contrary to common belief, Vodun is not related to juju, despite the linguistic, juju has acquired some karmic attributes in more recent times, good juju can stem from almost any good deed, bad juju can be spread just as easily. These ideas revolve around the luck and fortune portions of juju, the use of juju to describe an object usually involves small items worn or carried, these generally contain medicines produced by witch doctors. The term juju also is used to refer to the juju bean native to West Africa, the poisonous bean grows on wild tree-dwelling vines
26.
Toucouleur people
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The Toucouleur people, also called Tukulor or Haalpulaar, are a West African ethnic group. They are found mostly in Futa Toro region of Senegal, with some in Mali, the Toucouleur have been Muslims who embraced Islam in the 11th century, their early and strong Islamic heritage is a matter of great pride for them. They speak the Fulani language, and are distinct from but related to the Fula, Wolof, the Toucouleur are traditionally sedentary, settled primarily in the Senegal River valley, with farming, fishing and raising cattle as their main activities. The Toucouleur society has been patrilineal, polygynous and with high social stratification that included slavery, there are an estimated 1 million Toucouleur people in West Africa. They are found primarily in the regions of Senegal where they constitute 15% of the population. This region is irrigated by the Senegal River valley, overlaps southern Mauritania, during the colonial era, and in the modern times, some of the Toucouleurs resettled in western Mali. They are about a million Toucouleur people in Senegal River valley area, the Fulani language, also called the Fula or Pulaar, is their first language. It is an Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family of languages, locally, they are variously referred to as Pulaar, Torooɓe, Futanke, or Haalpulaar. The name Toucouleur is of unclear origin, with sources stating it as a French derivation meaning of color. According to the traditions of the Toucouleurs and Serer people. This tradition is supported by scholars including Foltz and Phillips. A mutually acceptable bantering-style interaction, called the relationship by anthropologists, exists between the Serers and Toucouleurs. The Toucouleur people have inhabited the Senegal River area, with roots of an organized Tekrur kingdom tracing back to the 5th century. They were part of the 10th to the 18th century kingdom, in the 18th century, a Toucouleur empire emerged which reached its peak influence in the 19th century under the Islamic leader El Hadj Umar Tall. Umar was born in a Toucouleur clerical family in 1797, during his visit to Mecca in 1827, he was designated as the Caliph of Black Africa. He returned to West Africa in 1833, and learnt political, Umar Tal returned to Senegal in 1845, where he began preaching Islam among the Toucouleur people. Umar Tal obtained weapons from Europe, then mobilized the Toucouleur to pursue an Islamic holy war in 1854 against the ethnic groups. The Toucouleur Empire grew and extended from Senegal to much of Mali over the ten years
27.
Jihad
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Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. It can have many shades of meaning in an Islamic context, such as struggle against ones evil inclinations, in classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad, the term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups. The word jihad appears frequently in the Quran with and without military connotations, Islamic jurists and other ulema of the classical era understood the obligation of jihad predominantly in a military sense. They developed a set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance, while modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. Jihad is classified into inner jihad, which involves a struggle against ones own impulses, and external jihad. Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, gallup analysis of a large survey reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world. Jihad is sometimes referred to as the pillar of Islam. In Twelver Shia Islam jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion, a person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid. The term jihad is often rendered in English as Holy War, in Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as fight, battle, jihad, nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Quran and words and actions of Muhammad. In the Quran and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, in the path of God. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that it indicates the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and it is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word crusade. The context of the Quran is elucidated by Hadith, of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—Bukhari—all assume that jihad means warfare. He said, The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain, Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood. According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad and it has also been reported that Muhammad considered well-performing hajj to be the best jihad for Muslim women. The practice of raids by Bedouin against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Quran
28.
