1.
Saltire
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A saltire, also called Saint Andrews Cross, is a heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross, like the shape of the letter X in Roman type. The word comes from the Middle French sautoir, possibly owing to the shape of the areas in the design. It appears in flags, including those of Scotland and Jamaica. A variant, also appearing on many past and present flags, a warning sign in the shape of a saltire is also used to indicate the point at which a railway line intersects a road at a level crossing. In Unicode, the cross is encoded at U+2613 ☓ saltire, see X mark#Unicode for similar symbols that might be more accessible. The saltire appears on vexilla that are represented consistently on coinage of Christian emperors of Rome, in the ninth and tenth century the saltire was revived in Constantinople as a symbol of Christian-imperial power. Anne Roes detected the symbol, which appears with balls in the quadrants formed by the arms of the chi-cross. She suggested that early Christians endorsed its solar symbolism as appropriate to Christ and she also wrote, although it cannot be proved. In the white saltire of St. Andrew we still have a reminiscence of the old standard of the Persepolitan kingdom, when two or more saltires appear, they are usually blazoned as cut off. A saltorel is a saltire, the term is usually defined as one-half the width of the saltire. A field per saltire is divided into four areas by a saltire-shaped cut, otherwise, each of the four divisions may be blazoned separately. Examples include, Suffolk County Council, England, The Corporation of the Municipality of Brighton, when five or more compact charges are in saltire, one is in the center and one or more lie on each arm of an invisible saltire. The Saint Andrews Cross was worn as a badge on hats in Scotland, the Cross of Burgundy, a form of the Saint Andrews Cross, is used in numerous flags across Europe and the Americas. It was first used in the 15th century as an emblem by the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, the Duchy of Burgundy, forming a large part of eastern France and the Low Countries, was inherited by the House of Habsburg on the extinction of the Valois ducal line. As a result, the Cross of Burgundy has appeared in a variety of flags connected with territories formerly part of the Burgundian or Habsburg inheritance. Examples of such diversity include the Spanish naval ensign, the flag of Carlism, the flag of the Dutch municipality of Eijsden, the naval ensign of the Imperial Russian and Russian navies is a blue saltire on a white field. Prior to the Union the Royal Scots Navy used a red ensign incorporating the St Andrews Cross, with its colours exchanged, the same design forms part of the arms and flag of Nova Scotia. The Brazilian cities of Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza also use a blue saltire on a white field, the flags of the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use a white saltire on a blue field
2.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
3.
Leeds and Liverpool Canal
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The Leeds and Liverpool Canal is a canal in Northern England, linking the cities of Leeds and Liverpool. Over a distance of 127 miles, it crosses the Pennines and it has several small branches, and in the early 21st century a new link was constructed into the Liverpool docks system. In the mid-18th century the towns of Yorkshire including Leeds, Wakefield. While the Aire and Calder Navigation improved links to the east for Leeds, Bradford merchants wanted to increase the supply of limestone to make lime for mortar and agriculture using coal from Bradfords collieries and to transport textiles to the Port of Liverpool. On the west coast, traders in the port of Liverpool wanted a cheap supply of coal for their shipping and manufacturing businesses. Inspired by the effectiveness of the wholly artificial navigation, the Bridgewater Canal opened in 1759–60, a canal across the Pennines linking Liverpool and Hull would have obvious trade benefits. A public meeting place at the Sun Inn in Bradford on 2 July 1766 to promote the building of such a canal. John Longbotham was engaged to survey a route, two groups were set up to promote the scheme, one in Liverpool and one in Bradford. A counter-proposal was produced by John Eyes and Richard Melling, improved by P. P, Burdett, which was rejected by the Bradford committee as too expensive, mainly because of the valley crossing at Burnley. In 1768 Brindley gave an estimate of a distance just less than 109 miles built at a cost of £259,777. A commencement ceremony was held at Halsall, north of Liverpool on 5 November 1770, the first section of the canal opened from Bingley to Skipton in 1773. Also completed was the branch to Bradford, on the western side, the section from Liverpool to Newburgh was dug. By the following year the Yorkshire end had been extended to Gargrave, on the western side it reached Wigan by 1781, replacing the earlier and unsatisfactory Douglas Navigation. By now, the funds and further borrowing had all been spent. The war in the American colonies and its made it impossible to continue for more than a decade. By this time planning for the competing Rochdale Canal was under way and it was likely to offer a direct journey to Liverpool via Manchester. The same year John Rennie surveyed a branch of the Rochdale between Todmorden and Burnley, in 1794 an agreement was reached with the Manchester, Bolton and Bury Canal company to create a link near Red Moss near Horwich. With this in mind in the year, the route was changed again with a further Act
4.
West Yorkshire
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West Yorkshire is a metropolitan county in England. It is an inland and in relative terms upland county having eastward-draining valleys while taking in moors of the Pennines and has a population of 2.2 million, West Yorkshire came into existence as a metropolitan county in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. West Yorkshire consists of five boroughs and shares borders with the counties of Derbyshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, North Yorkshire. In the heart of the county is Leeds Bradford International Airport, West Yorkshire County Council was abolished in 1986 so its five districts became effectively unitary authorities. However, the county, which covers an area of 2,029 square kilometres, continues to exist in law. West Yorkshire includes the West Yorkshire Urban Area, which is the most built-up, West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council inherited the use of West Riding County Hall at Wakefield, opened in 1898, from the West Riding County Council in 1974. Since 1987 it has been the headquarters of Wakefield City Council, the county initially had a two-tier structure of local government with a strategic-level county council and five districts providing most services. In 1986, throughout England the metropolitan county councils were abolished, the functions of the county council were devolved to the boroughs, joint-boards covering fire, police and public transport, and to other special joint arrangements. Organisations such as the West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive continue to operate on this basis, although the county council was abolished, West Yorkshire continues to form a metropolitan and ceremonial county with a Lord Lieutenant of West Yorkshire and a High Sheriff. Wakefields Parish Church was raised to cathedral status in 1888 and after the elevation of Wakefield to diocese, Wakefield Council immediately sought city status and this was granted in July 1888. However the industrial revolution, which changed West and South Yorkshire significantly, led to the growth of Leeds and Bradford, Leeds was granted city status in 1893 and Bradford in 1897. The name of Leeds Town Hall reflects the fact that at its opening in 1858 Leeds was not yet a city, the county borders, going anticlockwise from the west, Lancashire, Greater Manchester, Derbyshire, South Yorkshire and North Yorkshire. It lies almost entirely on rocks of carboniferous age which form the southern Pennine fringes in the west, in the extreme east of the metropolitan county there are younger deposits of magnesian limestone. The Bradford and Calderdale areas are dominated by the scenery of the slopes of the Pennines, dropping from upland in the west down to the east. There is a conjunction of large scale industry, urban areas. The dense network of roads, canals and railways and urban development, the carboniferous rocks of the Yorkshire coalfield further east have produced a rolling landscape with hills, escarpments and broad valleys. In this landscape there is evidence of both current and former industrial activity. There are numerous derelict or converted mine buildings and recently landscaped former spoil heaps, the scenery is a mixture of built up areas, industrial land with some dereliction, and farmed open country
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
7.
Model village
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A model village is a type of mostly self-contained community, built from the late eighteenth century onwards by landowners and industrialists to house their workers. Model is used in the sense of an ideal to which other developments could aspire, the term model village was first used by the Victorians to describe the new settlements created on the rural estates of the landed gentry in the eighteenth century. As landowners sought to improve their estates for aesthetic reasons, new landscapes were created, the Swing Riots of 1830 highlighted poor housing in the countryside, ill health and immorality and landowners had a responsibility to provide cottages with basic sanitation. As the Industrial Revolution took hold, industrialists who built factories in rural locations provided housing for workers clustered around the workplace, an early example of an industrial model village was New Lanark built by Robert Owen. Philanthropic coal owners provided decent accommodation for miners from the nineteenth century. They had four rooms and a pantry, and outside a small garden, others were established by Edward Akroyd at Copley between 1849 and 1853 and Ackroyden 1861-63. Titus Salt built a village at Saltaire. Henry Ripley, owner of Bowling Dyeworks, began construction of Ripley Ville in Bradford in 1866, Industrial communities were established at Prices Village by Prices Patent Candle Company and at Aintree by Hartleys who made jam in 1888. William Levers Port Sunlight had a green and its houses espoused an idealised rural vernacular style. Quaker industrialists, George Cadbury and Rowntrees built model villages by their factories, Cadbury built Bournville between 1898 and 1905 and a second phase from 1914 and New Earswick was built in 1902 for Rowntrees. As coal mining expanded villages were built to house coal miners, in Yorkshire, Grimethorpe, Goldthorpe, Woodlands and Fitzwilliam were built to house workers at the collieries. The architect who designed Woodlands and Creswell Model Villages, Percy B, houfton was influential in the development of the garden city movement. In the 1920s Silver End model village in Essex was built for Francis Henry Crittall and its houses were designed in an art deco-style with flat roofs and Crittall windows. The more recent development of Poundbury, a village in rural Dorset has been supported by the Prince of Wales. In Italys Lombardy region, Crespi d’Adda is a particularly well-preserved model workers village and it was built from scratch, starting in 1878, to provide housing and social services for the workers in a cotton textile factory erected on the banks of the river Adda. The town of Nuevo Baztán outside of Madrid dates from the mercantilist, the first model villages appeared during the Porfirio Diaz regime, the most notable being Metepec and Tlacotalpan. Model villages were built in the United States along the same lines as planned industrial communities, for example at Gwinn, Michigan and Pullman. There were also such agricultural communities as the eighteenth century Davis Bend, boulder City, Nevada was originally built in 1931 for housing for workers who were building Hoover Dam
8.
City of Bradford
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The City of Bradford is a local government district of West Yorkshire, England, with the status of a city and metropolitan borough. It is named after its largest settlement, Bradford, but covers a far larger area which includes the towns of Keighley, Shipley, Bingley, Ilkley, Haworth, Silsden and Denholme. Bradford has a population of 528,155, making it the fourth-most populous metropolitan district, the Pendle borough of Lancashire lies to the west, whilst the Craven and Harrogate boroughs of North Yorkshire lie to the north west and north east of the city. Bradford is the 4th largest metropolitan district in the country, the spa town of Ilkley lies further north, whilst the town of Keighley lies to the west. More than half of Bradford’s land is open space, stretching over part of the Airedale and Wharfedale Valleys, across the hills. The Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District are both in close proximity, the City of Bradford has architecture designated as being of special or historic importance, most of which were constructed with local stone, with 5,800 listed buildings and 59 conservation areas. The model village of Saltaire has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, central Bradford rose to prominence during the 19th century as an international centre of textile manufacture, particularly wool. However, Bradford has faced challenges to the rest of the post-industrial area of northern England, including deindustrialisation, housing problems. Bradfords reputation as a base for high technology, scientific and computer-based industries is growing, building on a tradition of innovation, high skill levels. Bradford has experienced significant levels of immigration throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, around the same time there was also an influx of German Jewish migrants to the town, and by 1910 around 1,500 people of German origin resided in the city. In the 1950s there was large immigration from South Asia. Bradford has the second highest proportion in England and Wales outside London, in terms of population, an estimated 101,967 people of South Asian origin reside in the city, representing around 19.9 of the citys population. Bradford was granted the status of a city in 1897, Bradford was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1847, covering the parishes of Bradford, Horton and Manningham. It became a county borough with the passing of the Local Government Act 1888, the county borough was granted city status by Letters Patent in 1897. Bradford was expanded in 1882 to include Allerton, Bolton, Bowling, Heaton, Thornbury, in 1899 it was further expanded by adding North Bierley, Eccleshill, Idle, Thornton, Tong and Wyke. The city played an important part in the history of the Labour Party. A mural on the back of the Priestley Centre For The Arts in Little Germany commemorates the centenary of the founding of the Independent Labour Party in Bradford in 1893, the Bradford Pals were three First World War Pals battalions of Kitcheners Army raised in the city. When the three battalions were taken over by the British Army they were named the 16th, 18th and 20th Battalions
9.
Salts Mill
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Salts Mill is a former textile mill, now an art gallery, shopping centre, and restaurant complex in Saltaire, Bradford, West Yorkshire, England. It was built by Sir Titus Salt in 1853, and the present-day 1853 Gallery takes its name from the date of the building which houses it, the mill has many paintings by the local artist David Hockney on display and also provides offices for Pace plc. When completed, the mill was the largest industrial building in the world by floor area. It is a grade II* listed building, the mill closed in 1986, and the following year it was sold to Jonathan Silver, who began a long renovation scheme. The spellings Salts Mill and Salts Mill are both commonly used, the former is used consistently by the Salts Mill website and the Saltaire Village website, the latter by Visit Bradford from the official Bradford Tourist Information service. Both versions are used in the UNESCO World Heritage documentation, bliss Tweed Mill Lister Mill Saltaire The Trackers of Oxyrhynchus Salts Mill Official web site. UNESCO World Heritage Centre Salts Mill at Structurae Historic England, images of England record for Saltaire Mills, Main block. Images of England record for Saltaire Mills, Entrance block
10.
River Aire
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The River Aire is a major river in Yorkshire, England,148 miles in length. In the Handbook for Leeds and Airedale, it notes that the distance from Malham to Howden is 58 miles direct, part of the river below Leeds is canalised, and is known as the Aire and Calder Navigation. The Aire starts its journey at Malham Tarn, after Cononley, the river enters West Yorkshire where it passes through the former industrial areas of Keighley, Bingley, Saltaire and Shipley. It then passes through Leeds and on to the villages of Swillington, at Castleford is the confluence of the Aire and Calder, just downstream of the confluence was the ford where the ancient British road, used by the Romans, crossed on its way north to York. The river re-enters North Yorkshire near Knottingley and in its lower reaches forms part of the boundary between North Yorkshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire, the River Aire empties into the River Ouse at Airmyn, myn being an old English word for river mouth. The name possibly derived from Common Brittonic *Isara, meaning strong river, still others have claimed that it is actually the name of the battle and not the body of water itself. Between Malham Tarn and Airmyn, the river drops 400 metres, tests have been conducted to authenticate the actual source of the Aire. The tarn at Malham has been dammed and then allowed to flood, observers have noted that whilst water surged at Aire Head, it also surged at the bottom of Malham Cove. There was a significant difference of 30 minutes between the two surges with Malham Cove being slower to react to the floodwater, the section between Malham Tarn and the confluence of the becks at Aire Head is known as Malhamdale. Thereafter the valley is known as Airedale and encompasses Bradford, and by the time it reaches Leeds, the river is darcy and ðarcy in 963, in the same source. It is Eyr’ in 1135 in The Coucher Book of Selby, eir is given in 1175-7 in one of the Dodsworth Manuscripts in Farrers Early Yorkshire Charters. Air from c.1160 to 1577, Air’ in the thirteenth century, the Aire was forded by a paved way by the Romans at Castleford. The Roman Road connected Doncaster with York and went north through the town near to the church, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1699 to make the river downstream of Leeds navigable with a further act to extend the navigable part of the river upstream to Bingley. This second act formed the basis of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, between the middle part of the nineteenth century to the latter part of the twentieth, the River Aire was devoid of fish life downstream of Shipley due to its pollution. Efforts have been made to return the river to a good wildlife status and fish, there are three power stations alongside the River Aire east of Castleford, Ferrybridge C, Eggborough and Drax. Drax takes its water from the Ouse, but both Ferrybridge and Eggborough draw their water from the Aire. Both of these plants stopped generating in 2016, with Eggborough being a stand-by for capacity problems until March 2017, due to the Aire flowing through the former industrial landscape of West Yorkshire, it had a reputation as being heavily polluted. In 2007, Yorkshire Water carried out improvements to Esholt Sewage Works at a cost of £110 million under the EUs Fresh Water Fish Directive
11.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
12.