Enthroned
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Enthroned is a black metal band formed in Charleroi in 1993 by Cernunnos. He soon recruited guitarist Tsebaoth and a vocalist from grindcore/black metal band Hecate who stayed until the end of December 1993, the band released a five-track demo tape in mid-1994 which brought them to the attention of several independent labels. A 7-inch split EP with Ancient Rites was then released by the underground label Afterdark Records, after the labels demise, Evil Alliance Records released Enthroneds first full-length release, Prophecies of Pagan Fire. Shortly thereafter, the band enlisted second guitarist Nornagest, eventually, Tseboath was replaced by Nebiros. In 1996, along with Ancient Rites and Bewitched, Enthroned began a tour of Europe. In April 1997, as Enthroned was to begin recording Towards the Skullthrone of Satan, Enthroned recorded the album with a session drummer in honor of Cernunnos and performed at the Dragons Blaze festival with newly acquired drummer Namroth Blackthorn. In April 1998, the band toured the European continent with Dark Funeral and also released the mini CD Regie Axese, later that year, they toured again with labelmates Hecate Enthroned and Usurper. At the close of 1998, the band entered Abyss Studios to record The Apocalypse Manifesto, the bands third album was released in May 1999 and dealt with the biblical concept of the Apocalypse as interpreted by a Norse mythological perspective. Enthroned rounded off the 20th Century on tour with Marduk and continued to tour in Europe and this fourth album was released in April 2001. Namroth Blackthorn was replaced by Alsvid from the French black metal band Seth, Enthroned continued to play many live gigs in and around Europe, as well as in the US. In early 2002, Enthroned signed to Napalm Records releasing their fifth recording, Carnage in Worlds Beyond. In June 2003, Nguaroth and Glaurung joined Enthroned, which played a South American tour and released their sixth album, in 2005, Enthroned released their first official live album, Black Goat Ritual, recorded during their tour of Brazil. Enthroned parted ways with longtime vocalist Sabathan, at which time Nornagest took over the vocals, in June 2007, Enthroned recorded their seventh album Tetra Karcist, seeing the return of old drummer Alsvid for the studio sessions. Ahephahim joined as the new drummer in June 2007 and Enthroned signed with Regain Records in January 2008. At this time, some members of the opened a recording studio. In the meantime, Ahephaim and Nguaroth left the band due to lack of time and were replaced by ex-Gorgoroth drummer Garghuf, nerath Daemon took back the position he left five years ago in Enthroned, changing his name to Neraath. Enthroneds eight album, Pentagrammaton, was released on 22 March 2010, since then, Nornagest has given up playing guitar in live performances, due to chronic tendonitis in his wrist, and has instead become the bands frontman. Former members Lord Sabathan and Nguaroth joined the band for a live performance in 2010 as an act of reconciliation
29.
Kaolack
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Kaolack is a town of 172,305 people on the north bank of the Saloum River and the N1 road in Senegal. It is the capital of the Kaolack Region, which borders The Gambia to the south, Kaolack is an important regional market town and is Senegals main peanut trading and processing center. As the center of Ibrahimiyya branch of the Tijaniyyah Sufi order founded by Ibrayima Ñas, the leona niassene mosque in Kaolack is one of the largest and best known in Senegal. Kaolack is situated on the Saloum River about 100 kilometers from its mouth and it is the successor city to Kahone, historic capital of the kingdom of Saloum. Kahone, originally a place marked by a tree on the right bank of the Saloum River facing the island of Kouyong. In the 17th and 18th centuries it consisted of a number of distinct neighborhoods separated by open fields, one of these wards, Kaolack, was founded by two Sereer princesses from Baol. Another, Maka Kahone, was inhabited by Muslims and administered by clerics, otherwise, the population of the town practiced traditional religion and court ceremonies centered on the river bank, Kouyong Island, and various monumental baobab trees. French interests in the Saloum River increased in the early 19th century as legitimate articles of trade were sought to trade in slaves. By mid-century peanut production had been introduced to the kingdom of Saloum and, with the permission of its king, Kaolack was more favorably placed for shipping than Kahone. The French laid out a first grid of lots in 1860, in what would become the city center, the construction of a rail spur from the port to the Dakar-Niger line in 1911 caused the town to boom as a peanut processing and export center. Its population grew rapidly, rising from 5,600 in 1925 to 44,000 in 1934, the Tijaniyyah of Madina Baye is an international institution with disciples in many cities, including Kano, Nigeria, and Chicago, Illinois. Jaleñ, between Lewna Ñaseen and Medina Mbàbba, Medina Mbàbba, also called Medina I, named after Baabakar Njaay, nicknamed Mbàbba Njaay, who was the Serer chief of the village when it was incorporated into Kaolack. Medina Baay, also called Medina II, on the northeast edge of the city and it is the center of the Ibrāhīmiiya branch of the Tijānī order founded in 1930 by Allaaji Abdulaay Ñass son, Ibrayima Ñas, known to his followers as Baay. The name in Arabic means The City of Baay, Saam, west of Medina Baay in the north of Kaolack, also founded by Ibrayima Ñas. Saam was originally designated as the fields and orchards of Ibrayima Ñass disciples, ndoorong, west of Saam, founded by Bashiru Mbàkke and his Murid disciples. Coofog, north of Saam, which existed before Kaolack as a Serer village ruled by the Gelwaar dynasty, Kaolack is twinned with, Aosta, Italy Mérignac, France Memphis, United States Railway stations in Senegal Peace Corps Senegal, Kaolack Page
30.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
31.
Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof
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Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof was the last king to rule the Serer Kingdom of Sine now part of independent Senegal. Maad a Sinig means king of Sine in Serer language and he reigned from 1924 until his death in 1969. After his death, the Kingdom of Sine was incorporated into independent Senegal, Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof came from the Joof paternal dynasty of Sine and Saloum, from The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof. On his maternal line, he is a member of the Guelowar dynasty, by 1969, Maad Mahecor Joof although retired, was the only ruler in Senegal who possessed real power. The Serer kingdoms such as Sine and Saloum were the only pre-colonial kingdoms to survive up to 1969, the Maad a Sinig was very committed in the preservation of Serer culture and tradition. During his reign, the Kingdom of Sine was economically prosperous, indebtedness and migration was rare in Sine than it was elsewhere. He performed the role of the Maad a Sinig, presiding over the religious affairs of his subjects. In one of his last ever State address to his subjects regarding the history of Sine, he stated, Kingdom of Sine Serer people Kingdom of Saloum Kingdom of Baol Diouf. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Sarr, Alioune, Histoire du Sine-Saloum. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87 Villalón, Leonardo Alfonso. Islamic society and state power in Senegal, disciples and citizens in Fatick, ISBN 0-521-46007-7 Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847-1914. Edinburgh University Press Faye, Louis Diène, mort et Naissance le monde Sereer
32.
Senegambia Confederation
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The confederation was founded on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the two countries signed on 12 December 1981. It was intended to promote cooperation between the two countries, but was dissolved by Senegal on 30 September 1989 after the Gambia refused to move closer toward union, as a political unit, Senegambia was created by dueling French and English colonial forces in the region. Competition between the French and the English began in the 16th century when both started to establish trading centers, although there was some overlap in their areas of influence, French trade centered on the Senegal River and in the Cap-Vert region and English trade on the Gambia River. From 1500 to 1758, the two used their naval power to try to remove each other from the region. In 1758, during the Seven Years War based in Europe, the unified region collapsed in 1779. With the British occupied by the American Revolutionary War in North America, the unified region ended officially in 1783 in the aftermath of the British defeat and independence by the United States. The Treaty of Versailles created a balance between France and Britain, Saint Louis, l’île de Gorée, and the Senegal River region were restored to France, and the Gambia was left to the British. Although the areas were ruled by separate, competing powers, they did not determine an official border between the French and British Senegambian colonies until 1889, at the time, France agreed to accept the current border between the two countries and remove its border trading posts. For each country, the lock and key border situation has posed problems for international relations, especially in trade. One of the greatest problems for both countries is the ease with which violence could spread through the region and this fear was realized during the 1981 coup attempt to oust President Dawda Jawara of the Gambia. Specific threats came from Kwame Nkrumahs Ghana, Moussa Traorés Mali, Ahmed Sekou Tourés Guinea, João Bernardo Vieiras Guinea-Bissau, while the Senegalese government speculated about some dangers, in the late 1980s it had border skirmishes with Mauritania. After the coup attempt, the government realized that its forces were not adequate to stop, or prevent. Security of the region was becoming more and more difficult to maintain, the opposing trade policies fueled a large black market around the Senegal–Gambia border, which brought cheaper manufactured goods into Senegal. The black market also attracted an export drain into the Gambia, the Senegalese government began to institute a delayed payment system with its groundnut farms. When farmers sold their harvest to the Senegalese government, they would get a voucher, known as a chit, in the short term, the Senegambia Confederation was a pragmatic union based on a mutual security interest. As noted, the Senegalese government feared national instability caused by uprisings in either the Gambia or the Casamance region and this fear nearly became reality on 30 July 1981 when Gambian leftists attempted a coup détat against President Sir Dawda Jawara. At the request of President Jawara, the Senegalese army entered the Gambia, the attempted coup resulted in both countries leaders promoting the unification ideas which had been developing in the region. Senghor’s belief in Negritude informed the possibility of unification between Senegal and the Gambia, and fostered the belief that unification would happen as an organic process
33.