Titus Salt
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Sir Titus Salt, 1st Baronet, born in Morley, near Leeds, was a manufacturer, politician, and philanthropist in Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. He is best known for having built Salts Mill, a textile mill. His mother, Grace was the daughter of Isaac Smithies, of The Manor House, the Salt family lived at Manor Farm in Crofton, near Wakefield between 1813 and 1819. After working for two years as a wool-stapler in Wakefield he became his fathers partner in the business of Daniel Salt, the company used Russian Donskoi wool, which was widely used in the woollens trade, but not in worsted cloth. Titus visited the spinners in Bradford trying to interest them in using the wool for worsted manufacture, with no success, so he set up as a spinner and manufacturer. In 1836, Salt came upon some bales of Alpaca wool in a warehouse in Liverpool and, after taking some away to experiment, came back. Though he was not the first in England to work with the fibre, he was the creator of the lustrous, in 1833 he took over his fathers business and within twenty years had expanded it to be the largest employer in Bradford. In 1848 Titus Salt became mayor of Bradford, Smoke and pollution emanated from mills and factory chimneys and Salt tried unsuccessfully to clean up the pollution using a device called the Rodda Smoke Burner. In 1848, the senior Alderman of Bradford became Liberal MP and he forbade beershops in Saltaire, but the common supposition that he was teetotal himself is untrue. He was a county JP, and also a Deputy Lord Lieutenant, in David Jamess assessment, Salts motives in building Saltaire remain obscure. They seem to have been a mixture of sound economics, Christian duty, there were economic reasons for moving out of Bradford, and the village did provide him with an amenable, handpicked workforce. Yet Salt was deeply religious and sincerely believed that, by creating an environment where people could lead healthy, virtuous, godly lives, he was doing Gods work. Perhaps, also, diffident and inarticulate as he was, the village may have been a way of demonstrating the extent of his wealth, lastly, he may also have seen it as a means of establishing an industrial dynasty to match the landed estates of his Bradford contemporaries. However, Saltaire provided no solution to the relationship between employer and worker. Its small size, healthy site, and comparative isolation provided a rather than an answer to the problems of urban industrial society. Salt was Chief Constable of Bradford before its incorporation as a borough in 1847 and he was the second mayor, in office from 1848–49, and was later Deputy Lieutenant for the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1857 he was President of the Bradford Chamber of Commerce, on 30 October 1869 he was created a Baronet, of Saltaire and Crow Nest in the County of York. He died at Crow Nest, Lightcliffe, near Halifax in 1876 and was buried at Saltaire Congregational Church, estimates vary, but the number of people lining the route probably exceeded 100,000
13.
Yorkshire
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Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
14.
Bradford
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Bradford /ˈbrædfərd/ is in the Metropolitan Borough of the City of Bradford in West Yorkshire, England, in the foothills of the Pennines 8.6 miles west of Leeds, and 16 miles northwest of Wakefield. Bradford became a borough in 1847, and received its charter as a city in 1897. Following local government reform in 1974, city status was bestowed upon the metropolitan borough. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Bradford rose to prominence during the 19th century as a centre of textile manufacture. It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, and amongst the earliest industrialised settlements, the textile sector in Bradford fell into decline from the mid-20th century. However, Bradford has faced challenges to the rest of the post-industrial area of Northern England, including deindustrialisation, social unrest. It was recorded as Bradeford in 1086, after an uprising in 1070, during William the Conquerors Harrying of the North, the manor of Bradford was laid waste and is described as such in the Domesday Book of 1086. It then became part of the Honour of Pontefract given to Ilbert de Lacy for service to the Conqueror, there is evidence of a castle in the time of the Lacys. The manor then passed to the Earl of Lincoln, John of Gaunt, The Crown and, ultimately, by the middle ages Bradford, had become a small town centred on Kirkgate, Westgate and Ivegate. In 1316 there is mention of a mill, a soke mill where all the manor corn was milled. During the Wars of the Roses the inhabitants sided with House of Lancaster, Edward IV granted the right to hold two annual fairs and from this time the town began to prosper. In the reign of Henry VIII Bradford exceeded Leeds as a manufacturing centre, Bradford grew slowly over the next two-hundred years as the woollen trade gained in prominence. During the Civil War the town was garrisoned for the Parliamentarians, Sir Thomas Fairfax took the command of the garrison and marched to meet the Duke of Newcastle but was defeated. The Parliamentarians retreated to Bradford and the Royalists set up headquarters at Bolling Hall from where the town was besieged leading to its surrender, the Civil War caused a decline in industry but after the accession of William and Mary in 1689 prosperity began to return. The launch of manufacturing in the early 18th century marked the start of the development while new canal. In 1801, Bradford was a market town of 6,393 people. Bradford was thus not much bigger than nearby Keighley and was smaller than Halifax. This small town acted as a hub for three nearby townships – Manningham, Bowling and Great and Little Horton, which were separated from the town by countryside
15.
Textile manufacturing
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Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is based on the conversion of fibre into yarn, yarn into fabric and these are then dyed or printed, fabricated into clothes. Different types of fibre are used to produce yarn, Cotton remains the most important natural fibre, so is treated in depth. There remains an industry that uses hand techniques to achieve the same results. Cotton is the worlds most important natural fibre, in the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. Indian cotton, gossypium arboreum, is finer but the staple is only suitable for hand processing, American cotton, gossypium hirsutum, produces the longer staple needed for machine production. Planting is from September to mid November and the crop is harvested between March and June, the cotton bolls are harvested by stripper harvesters and spindle pickers, that remove the entire boll from the plant. The cotton boll is the seed pod of the cotton plant, ginning The seed cotton goes in to a Cotton gin. The cotton gin separates seeds and removes the trash from the fibre, in a saw gin, circular saws grab the fibre and pull it through a grating that is too narrow for the seeds to pass. A roller gin is used with longer staple cotton, here a leather roller captures the cotton. A knife blade, set close to the roller, detaches the seeds by drawing them through teeth in circular saws, the ginned cotton fibre, known as lint, is then compressed into bales which are about 1.5 m tall and weigh almost 220 kg. Only 33% of the crop is usable lint, commercial cotton is priced by quality, and that broadly relates to the average length of the staple, and the variety of the plant. Longer staple cotton is called Egyptian, medium staple is called American upland, the cotton seed is pressed into a cooking oil. The husks and meal are processed into animal feed, and the stems into paper, ginning, bale-making and transportation is done in the country of origin. Opening and cleaning Cotton mills get the cotton shipped to them in large,500 pound bales, when the cotton comes out of a bale, it is all packed together and still contains vegetable matter. The bale is broken using a machine with large spikes. In order to fluff up the cotton and remove the vegetable matter, the cotton is fed into a machine known as a picker, and gets beaten with a beater bar in order to loosen it up. It is fed through rollers, which serve to remove the vegetable matter
16.
Henry Francis Lockwood
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Henry Francis Lockwood was an influential English architect active in the North of England. Lockwood was from a successful Doncaster family and his grandfather, Joseph Lockwood was twice mayor of Doncaster and part-owner of the limestone quarries at Levitt Hagg, as was his father, also Joseph, who was also a stonemason and builder. He was the uncle of Sir Frank Lockwood QC, and the grandfather of the film actress Margaret Lockwood. Another nephew was Louis Lockwood who was an architect in St. Paul. A more distant cousin was Sir Joseph Flawith Lockwood the Chairman of EMI, Lockwood married his first cousin Emma Dey. Charles Day, who made a fortune through the Day. Their ten children were all named Day as a name, Emma, Charles, Henry, Arthur, Rosa, Horace, Frederick, Florence, Francis. Henry Francis Lockwood was articled in London to Peter Frederick Robinson, in 1834 Lockwood published jointly with Adolphus H Cates, The History and Antiquities of the Fortifications to the City of York. The partnership with Allom ended by mutual consent on 30 December 1843, the architect Cuthbert Brodrick served his articles with Lockwood in Hull, but later declined an offer of a partnership. In 1849 Lockwood formed a partnership with William Mawson, and the year they moved to Bradford where they were later joined by Mawsons brother. Lockwood and Mawson designed some of the most distinguished buildings in Bradford, including St Georges Hall, the Venetian Gothic Wool Exchange, and they also laid out and designed the mill, model town and church at Saltaire, all in an Italianate Classical style. At the time, Saltaire was one of the most important examples of a philanthropic industrial, Lockwood is mentioned in most accounts of Sir Titus Salt and Saltaire. Lockwood and Mawson also submitted designs in competitions, including the contest for the Law Courts in the Strand. After 1871, Lockwood moved to London where he designed the Methodist City Temple at Holborn Viaduct, the Church of St Stephen, Cowbridge Park, East Twickenham, Lockwood and Mawson were also appointed architects for the new buildings at Merchant Taylors School, Crosby. H F Lockwood was the first President of the BSAS when it was founded in 1874, burgess provides a thorough account of Lockwoods career, with a full catalogue of his architecture and an evaluation of its importance. Henry Lockwood and his family lived for years at Nun Wood, Apperley Bridge, Yeadon, but after 1871 moved to Heron Court, Richmond, Surrey. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, Emma Lockwood died aged 72 on Christmas Day 1882 Saltaire The Old Police Station, Howden Hull Trinity House
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Edward Akroyd
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Lieutenant Colonel Edward Akroyd, English manufacturer, was born into a textile manufacturing family in 1810, and when he died in 1887, he still owned the family firm. He inherited James Akroyd & Sons Ltd. from his father in 1847 and he established mills at Haley Hill in Halifax and then at Copley, two miles or so to the south. He proved to be a successful businessman, and his firm made him very prosperous. At Haley Hill, not far from his mills, he extended a large mansion, Bankfield, Akroyd was well read and concerned about the fortunes of Halifax and the terrible social conditions that grew out of the industrial revolution. He funded and supported a local allotment society and many institutions for the classes, a school for child labourers, a workers pension scheme, several churches. He founded a Working Mens College, the first outside London, in the mid-1850s, he helped found the Yorkshire Penny Bank, and he worked closely with the Halifax Permanent Building Society to promote home ownership through his model village Akroydon. This was built after his initial housing development, which he had undertaken with his brother at Copley and he was partly responsible for bringing the railway to the town. Edward Akroyd became a Lieutenant Colonel of the 4th Yorkshire West Riding Rifle Volunteers in 1861, Akroyds kindness was well known, and many had cause to be grateful to him. They felt his problems as keenly as their own when some of his overseas investments failed, the unkindest cut of fate, however, was when he fell from his horse and received severe head injuries. After this, his health caused him to leave Halifax for a secluded life at St Leonards-on-Sea, attended by only one manservant. At his funeral,15,000 mourners crowded outside All Souls Church, on his death, he left an estate of £1,234 1s. Now that the Akroyd business empire has passed well into history, the small church at Copley survives. No regular services have been held at All Souls Haley Hill since 1977, leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Webster, Eric. Also a brief history of James Akroyd and Son, transactions of the Halifax Antiquarian Society, 19-45
18.
Copley, West Yorkshire
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It was served by Copley railway station from 1856 to 1931. Today the village has a hairdressers, a spa, a garage, Land Rover and Camper Van dealerships and one Pub. The village contains two venues, Copley Cricket Club and Old Rishworthian RUFC. One of the key computer data centres for Lloyds Banking Group is located a few miles outside the village and this was formerly the main data centre for HBOS before the merger. St. Stephens Church was built on Copley Lane, but just over the river in Greetland and it was designed by local architect W. H. Crossland in a French inspired Gothic style, media related to Copley, West Yorkshire at Wikimedia Commons
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Ripley Ville
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Ripley Ville or Ripleyville was an estate of model houses for the working classes in Broomfields in the East Bowling ward of the City of Bradford in West Yorkshire, England. Started in 1866 the development was built for the industrialist, politician and it was intended as a commercial development of model houses but when completed in 1881 had many aspects of an industrial model village – although residency was not limited to Ripleys employees. By the 1860s Ripley was managing partner of the Bowling Dye works, in 1822 the dye works had relocated from West Bowling to a site in Spring Wood next to the Spring Wood Colliery pumping shaft – which supplied the works with steam and water. The works employed 18 men and boys, from 1835 as the junior partner Henry was regarded as the boss of the dyehouse. He built up the business to be the biggest dye works in Yorkshire, from the Bowling Iron Works he purchased the freehold of the dye works and about 100 acres of land surrounding it and subsequently built up the landholding to about 130 acres. The landholding added to the water supply – The whole of the water required for the supply of the works is an available source of 1,250,000 gallons per day. To the dye works income he had added income from several mills rented out on a room and power basis, from a water works and he was recognised as one of Bradfords big four industrialists alongside Titus Salt, Samuel Lister and Isaac Holden. As a councillor, JP and public figure Ripley was deeply involved in the debates which engaged the recently incorporated borough council, after four decades of rapid economic and population growth Bradford had some of the worst housing and sanitary conditions in the UK and about the lowest life expectancy. A sanitary commissioner reported – Taking the general condition of Bradford, in 1850 Titus Salt relocated his mills outside of the town and embarked on developing his model community at Saltaire. Out of 1401 sanctioned,1070 or 76.9 per cent are laid out upon that objectionable principle, Bradford council passed a series of building bylaws intended to ensure that new houses were of a decent standard. The bylaw of 1860 effectively banned construction of back to back houses which had been the predominant form of working class housing for 30 years. In the elections of 1865 the chairman of the Building and Improvement Committee lost his seat and was replaced by a more sympathetic to the building interests. In 1866 Bradford council issued a revised by-law which allowed construction of back to backs provided they met stringent requirements for space, ventilation, water supply and these tunnel backs became Bradfords predominant form of working class houses during the next 20 years. The council approved no further plans for back to back houses after the 1870 bylaw, Ripley was not convinced by the arguments of the speculative builders. In November 1865 he issued a prospectus for the construction of 300 Working-mens dwellings on his own land and they were four-bedroom through houses with rear yards and front gardens and equipped with an internal WC. The houses were intended for sale to small landlords and owner occupiers with a provision for rental purchase, the Bradford firm Andrews and Pepper were appointed architects. By the mid 1860s the views of the improvers had moved on from the provision of accommodation to considerations of lighting, ventilation, heating, storage, privacy. The design of the Ripley Ville houses incorporated these enhanced standards, Planning permission to build 254 houses was granted on 24 January 1866
20.
Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
21.
New Lanark
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New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles from Lanark, in Lanarkshire, and some 40 km southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills, Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. The New Lanark mills operated until 1968, after a period of decline, the New Lanark Conservation Trust was founded in 1974 to prevent demolition of the village. By 2006 most of the buildings have restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction. It is one of six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Scotland, the New Lanark cotton mills were founded in 1786 by David Dale in a brief partnership with Richard Arkwright. M. W. Turner and many other artists, the mills used the recently developed water-powered cotton spinning machinery invented by Richard Arkwright. Dale sold the mills, lands and village in the early 19th century for £60,000, payable over 20 years, to a partnership that included his son-in-law Robert Owen. Owen, who became manager in 1800, was an industrialist who carried on his father-in-laws philanthropic approach to industrial working. New Lanark, with its social and welfare programmes, epitomised his Utopian socialism, the New Lanark mills depended upon water power. A dam was constructed on the Clyde above New Lanark and water was drawn off the river to power the mill machinery, the water first travelled through a tunnel, then through an open channel called the lade. It then went to a number of wheels in each mill building. It was not until 1929 that the last waterwheel was replaced by a water turbine, Water power is still used in New Lanark. A new water turbine has been installed in Mill Number Three to provide electricity for the tourist areas of the village, in Owens time some 2,500 people lived at New Lanark, many from the poorhouses of Glasgow and Edinburgh. Although not the grimmest of mills by far, Owen found the conditions unsatisfactory, the mills thrived commercially, but Owens partners were unhappy at the extra expense incurred by his welfare programmes. Unwilling to allow the mills to revert to the old ways of operating, in 1813 the Board forced an auction, hoping to obtain the town and mills at a low price but Owen and a new board that was sympathetic to his reforming ideas won out. New Lanark became celebrated throughout Europe, with many statesmen, reformers and they were astonished to find a clean, healthy industrial environment with a content, vibrant workforce and a prosperous, viable business venture all rolled into one. Owen’s philosophy was contrary to contemporary thinking, but he was able to demonstrate that it was not necessary for an enterprise to treat its workers badly to be profitable. Owen was able to show visitors the village’s excellent housing and amenities, the planning of employment in the mills alongside housing for the workers and services such as a school also makes the settlement iconic in the development of urban planning in the UK
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David Dale
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For the Australian journalist and author, see David Dale. For the English industrialist, see Sir David Dale, 1st Baronet, for the New South Wales colonial politician, see David Dale. David Dale was a leading Scottish industrialist, merchant and philanthropist during the Scottish Enlightenment period at the end of the 18th century, scotland’s leading historian, Professor Sir Tom Devine, described Dale as ‘the greatest cotton magnate of his time in Scotland’. New Lanark attracted visitors from all over the world, Dale’s daughter married Robert Owen in 1799 and by 1800, Dale had sold the mills to a group of businessmen led by Robert Owen. Owen saw New Lanark as a ground for what he called his New Social System – an experiment in communitarian living. He managed New Lanark for nearly 25 years, and the community continued to attract visitors from across the globe and his date of birth is normally given as 6 January but there is no officially recorded date of birth. However, parish records show that he was baptised on 14 January 1739, as a child, he worked with the cattle as a ‘herd laddie’ in very basic conditions. This was the period of runrigs and impoverished tenant farmers – all before the so-called Age of Improvement, Dale’s family was not wealthy, but he did not experience the absolute poverty and near starvation of many of those involved in tenant farming. His father apprenticed him to a weaver in Paisley & then he became an agent in Hamilton and, later, Cambuslang – putting out yarn to be woven. He arrived in Glasgow c1763 as a clerk to a merchant and began his own small business in the High Street, importing linen yarns from France. The business grew rapidly and Dale became a merchant in the city. In 1777, at the age of 38, he married 24 year old Anne Caroline Campbell, a wealthy merchant needed a suitable house and in 1783 Dale had a grand mansion built in Glasgow’s fashionable Charlotte Street. The couple were together for 14 years until the death of Carolina. During that period, she bore him no less than nine children, four of whom, including their only son and their first born – also named Anne Caroline – later became Mrs Robert Owen. The period 1783-1785 saw Dale’s career take off in a number of directions, by 1785 he was no longer a city merchant but a budding entrepreneur, banker and industrialist. Within a few years, the Glasgow branch was doing business worth a staggering one million pounds, america was no longer a British colony and Glasgow merchants no longer depended on tobacco for their fortunes. Textiles, sugar and rum were the new tobacco, in 1783, there was an opportunity for Dale to extend his reputation and influence with the establishment of the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce, the first of its type in Britain. Dale became an important figure in the life of Glasgow
23.