Conservatism
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Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since used to describe a wide range of views. There is no set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a range of issues. In contrast to the definition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social. In Great Britain, conservative ideas emerged in the Tory movement during the Restoration period, Toryism supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived from the people, and rejected the authority of parliament, Robert Filmers Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthumously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651, became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing a government in England. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown, Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century. Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker as the father of conservatism, along with the Marquess of Halifax, David Hume. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism, Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom, Burkes views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the American Revolution of 1765–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution and he insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive and he favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke justified the order on the basis of tradition, tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community. Burke was a leading theorist in his day, finding extreme idealism an endangerment to broader liberties, despite their influence on future conservative thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th century, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was an apolitical philosopher, Burke described himself as a Whig. Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived as a political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions
34.
Cosmopolitanism
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Cosmopolitanism is the ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite, a cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. In a cosmopolitan community individuals from different places form relationships of mutual respect, various cities and locales, past or present, have or are defined as cosmopolitan, that does not necessarily mean that all or most of their inhabitants consciously embrace the above philosophy. Rather, locales could be defined as simply by the fact of being where people of various ethnic, cultural and/or religious background live in proximity. The word derives from the Greek κοσμοπολίτης, or kosmopolitês, formed from κόσμος, kosmos, i. e. world, universe, or cosmos, contemporary usage defines the term as citizen of the world. Definitions of cosmopolitanism usually begin with the Greek etymology of citizen of the world, however, as Appiah points out, world in the original sense meant cosmos or universe, not earth or globe as current use assumes. Cosmopolitanism can be traced back to Diogenes of Sinope, the father of the Cynic movement in Ancient Greece. Of Diogenes it is said, Asked where he came from, he answered and this was a ground-breaking concept, because the broadest basis of social identity in Greece at that time was either the individual city-state or the Greeks as a group. Within these circles human beings feel a sense of affinity or endearment towards others, the task of world citizens becomes then to draw the circles somehow towards the centre, making all human beings more like our fellow city dwellers, and so forth. For Levinas, the foundation of ethics consists in the obligation to respond to the Other, in Being for the Other, he writes that there is no universal moral law, only the sense of responsibility that the Other, in a state of vulnerability, calls forth. The proximity of the Other is an important part of Levinass concept, for Derrida, the foundation of ethics is hospitality, the readiness and the inclination to welcome the Other into ones home. Pure, unconditional hospitality is a desire that underscores the conditional hospitality necessary in our relationships with others, Levinass and Derridas theories of ethics and hospitality hold out the possibility of an acceptance of the Other as different but of equal standing. Further, both reveal the importance of considering how best to interact with the Other and others. You also have St. Paul in the Christian tradition, also a call for a citizen of the world as, precisely. A further state of cosmopolitanism occurred after the Second World War, as a reaction to the Holocaust and the other massacres, the concept of crimes against humanity became a generally accepted category in international law. This clearly shows the appearance and acceptance of a notion of responsibility that is considered to exist toward all of humankind. Philosophical cosmopolitans are moral universalists, they believe all humans. The boundaries between nations, states, cultures or societies are therefore morally irrelevant, a widely cited example of a contemporary cosmopolitan is Kwame Anthony Appiah
35.
Saloum River
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The Saloum River rises about 105 kilometers east of Kaolack, Senegal, and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The significant Saloum Delta is located at its mouth, which is protected as Saloum Delta National Park, the river basin lies within the Serer pre-colonial Kingdom of Saloum. Mangrove forests occupy a 5-kilometer belt on either side of the river almost 70 kilometers upstream, sine River Sine-Saloum Kingdom of Saloum A Directory of African Wetlands. Robert Mepham, R. H. Hughes, G. M. Bernacsek, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre,1992
36.