Almshouse
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An almshouse is charitable housing provided to enable people to live in a particular community. They are often targeted at the poor of a locality, at those from certain forms of employment, or their widows. Many almshouses are European Christian institutions though some are secular, alms are, in the Christian tradition, money or services donated to support the poor and indigent. Almshouses were established from the 10th century in Britain, to provide a place of residence for poor, old and distressed people. The first recorded almshouse was founded in York by King Athelstan, in the Middle Ages, the majority of European hospitals functioned as almshouses. In 1269 or 1270 an almshouse was established in Stavanger as the first known in Norway, the English tradition of almshouses was introduced to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania by its founder, William Penn. The Maryland legislature created almshouses in Anne Arundel County, financed by property taxes on landowners throughout the state, massachusetts also had a long tradition of almshouses. In the United States, aid tended to be limited to the elderly and disabled, Almshouses have been created throughout the period since the 10th century, up to the present day. Many of the almshouses in England were established with the aim of benefiting the soul of the founder or their family. As a result, most were regarded as chantries and were dissolved during the Reformation, Almshouses tend to be characterised by their charitable status and by the aim of supporting the continued independence of their residents. In the Netherlands, a number of hofjes are still functioning as accommodation for elderly people, the economics of almshouses takes the form of the provision of subsidised accommodation, often integrated with social care resources such as wardens. The basis for modern civil almshouses and workhouses came into being in 1597 when the Act for the Relief of the Poor was enacted. These institutions underwent various population, program, and name changes, blockley Almshouse Carroll County Almshouse and Farm, Westminster, Maryland Halfway house Hostel List of British almshouses Poorhouse Heath, Sidney. Old English houses of alms, a record with architectural and historical notes. Almshouses in the West Riding of Yorkshire 1600-1900, goose, Nigel, Caffrey, Helen, Langley, Anne, eds. The British Almshouse, new perspectives on philanthropy ca 1400-1914, the Almshouse Association The Almshouse Residents Action Group List of English Almshouses associated with monastic institutions. Medieval Hospitals of England, by Rotha Mary Clay
24.
Allotment (gardening)
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An allotment garden, often called simply an allotment, or a community garden is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred land parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the allotment, a community garden can refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single. The term victory garden is still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to World War II or I. The individual size of a parcel typically suits the needs of a family, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter, the gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide by the corresponding constitution and by-laws. However, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights, for children, gardens offer places to play and to learn about nature, while for the unemployed, they offer a feeling of doing something useful as well as low-cost food. For the elderly and disabled, gardens offer an opportunity to people, to share in activity with like-minded people. In Vancouver, Toronto, Calgary, Montreal, Ottawa, these are called Community Gardens, Allotment gardening used to be widely popular in the former Czechoslovakia under the communist regime. It gave people from suburban prefab apartment blocks - called paneláky in Czech - a chance to escape from city chaos, pollution, holiday houses and gardens served also as the only permitted form of investment of savings for common middle-class citizens. Since then allotment gardens have spread to most Danish towns, in 1904 there were about 20,000 allotment gardens in Denmark. 6,000 of them were in Copenhagen, during the interwar years the number of allotment gardens grew rapidly. In 2001 the number of allotment gardens was estimated to be about 62,120, in 1908 twenty allotment associations in Copenhagen formed the Allotment Garden Union which in 1914 was expanded to cover all of Denmark. The Allotment Garden Federation was founded to negotiate more favourable deals with the state, today the federation represents roughly 400 allotment associations in 75 municipalities. The Danish tradition for allotment gardens later spread to the other Scandinavian countries, first Sweden, then Norway, today most allotment gardens are on land owned by the municipality which rents the land to an allotment association. The association in turn gives each member a plot of land, to preserve allotment gardens as something that is available for all kinds of people the membership charge is set significantly below what a market price would be. Since allotments are often placed on attractive plots of land, this has led to waiting lists for membership in many allotment associations. Although the main purpose of the allotment is gardening, most allotment gardens have a built in them
25.
Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
26.
Dean Clough
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Dean Clough in Halifax, Calderdale, West Yorkshire, England, is a group of large factory buildings built in the 1840s–60s for Crossleys Carpets, becoming one of the worlds largest carpet factories. After years of declining production it closed in 1983, when it was bought by a led by Sir Ernest Hall which developed the Grade II listed site for various commercial and cultural uses. It is now seen as a example of successful urban regeneration. Dean Clough is located on the side of Halifax near the Victorian North Bridge. Phoenix Radio 96.7 FM has its studios in D Mill, John Crossley, with his brother Thomas, and James Travis first leased Dean Clough Mills in 1802. When this lease expired after twenty years John Crossley took on a new lease in his own name. After his death in 1837, at which three hundred people were employed, his three sons, John, Joseph and Francis, continued the business as John Crossley and Sons. They formed a joint stock company in 1864, becoming one of the first limited liability companies in Britain and it was this company that built the very large mills on the site between 1841 and 1869, together with large sheds which have now been demolished. Around 1855 the alphabetical naming system was introduced for the mills, there were also other premises in Halifax, employing five thousand people by 1900. The company also operated at Kidderminster and had warehouses in London, during the two world wars production changed from carpets to military supplies such as webbing, blankets and khaki yarn for uniforms. When Chairman Patrick Crossley retired in 1970 the company moved its headquarters to Kidderminster, one of the Crossley family is still involved in carpet making on a much smaller scale at neighbouring Haley Hill. Following the closure of the mills in 1983 the site was bought by a led by chairman Sir Ernest Hall. As managing director, his son Jeremy, has refurbished the buildings for office. There are a number of buildings, some very large. The first mill built on the site by the Crossley family in 1841 was A mill and they are likely to have originally contained spinning and some weaving equipment. The first weaving shed, Old Shed, was built in 1849 and these were followed by C Mill in 1850, New Shed in 1853, E Mill in 1857, F Mill in 1858, G Mill in 1867, and H Mill in 1869. Other smaller buildings were built on the site. The factory had railway sidings at North Bridge railway station close to the end of the factory
27.
Halifax, West Yorkshire
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Halifax is a minster town in the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale in West Yorkshire, England. The town has been a centre of manufacture from the 15th century onward. Halifax is known for Mackintoshs chocolate and toffee products including Rolo, the Halifax Building Society was also founded in Halifax. Dean Clough, one of the largest textile factories in the world at more than 1⁄2 mile long, was in the north of the town, the premises have since been converted for office and retail use including a gym, theatre, Travelodge and radio station. The towns name was recorded in about 1091 as Halyfax, from the Old English halh-gefeaxe and this explanation is preferred to derivations from the Old English halig, in hālig feax or holy hair, proposed by 16th century antiquarians. The incorrect interpretation gave rise to two legends, one concerned a maiden killed by a lustful priest whose advances she spurned. Another held that the head of John the Baptist was buried here after his execution, the legend is almost certainly medieval rather than ancient, although the towns coat of arms carries an image of the saint. Another explanation is a corruption of the Old English hay and ley a clearing or meadow and this etymology is based on Haley Hill, the nearby hamlet of Healey, and the common occurrence of the surnames Hayley/Haley around Halifax. The erroneous derivation from halig has given rise to the demonym Haligonian, the Earldom of Halifax took the name of the town. Its first creation, in the Peerage of England in 1677, was for William Savile, george Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, became the President of the Board of Trade in 1748. In 1749 he helped found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia and he fostered trade, especially with North America. The Halifax River in Central Florida, United States, was named after him. Halifax is not mentioned in the Domesday Book, and evidence of the settlement is sketchy. By the 12th century the township had become the centre of the vast parish of Halifax. Halifax Minster, parts of which date from the 12th century is dedicated to St John the Baptist, the minsters first organist, in 1766, was William Herschel, who discovered the planet Uranus. The coat of arms of Halifax include the chequers from the coat of arms of the Earls Warenne. Halifax was notorious for its gibbet, a form of guillotine used to execute criminals by decapitation. A replica has been erected on the site in Gibbet Street
28.
Iwakura Mission
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The Iwakura Mission or Iwakura Embassy was a Japanese diplomatic voyage to the United States and Europe conducted between 1871 and 1873 by leading statesmen and scholars of the Meiji period. Although it was not the only mission, it is the most well-known. The mission was first proposed by the influential Dutch missionary and engineer Guido Verbeck, the historian Kume Kunitake as private secretary to Iwakura Tomomi, was the official diarist of the journey. Also included in the mission were a number of administrators and scholars, in addition to the mission staff, about 53 students and attendants also joined the outward voyage from Yokohama. Kaneko Kentarō was left in the U. S. too, in 1890 he was introduced to Theodore Roosevelt. They became friends and their relationship resulted later in Roosevelts mediation at the end of the Russo-Japanese War, nakae Chōmin, who was a member of the mission staff and the Ministry of Justice, stayed in France to study the French legal system with the radical republican Emile Acollas. Later he became a journalist, thinker and translator and introduced French thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau to Japan, on December 23,1871 the mission sailed from Yokohama on the SS America, bound for San Francisco. Arriving in San Francisco on 15 January 1872, the group travelled by train via Salt Lake City and Chicago eventually reaching Washington, members of the Iwakura Mission were keenly interested in observing schools and learning more about educational policy. Tours to schools, universities and industrial locations in Boston, New York, unsuccessful in their attempts to renegotiate the existing unequal treaties the party eventually set sail for the United Kingdom in August 1872. On the 17 August 1872 the Iwakura Mission arrived at Liverpool on the Cunard steamer Olympus, Iwakura Tomomi led the Manchester-Liverpool delegation. A visit that culminated on the 7th of October in a reception and banquet where toasts highlighted the leading role of the region in world manufacturing, technology. In Glasgow, as guests of Lord Blantyre, the delegation stayed at Erskine House and given tours of shipbuilding, in Newcastle upon Tyne the group arrived on October 21 staying in the Royal Station Hotel where they met the industrialist Sir William Armstrong. It had been ten years since the Bakufu mission had visited the town, the gentlemen were attired in ordinary morning costume and except for their complexion and the oriental cast of their features, they could scarcely be distinguished from their English companions. They also visited the Gosforth Colliery, descending into the mine itself, further visits were made to Bolkcow and Vaughan Iron Works in Middlesbrough and iron-ore mines in Cleveland. The Newcastle and Gateshead Chamber of Commerce arranged a trip on the Tyne, taking in the High Level Bridge, the Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Company Hebburn. A visit to Chatsworth House on the 30th of October was followed by visits to Burton-upon-Trent, Birmingham, Worcester, Stoke on Trent, the delegation was presented at an official audience with Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle on the 5th of December 1872. Another audience with the Prince of Wales took place at Sandringham on the 9th of December, the party finally left for France on the 16th of December. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Russia, Germany, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Bavaria, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland were all visited by the mission during the first half of 1873
29.
Mausoleum
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A mausoleuma is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph, a mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb, or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. A Christian mausoleum sometimes includes a chapel, the word derives from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the grave of King Mausolus, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Historically, mausolea were, and still may be, large, however, smaller mausolea soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire, these were often ranged in necropoles or along roadsides, however, when Christianity became dominant, mausoleums were out of use. Later, mausolea became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the modern and modern periods. A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed, a mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. This contains the body or bodies, probably within sarcophagi or interment niches, modern mausolea may also act as columbaria with additional cinerary urn niches. Mausolea may be located in a cemetery, a churchyard or on private land, in the United States, the term may be used for a burial vault below a larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and it is known as the crypt mausoleum. In Europe, these vaults are sometimes called crypts or catacombs. Mausoleum of Mohammed V Bourguiba mausoleum The Dr. John Garang De Mabior mausoleum in Juba, agostinho Netos Mausoleum in Luanda, Angola. Omar Bongos Mausoleum in Franceville, Gabon, kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum Marien Ngouabis mausoleum and Pierre Savorgnan de Brazzas mausoleum in Brazzaville, The Republic of Congo. Mausoleum of the late president Felix Houphouet-Boigny in Yamoussoukro, Côte dIvoire, laurent Kabilas mausoleum in Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo. The pyramids of ancient Egypt and Nubian pyramids are also types of mausolea, Abdel Nasser Mosque, is the Mausoleum of Gamal Abdel Nasser, in Cairo, Egypt. Unknown Soldier Memorial Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania Al Hussein Mosque, Cairo – Holy Shrine and mausoleum, Qalawun Mausoleum is the Mausoleum of Qalawun, Located in Cairo, Egypt, it was regarded by scholars as the second most beautiful medieval mausoleum ever to be built. Jedars - thirteen ancient monumental Berber mausoleums located south of Tiaret, Late President Eyademas Family Mausoleum in Kara, Togo. Kamuzu Banda Mausoleum, in Lilongwe, Malawi, Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika, President of Malawi built a mausoleum in which his late first wife and Bingu himself are buried
30.
Congregational church
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
31.