River delta
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A river delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, River deltas are ecologically important as they provide coastline defense, are home to many species, and can impact drinking water supply. The tidal currents also cannot be too strong, as sediment would wash out into the body faster than the river deposits it. Of course, the river must carry enough sediment to layer into deltas over time, the rivers velocity decreases rapidly, causing it to deposit the majority, if not all, of its load. This alluvium builds up to form the river delta, when the flow enters the standing water, it is no longer confined to its channel and expands in width. This flow expansion results in a decrease in the flow velocity, as a result, sediment drops out of the flow and deposits. Over time, this single channel builds a deltaic lobe, pushing its mouth into the standing water, as the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation. As the slope of the channel decreases, it becomes unstable for two reasons. First, gravity makes the flow in the most direct course down slope. If the river breaches its natural levees, it out onto a new course with a shorter route to the ocean. Second, as its slope gets lower, the amount of stress on the bed decreases, which results in deposition of sediment within the channel. This makes it easier for the river to breach its levees, often when the channel does this, some of its flow remains in the abandoned channel. When these channel-switching events occur, a mature delta develops a distributary network, another way these distributary networks form is from deposition of mouth bars. When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a river and this results in additional deposition on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river into two distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is the Wax Lake Delta, in both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas of low deposition. This results in the smoothing of the shape of the delta as the channels move across its surface. Because the sediment is laid down in fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates a fan. The more often the flow changes course, the shape develops as closer to an ideal fan, the Mississippi and Ural River deltas, with their birds-feet, are examples of rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical fan shape
37.
Mangrove
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A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in coastal conditions. They contain a complex filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion. They are adapted to the low oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, the saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater, to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater. The term mangrove comes to English from Spanish, and is likely to originate from Guarani and it was earlier mangrow, but this word was corrupted via folk etymology influence of the word grove. Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas, areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in water, and when the tide recedes. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation. About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being a tree grows in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus. However, a mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home for a great variety of other organisms. Mangrove plants require a number of adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity. Each species has its own solutions to problems, this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment, once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring
38.
Peanut
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The peanut, also known as the groundnut and the goober and taxonomically classified as Arachis hypogaea, is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, being important to small and large commercial producers. It is classified as both a grain legume and, because of its oil content, an oil crop. World annual production of shelled peanuts was 42 million tonnes in 2014, atypically among crop plants, peanut pods develop underground rather than aboveground. It is this characteristic that the botanist Linnaeus used to assign the specific name hypogaea, as a legume, the peanut belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae, this is also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the bean, or pea, family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules and this capacity to fix nitrogen means peanuts require less nitrogen-containing fertilizer and improve soil fertility, making them valuable in crop rotations. Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such as walnuts and almonds, the botanical definition of a nut is a fruit whose ovary wall becomes very hard at maturity. Using this criterion, the peanut is not a true nut, however, for culinary purposes and in common English language usage, peanuts are usually referred to as nuts. Cultivated peanut arose from a hybrid between two species of peanut, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, the process of domestication through artificial selection made A. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier and more compact, and have a different pod structure, the initial domestication may have taken place in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today. From this primary center of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay, over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved, these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies. Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles, the oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old. These may be pods from a species that was in cultivation. They were found in Peru, where dry conditions are favorable to the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister, many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art. Cultivation was well established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived, there, the conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Alioune Sarr