Haworth
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Haworth is a village in West Yorkshire, England, in the Pennines 3 miles southwest of Keighley,10 miles west of Bradford and 10 miles east of Colne in Lancashire. The surrounding areas include Oakworth and Oxenhope, nearby villages include Cross Roads, Stanbury and Lumbfoot. Haworth is a tourist destination known for its association with the Brontë sisters, Haworth is first mentioned as a settlement in 1209. The name may refer to an enclosure or hawthorn enclosure. The name was recorded as Howorth on a 1771 map, Haworth is part of the parish of Haworth, Cross Roads and Stanbury, which in turn is part of the Bradford Metropolitan District Council, one of the five metropolitan boroughs of West Yorkshire. Haworth is in the Worth Valley amid the Pennines and it is 212 miles north of London,43 miles west of York and 9 miles west of Bradford. Tourism accounts for much of the economy, with the major attractions being the heritage railway. Haworth is a base for exploring Brontë Country, while still being close to the cities of Bradford. On 22 November 2002 Haworth was granted Fairtrade Village status, on 21 October 2005, Haworth Fairtrade officially signed an agreement to twin with Machu Picchu in Peru. Haworths traditional events were a service at Haworth Spa and the rush bearing. Spa Sunday died out in the early 20th century and the rush bearing ceremony has not been held for many years, a modern event organised by the Haworth Traders Association is Scroggling the Holly which takes place in November. Bands and Morris men lead a procession of children in Victorian costume following the Holly Queen up the cobblestones to a ceremony on the church steps. She unlocks the gates to invite the spirit of Christmas into Haworth. Father Christmas arrives bringing glad tidings, the first Haworth Arts Festival took place in 2000 and was repeated in 2001, but ceased. It was revived in 2005 as a festival combining performing and visual arts, the festival has community involvement and uses local professional and semi-professional musicians, artists and performers and a larger name to headline each year. It has provided a stage for John Cooper Clarke and John Shuttleworth, the festival has expanded across the Worth Valley outside Haworth and is held on the first weekend in September. Haworth Band is one of the oldest secular musical organisations in the Keighley area, history records indicate that there was a brass band at Ponden, close by in 1854 with a body of excellent performers. It was founded by John Heaton who lived at Ponden, the band played at a celebration in Haworth at the conclusion of the Crimean War
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Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
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Russian Revolution
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The Russian Revolution was a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the eventual rise of the Soviet Union. The Russian Empire collapsed with the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II, in the second revolution that October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a communist state. The February Revolution was a revolution focused around Petrograd, then capital of Russia, in the chaos, members of the Imperial parliament assumed control of the country, forming the Russian Provisional Government. The army leadership felt they did not have the means to suppress the revolution, the February Revolution took place in the context of heavy military setbacks during the First World War, which left much of the Russian Army in a state of mutiny. During this chaotic period there were frequent mutinies, protests and many strikes, when the Provisional Government chose to continue fighting the war with Germany, the Bolsheviks and other socialist factions campaigned for stopping the conflict. The Bolsheviks turned workers militias under their control into the Red Guards over which they exerted substantial control, the Bolsheviks appointed themselves as leaders of various government ministries and seized control of the countryside, establishing the Cheka to quash dissent. To end Russia’s participation in the First World War, the Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, soon after, civil war erupted among the Reds, the Whites, the independence movements and the non-Bolshevik socialists. It continued for years, during which the Bolsheviks defeated both the Whites and all rival socialists. In this way, the Revolution paved the way for the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922, the Russian Revolution of 1905 was said to be a major factor to the February Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday triggered a line of protests, a council of workers called the St. Petersburg Soviet was created in all this chaos, and the beginning of a communist political protest had begun. World War I prompted a Russian outcry directed at Tsar Nicholas II and it was another major factor contributing to the retaliation of the Russian Communists against their royal opponents. However, the problems were merely administrative, and not industrial as Germany was producing great amounts of munitions whilst constantly fighting on two major battlefronts, the war also developed a weariness in the city, owing to a lack of food in response to the disruption of agriculture. Food scarcity had become a problem in Russia, but the cause of this did not lie in any failure of the harvests. As a result, they tended to hoard their grain and to revert to subsistence farming, thus the cities were constantly short of food. At the same time rising prices led to demands for wages in the factories. The outcome of all this, however, was a criticism of the government rather than any war-weariness. The original fever of excitement, which had caused the name of St. Heavy losses during the war also strengthened thoughts that Tsar Nicholas II was unfit to rule, the Liberals were now better placed to voice their complaints, since they were participating more fully through a variety of voluntary organizations
34.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
35.
University of Leeds
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The University of Leeds is a redbrick university located in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, established in 1831. In 1904, a charter, created in 1903, was granted to the University of Leeds by King Edward VII. The Leeds University Business School hold the Triple Crown accreditations from AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS, the university has 31,790 students, the seventh largest university in the UK. From 2006 to present, the university has consistently ranked within the top 5 in the United Kingdom for the number of applications received. Leeds had an income of £634.9 million in 2015/16. The university has financial endowments of £67.7 million, ranking outside the top ten British universities by financial endowment, for 2016-17, Leeds is ranked nationally between 13th and 16th. Internationally, the university is ranked as the 32nd best in Europe, Leeds was ranked top three in the UK and top 20 in the world for graduate employability, also ranked as the 5th most targeted British university by the UKs top graduate employers in 2016-17. Leeds was ranked 10th in the UK for research power in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the best result in the Yorkshire, the university was named the 2017 Sunday Times University of the Year, having been runner-up in 2016. Notable alumni include former Secretary of State Jack Straw, former co-chairman of the Conservative Party Sayeeda Warsi, American actor Chris Pine, Piers Sellers and five Nobel laureates. The universitys history is linked to the development of Leeds as a centre for the textile industry. The universitys roots can be traced back to the formation of schools of medicine in English cities to serve the general public, prior to 1900, only five universities had been established in England and one in Wales. These consisted of the University of Oxford, University of Cambridge, University of London, Durham University, and the federal Victoria University, Owens College was the sole college of Victoria University from 1880 to 1884, in 1887 Yorkshire College was the third to join the university. In 1831, the Leeds School of Medicine was established with the aim of serving the needs of the five institutions which had been established in the city. In 1874, the Yorkshire College of Science was created to provide education for the children of middle-class industrialists and merchants, financial support from local industry was crucial in setting up the College and aiding the students. The university continues to recognise these elements of its history, for example, the religious qualification ceased in the 1850s but the classics-based education continued at Oxford and Cambridge. When classics, modern literature and history went on offer a few years later, in 1884, the Yorkshire College absorbed the Leeds School of Medicine and subsequently joined the federal Victoria University on 3 November 1887. Students in this period were awarded external degrees by the University of London, Leeds was given its first university in 1887 when the Yorkshire College joined the federal Victoria University on 3 November. The Victoria University had been established by charter in 1880
36.
Haworth Parsonage
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The Brontë Parsonage Museum is a writers house museum maintained by the Brontë Society in honour of the Brontë sisters – Charlotte, Emily and Anne. The museum is in the former Brontë family home, the parsonage in Haworth, West Yorkshire, England, the Brontë Society, one of the oldest literary societies in the English speaking world, is a registered charity. Its members support the preservation of the museum and library collections, the parsonage is listed Grade I on the National Heritage List for England. The parsonage was built between 1778 and 1779, in 1820, Patrick Brontë was appointed incumbent of St Michael and All Angels Church, Haworth, and arrived at the parsonage with his wife Maria and six children. It was the home for the rest of their lives. Patrick Brontë was an author of poetry and fiction and his children grew up accustomed to the sight of books carrying their name on the parsonage shelves. In 1824 the four oldest sisters left Haworth, to attend the Clergy Daughters School at Cowan Bridge, Maria, was sent home ill and died at the parsonage in May 1825, aged eleven. Ten-year-old Elizabeth was returned shortly after and died on 15 June. Poems was published by Aylott and Jones, but only two copies were sold and it was accepted and published on 19 October 1847. Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey had been accepted by the London publisher, Thomas Cautley Newby, after Annes second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte and Anne were forced to reveal their true identities. Their brother, Branwell, who had dependent on alcohol and opium for solace, had developed tuberculosis and died suddenly on Sunday 24 September 1848. Emily was also dying from the disease, and never left the house after Branwells funeral and she died aged of 30 on 19 December 1848. Anne too had tuberculosis and was taken to Scarborough to try a sea cure but died four days after arriving on 28 May 1849, Charlotte finished the novel Shirley, begun before Branwells death. It was published in October 1849 and her last novel, Villette, was published in 1853. She married her fathers curate Arthur Bell Nicholls in Haworth Church on 29 June 1854 and she died on 31 March 1855, in the early stages of pregnancy, three weeks before her 39th birthday. Patrick Brontë lived at the parsonage for six years, cared for by his son-in-law. After Patrick Brontës death in 1861 the contents of the parsonage were auctioned, friends and servants sold keepsakes and letters. In 1893 the chief librarian of Bradford Library held a meeting suggesting that relics, letters, the Brontë Society was founded at a public meeting and a collection of Brontëana was started
37.
T. S. Eliot
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Thomas Stearns Eliot OM was a British essayist, publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, and one of the twentieth centurys major poets. He moved from his native United States to England in 1914 at the age of 25, settling, working and he eventually became a British subject in 1927 at the age of 39, renouncing his American citizenship. Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and it was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including The Waste Land, The Hollow Men, Ash Wednesday, and Four Quartets. He was also known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948, for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry. The Eliots were a Boston family with roots in Old and New England, Thomas Eliots paternal grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot, had moved to St. Louis, Missouri to establish a Unitarian Christian church there. Eliot was the last of six surviving children, his parents were both 44 years old when he was born, Eliot was born at 2635 Locust St. property owned by his grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot. His four sisters were between 11 and 19 years older, his brother was eight years older, known to family and friends as Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather, Thomas Stearns. Eliots childhood infatuation with literature can be ascribed to several factors, firstly, he had to overcome physical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congenital double inguinal hernia, he could not participate in physical activities. As he was isolated, his love for literature developed. Once he learned to read, the boy immediately became obsessed with books and was absorbed in tales depicting savages. In his memoir of Eliot, his friend Robert Sencourt comments that the young Eliot would often curl up in the window-seat behind an enormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the pain of living. Secondly, Eliot credited his hometown with fuelling his literary vision, I feel that there is something in having passed ones childhood beside the big river, which is incommunicable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortunate to have been here, rather than in Boston, or New York. From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, where his studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French and he began to write poetry when he was fourteen under the influence of Edward Fitzgeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, a translation of the poetry of Omar Khayyam. He said the results were gloomy and despairing and he destroyed them and his first published poem, A Fable For Feasters, was written as a school exercise and was published in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905. Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviving poem in manuscript and he also published three short stories in 1905, Birds of Prey, A Tale of a Whale and The Man Who Was King. The last mentioned story significantly reflects his exploration of Igorot Village while visiting the 1904 Worlds Fair of St. Louis, such a link with primitive people importantly antedates his anthropological studies at Harvard
38.
The Waste Land
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The Waste Land is a long poem by T. S. Eliot. It is widely regarded as one of the most important poems of the 20th century, published in 1922, the 434-line poem first appeared in the United Kingdom in the October issue of The Criterion and in the United States in the November issue of The Dial. It was published in form in December 1922. Among its famous phrases are April is the cruellest month, I will show you fear in a handful of dust, Eliots poem loosely follows the legend of the Holy Grail and the Fisher King combined with vignettes of contemporary British society. Eliot employs many literary and cultural allusions from the Western canon, Buddhism, because of this, critics and scholars regard the poem as obscure. The poem shifts between voices of satire and prophecy featuring abrupt and unannounced changes of speaker, location, and time and conjuring of a vast, the poems structure is divided into five sections. The first section, The Burial of the Dead, introduces the themes of disillusionment. The second, A Game of Chess, employs vignettes of several characters—alternating narrations—that address those themes experientially, after a fourth section that includes a brief lyrical petition, the culminating fifth section, What the Thunder Said, concludes with an image of judgment. Eliot probably worked on the text that became The Waste Land for several years preceding its first publication in 1922. In a May 1921 letter to New York lawyer and patron of modernism John Quinn, Eliot wrote that he had a poem in mind. Richard Aldington, in his memoirs, relates that a year or so before Eliot read him the manuscript draft of The Waste Land in London, while walking through a graveyard, they discussed Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. He and his first wife, Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, travelled to the resort of Margate for a period of convalescence. While there, Eliot worked on the poem, and possibly showed a version to Ezra Pound when, after a brief return to London. Eliot was en route to Lausanne, Switzerland, for treatment by Doctor Roger Vittoz, luce in Lausanne, Eliot produced a 19-page version of the poem. He returned from Lausanne in early January 1922, Pound then made detailed editorial comments and significant cuts to the manuscript. Eliot later dedicated the poem to Pound, Eliot sent the manuscript drafts of the poem to John Quinn in October 1922, they reached Quinn in New York in January 1923. Upon Quinns death they were inherited by his sister, Julia Anderson, years later, in the early 1950s, Mrs Andersons daughter, Mary Conroy, found the documents in storage. In 1958 she sold them privately to the New York Public Library and it was not until April 1968 that the existence and whereabouts of the manuscript drafts were made known to Valerie Eliot, the poets second wife and widow
39.
Fairlight, East Sussex
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Fairlight is a village in East Sussex, England within Rother district, three miles to the east of Hastings. Fairlight is also the name of the parish forming part of the Rother district which includes the villages of Fairlight and Fairlight Cove. The village of Fairlight lies on a road between Ore, Pett and Winchelsea. St Andrews Church has a tower and beacon turret. The church is one of three in the United Benefice of Fairlight, Guestling and Pett, richard DOyly Carte, founder of the Savoy Theatre, Savoy Hotel, and DOyly Carte Opera Company, which produced the Gilbert and Sullivan light operas, is buried in the churchyard. So also are Thomas Attwood Walmisley, and Sir James Roberts of Saltaire, Fairlight Cove, the neighbouring settlement and part of the parish, suffered from coastal erosion and landslip at Rockmead Road and Sea Road. A number of houses there are close to the sea edge and, whilst enjoying spectacular views. The Fairlight Preservation Trust - a registered charity was set up with a view to combating the loss by erosion and more generally to enhance, Sea defences were built in the 90s at Sea Road and at Rockmead Road in 2007. The 2007 works are intended to be effective for 50 years from 2007, although the nearest railway station is Three Oaks, Hastings offers a much better service and can be reached by bus from Fairlight. Rye station is accessible by bus from Fairlight. Hastings Country Park stretches from Hastings to Cliff End, where it gives access to the beach and this is a favoured spot for fossil-hunters, the Hastings Beds are part of the Early Cretaceous Wealden Group, aged 140–136 million years. The park also gives access to the beach at Fairlight Glen, the highest point in Hastings, now named Norths Seat, is at the top of Fairlight Down in Hastings Country Park. It is named after Frederick North who represented the town, the country park is part of the larger Site of Special Scientific Interest called Hastings Cliffs to Pett Beach which extends into neighbouring parishes. The site is of geological and biological interest. Fairlight, East Sussex at DMOZ Fairlight Community Website
40.
Roberts Park, Saltaire
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Roberts Park is a 14 acres public urban park in Baildon, West Yorkshire, England. Higher Coach Road, Baildon, is to the north and the park is bounded to the south by the River Aire, a pedestrian footbridge crosses the Aire and links the park to the village of Saltaire. The park is an part of the Saltaire World Heritage site. The park is grade II listed in English Heritages Register of Parks, visitor numbers are estimated to be up to 3,000 people per day. The park was designed and laid out by William Gay for Sir Titus Salt and was opened on 25 July 1871 by Sir Titus, the park was named Saltaire Park but was also known as The Peoples Park, and Salts Park. The development included a widening and deepening of the River Aire for boating and swimming purposes, in the centre of the park is a semi-circular pavilion designed by architects Lockwood and Mawson, constructed in 1870. In 1891 the park was purchased by James Roberts, in 1903 to commemorate the fifty years Salts Mill had been operating and the centenary of his birth, a bronze statue of Sir Titus Salt was erected by the main promenade. The statue was by Francis Derwent Wood R. A. of Chelsea for James Roberts. In 1910 the park was offered to Shipley Urban District Council by Sir James Roberts, leader of the council at the time, but later in 1920, after a dispute with the council this offer was rescinded. In 1920 Sir James Roberts named the park Roberts Park as a memorial to his second son Bertram Foster Roberts when he gave the park to Bradford Council on 1 August that year. The park was accessible from Saltaire village via Victoria Road on the Saltaire Bridge across the Aire, later the two were reconnected with an iron footbridge over the river. In 1971 Saltaire including Roberts Park was designated an area and in December 2001. In 2009–10 the park was refurbished with help from lottery funds, the main entrances to the park are in the east by the lodge, and in the south east by a cast iron bridge. The park is divided by a long broad east-west promenade with east and west shelters at the ends, to the north of the promenade are serpentine paths and flower beds, and to the south a cricket ground and open playing field. At the centre of the park below the promenade is the listed Lockwood. The cafe has Wi-Fi and adjacent toilet facilities, on either side of the Half Moon Pavilion are steps leading up to the promenade and a semi circular ballustraded viewing platform on top of the pavilion. Centrally located in the few steps leading up to this platform from the promenade is the bronze statue of Sir Titus Salt. To the north of the statue was the location of the original bandstand demolished during the world war
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Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
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Saltaire United Reformed Church
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Saltaire United Reformed Church is a church at Saltaire, West Yorkshire, England. Commissioned and paid for by Titus Salt in the mid 19th century, Salt donated the land and paid for the cost of the church himself, a cost of £16,000. The church was designed, as was the rest of Saltaire, by the Bradford-based architect partnership of Lockwood, since 1972 the Church has been known as Saltaire United Reformed Church following the merger of Congregational Church in England and Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England. The foundation stone of the church was laid by Caroline Salt in 1856, built from local stone with an ashlar finish. The nave has no aisle and on the end has a semi-circular portico. The portico is topped by a tower with a clock at each quarter. The main part of the church is roofed with Welsh slate and has large plain windows, the organ was an 1890 addition and was built by Huddersfield firm Conacher and Co and subsequently rebuilt twice. A pair of large chandeliers, originally gas lit, hang on the line of the nave ceiling. On the south side of the nave is the Salt family mausoleum where Sir Titus Salt was buried after his death in 1876