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Alioune Sarr was a Senegalese historian, author and politician whose family gained prominence in the Serer precolonial Kingdom of Sine and Saloum around the 14th century. They also made up the class of Futa Toro. His father was a former Chief of Foundiougne, Gandoune, former head of the constituency of Ndiaye-Ndiaye, some of Sarrs work include, Alioune Sarr. Histoire du Sine-Saloum, Présence Africaine, No, Histoire du Sine-Saloum,1985 Les Guélvars. Alioune Sarrs Histoire du Sine-Saloum was originally a manuscript which was developed around 1930, a document which took him several years of research. An extract was published in 1948 in order to assess the value of the document, the future president of Senegal Léopold Sédar Senghor persuaded Sarr in 1948 to get the document published. Senghor liaised with the assistant professor of history at the Sorbonne to review the manuscript, professor Devèze was very interested in it but concluded that the paper was a good start and needed some work. Alioune Sarr reworked the document and in 1949 it was published by Présence Africaine, although the document was previously unpublished, some were familiar with it and were using it illegally without giving credit to the author. The original document itself did not cover all the periods and some sections were somewhat brief, the Serer paternal Lamanic period was not covered in detail neither was the maternal Wagadou period. Nonetheless, historians such as Becker, Martin, etc. agree that, the data were very numerous. During investigations in Kaolack about the history of its neighborhoods, the historian Charles Becker came upon the document with the assistance of Mamour Mbodj. Becker contacted Sarr and an agreement was reached to type it up, add an introduction, bibliography and notes sections, publish it, numerous editions have been made to it including the 1963,1986 and the 1983 edition by Becker. Alioune Sarrs Histoire du Sine-Saloum is one of the work on the history of Sine-Saloum a copy of the work was filed with the National Archives of Senegal. The unpublished work of his relative, the Goréen - Jean-Pierre Sarr was lost and has never been found, Kingdom of Sine Kingdom of Saloum Serer people Serer history Serer ancient history History of Senegal History of the Gambia Diouf, Niokhobaye. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Oumar Kane. La première hégémonie peule, le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Ten̳ella à Almaami Abdul, bulletin de lInstitut fondamental dAfrique noire, Sciences humaines, Volume 46. Schrift, Buch und Lektüre in der französischsprachigen Literatur Afrikas, introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986–1987 DeCorse, Christopher R. West Africa during the Atlantic slave trade, archaeological perspectives. Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh University Press Senghor, Léopold Sédar, Lambert, Fernando, ISBN 2-7384-0100-7 Becker C. & Martin V
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Edinburgh University Press
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Edinburgh University Press is a scholarly publisher of academic books and journals, based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Edinburgh University Press was founded in the 1940s and became a wholly owned subsidiary of the University of Edinburgh in 1992, Books and journals published by the Press carry the imprimatur of The University of Edinburgh. All proposed publishing projects are appraised and approved by the Press Committee, since August 2004, the Press has had Charitable Status. In November 2013, Edinburgh University Press acquired Dundee University Press for a sum, with a stated aim to increase textbook and digital sales. Brodies advised Edinburgh University Press on the terms of the acquisition, Edinburgh University Press publishes a range of research publications, which include scholarly monographs and reference works, as well as materials which are available on-line. The Press also publishes textbooks for students and lecturers, the press publishes around 120 books and 30 journals each year. Edinburgh University Press publishes mostly in humanities and social sciences, the press participates in the ebook platforms University Press Scholarship Online, Books at JSTOR and University Publishing Online, and also works with a number of ebook aggregators. The Trustees normally meet five times a year, and are responsible for the conduct of the Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh University Press achieved combined book and journal revenues of over £2. 37m for the year ending 31 July 2013, a 7% increase on the previous year. Profit before interest was £197,000, which was marginally down on 2012 due to continued investment in editorial, Official website - Corporate information and journals publishing programme Official website – books publishing programme
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Henry Gravrand
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Father Henry Gravrand was a French Catholic missionary to Africa and an anthropologist who has written extensively on Serer religion and culture. He was one of the pioneers of interfaith dialog and believed that African religion was the first covenant between God and man. Papa Massène Sene argues that his approach lacks scientific rigor and include fundamental linguistic, according to Charles Becker, Gravrand is confusing a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. First missionary of the Congregation of Holy Spirit, Gravrand arrived in Senegal on 28 December 1948, in 1955, Gravrand created the Union of farmers of Sine, affiliated to the French Confederation of Christian Workers, which gave the farmers training enabling them to defend their own interests. Gravrand was a specialist on Traditional African religion, in particular the Serer religion, in 1964, Gravrand was one of the founder-members of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. In October 1970, Gravrand was appointed parish priest of MBour, the year 1987 marked the Silver Jubilee of the episcopate of the Archbishop of Dakar. That same year, the apostolate of father Gravrand in Senegal came to an end, Gravrand took his solemn vows in 1990 and was sent to the Monastery of the Holy Saviour in Lebanon. Gravrand died on 11 July 2003 at the Abbey of Latrun,2,1973, pp 237–266 Le Gabou dans les traditions orales du Ngabou, Éthiopiques, no. 28, October 1981 L’héritage spirituel Sereer, valeur traditionnelle dhier, daujourdhui et de demain, Éthiopiques,31, 3e trimestre 1982 La civilisation sereer, vol. ISBN 0-14-044945-0, chapter 67 Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, minh-ha, Drawings from African dwellings, Indiana University Press, Bloomington,1996. JSTOR by Peter Mark À la découverte de la civilisation sereeer avec le R. P. Gravrand
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Sahelian kingdoms
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The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were centered on the Sahel, the area of grasslands south of the Sahara. The wealth of the came from controlling the trade routes across the desert. Their power came from having large pack animals like camels and horses that were fast enough to keep a large empire under central control and were useful in battle. All of these empires were quite decentralized with member cities having a great deal of autonomy. There were integrated kingdoms and empires, with cities and significant towns. People practised agriculture, stock-rearing, hunting, fishing, and crafts and they navigated along rivers and across lakes, trading over short and long distances, using their own currencies. At Taghaza, for example, salt was exchanged, at Takedda, copper. The first major state to rise in this region was the Kingdom of Ghana, established in c. the 8th century, it was centered in what is today Senegal and Mauritania, it was the first to benefit from the introduction of pack animals by Wolof traders. Ghana dominated the region between about 750 and 1078, smaller states in the region at this time included Takrur to the west, the Malinke kingdom of Mali to the south, and the Songhai centred on Gao to the east. When Ghana collapsed in the face of invasion from the Almoravids, a series of brief kingdoms followed, notably that of the Sosso, after 1235, the Mali Empire rose to dominate the region. Located on the Niger River to the west of Ghana in what is today Niger and Mali, it reached its peak in the 1350s, the most powerful of these states was the Songhai Empire, which expanded rapidly beginning with king Sonni Ali in the 1460s. By 1500, it had risen to stretch from Cameroon to the Maghreb and it too was quite short-lived and collapsed in 1591 as a result of Moroccan musketry. Far to the east, on Lake Chad, the state of Kanem-Bornu, founded as Kanem in the 9th century, to their west, the loosely united Hausa city-states became dominant. These two states coexisted uneasily, but were quite stable, in 1810 the Fulani Empire rose and conquered the Hausa, creating a more centralized state. It and Kanem-Bornu would continue to exist
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Alodia
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Alodia, also referred to as Alwa or Aloa, was a Medieval Nubian kingdom in what is now Sudan. Its capital was Soba, located near the confluence of the Blue, compared to its two Nubian cousins in the north, Nobatia and Makuria, Alodia is still rather badly understood. This is mostly due to the scarcity of sources as well as the limited amount of fieldwork undertaken in its territory. Long before the kingdom of Alodia becomes tangible several similar-sounding variations of its name appear in various sources, the earliest reference to Alodia might be a Kushitic stela from the reign of Nastasen, which mentions a region called Alut. It is however not yet possible to connect named Alut with any region or town. A reference made by Pliny the Elder is more interesting, He not only includes Alwa on his list of towns in Meroitic Kush, sadly, Pliny does not give us any concrete details about its location. Therefore, we can guess that his Alwa is related to the later kingdom. The last ancient source which should be noted is the most important one and we are dealing with a Geez inscription of the Aksumite king Ezana, who lived in the mid 4th century AD. This inscription mentions a city named Alwa. It is however assumed that this Alwa has to be located near the confluence of the Nile, not all towns were in the hands of Kushites though. Instead, the account makes it clear that in fact, the heartland of the Kingdom of Kush was partially occupied by the Nubians. Be it as it may, it doesnt seem as if Aksums presence in the Middle Nile Valley was overly long-lasting and this era of transformation is known as the Post-Meroitic period. While the formation of Nobatia and Makuria are both fairly well studied and understood, same cant be said for Alodia, what seems clear is that several aspects of Meroitic culture were largely dismissed during that period, like pyramids and mastabas, wheel-made pottery and faiences. When Alodia came into existence is unknown, just as much as when, archaeology suggests that Soba was already settled during the Meroitic period, but it was not until the later post-Meroitic period, perhaps during the 6th century that it became a major urban center. This dating coincides with the first mention of Alodia and its conversion to Christianity, as the southernmost of the three Nubian kingdoms, Alodia was the last to be converted to Christianity. If we can believe John, the Alodian king was aware of the baptisms of Nobadia in 543. He describes how the Alodian king sent a delegation to the king of Nobadia, requesting a bishop to be sent to him to instruct his people, the request was granted in 580, leading to the baptism of the king, his family and the local nobility. This event marked the end of the period and the dawn of the Medieval or Christian period of central Sudan
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