1.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
2.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
3.
Arthropod
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An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages, the rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living species, some of which. Arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus up to the Japanese spider crab, arthropods primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph – analogue of blood – circulates, they have open circulatory systems. Like their exteriors, the organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is ladder-like, with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong, arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many setae that project through their cuticles. Aquatic species use internal or external fertilization. Almost all arthropods lay eggs, but scorpions give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The level of care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by scorpions. The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period, the group is generally regarded as monophyletic, and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians in a superphylum Ecdysozoa. Overall however, the relationships of Metazoa are not yet well resolved. Likewise, the relationships between various groups are still actively debated. Arthropods contribute to the food supply both directly as food, and more importantly indirectly as pollinators of crops. Some species are known to spread disease to humans, livestock. The word arthropod comes from the Greek ἄρθρον árthron, joint, and πούς pous, i. e. foot or leg, arthropods are invertebrates with segmented bodies and jointed limbs
4.
Lepidoptera
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The Lepidoptera is an order of insects that includes moths and butterflies. 180,000 species of Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies and it is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world. The term was coined by Linnaeus in 1735 and is derived from Ancient Greek λεπίδος, the Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution. Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought, and is among the four most speciose orders, along with the Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera. Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features, some of the most apparent being the scales covering their bodies and wings, the scales are modified, flattened hairs, and give butterflies and moths their extraordinary variety of colors and patterns. Almost all species have some form of wings, except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless. Like most other insects, butterflies and moths are holometabolous, meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis, mating and the laying of eggs are carried out by adults, normally near or on host plants for the larvae. As they grow, these change in appearance, going through a series of stages called instars. Once fully matured, the larva develops into a pupa A few butterflies and many species spin a silk case or cocoon prior to pupating, while others do not. A butterfly pupa, called a chrysalis, has a hard skin, once the pupa has completed its metamorphosis, a sexually mature adult emerges. Accordingly, this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many involved in the observation, study, collection, rearing of. A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as a lepidopterist, in many species, the female may produce from 200 to 600 eggs, while in others, the number may approach 30,000 eggs in one day. The caterpillars hatching from eggs can cause damage to large quantities of crops. Many moth and butterfly species are of economic interest by virtue of their role as pollinators, the word Lepidoptera comes from the Latin word for scaly wing, from the Ancient Greek λεπίς meaning scale and πτερόν meaning wing. The origins of the common names butterfly and moth are varied, the English word butterfly is from Old English buttorfleoge, with many variations in spelling. Other than that, the origin is unknown, although it could be derived from the yellow color of many species wings suggesting the color of butter. The species of Heterocera are commonly called moths, the origins of the English word moth are more clear, deriving from the Old English moððe from Common Germanic. The Lepidoptera are among the most successful groups of insects, among the most northern dwelling species of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo, which is found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia, at an altitude of 1500 m above sea level
5.
Saturniidae
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The family Saturniidae, commonly known as saturniids, by most measures include the largest species of moths. They are a family of Lepidoptera, with an estimated 2,300 described species worldwide, the Saturniidae include such Lepidoptera as the giant silkmoths, royal moths and emperor moths. Adults are characterized by size, heavy bodies covered in hair-like scales, lobed wings, reduced mouthparts. They lack a frenulum but the wings overlap the forewings. These moths are brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or windows on their wings. Sexual dimorphism varies by species, but males can generally be distinguished by their larger, broader antennae, most adults possess wing spans between 1 and 6 in, but some tropical species, such as the Atlas moth, may have wing spans up to 12 in. Together with certain Noctuidae, the Saturniidae contain the largest Lepidoptera, the majority of saturniid species occur in wooded tropical or subtropical regions, with the greatest diversity in the New World tropics and Mexico, though they are found all over the world. Some saturniids are strictly univoltine, producing one generation a year, whereas others are multivoltine. Spring and summer broods hatch in a matter of weeks, autumn broods enter a state known as diapause, longer days may prompt pupae to develop early, while shorter days result in pupal diapause. In some species – e. g. the luna moth or Callosamia securifera –, spring and summer broods look different, depending on the moth, a single female may lay up to 200 eggs on a chosen host plant. Others are laid singly or in small groups and they are round, slightly flattened, smooth and translucent or whitish. Saturniid caterpillars are large, stout, and cylindrical, most have tubercules that are often also spiny or hairy. Many are cryptic in coloration, with countershading or disruptive coloration to reduce detection, a few species have been noted to produce clicking sounds with the larval mandibles when disturbed. The clicks may serve as warning signals to a regurgitation defense. Most are solitary feeders, but some are gregarious, the Hemileucinae are gregarious when young and have stinging hairs, those of Lonomia containing a poison which may kill a human. A. armida is another example, and are infamous for their large conspicuous masses during the day. Their coloration is not cryptic, instead exhibiting aposematism, the other caterpillars in this size range are almost universally Sphingidae, which are seldom hairy and tend to have diagonal stripes on their sides. Many Sphingidae caterpillars bear a single curved horn on their hind end and these are actually not dangerous, but large-haired caterpillars should generally not be touched except by experts
6.
Bombyx mori
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The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of the domesticated silk moth, Bombyx mori. It is an important insect, being a primary producer of silk. A silkworms preferred food is white mulberry leaves, though they may eat other mulberry species, domestic silk moths are closely dependent on humans for reproduction, as a result of millennia of selective breeding. Wild silk moths are different from their cousins, they are not as commercially viable in the production of silk. The silkworm was domesticated from the wild silkmoth Bombyx mandarina, which has a range from northern India to northern China, Korea, Japan, the domesticated silkworm derives from Chinese rather than Japanese or Korean stock. Silkworms were unlikely to have been domestically bred before the Neolithic age, before then, the tools to manufacture quantities of silk thread had not been developed. The domesticated B. mori and the wild B. mandarina can still breed, mulberry silkworms can be categorized into three different but connected groups or types. The major groups of silkworms fall under the univoltine and bivoltine categories, the univoltine breed is generally linked with the geographical area within greater Europe. The eggs of this type hibernate during winter due to the cold climate, the second type is called bivoltine and is normally found in China, Japan, and Korea. The breeding process of this takes place twice annually, a feat made possible through the slightly warmer climates. The polyvoltine type of mulberry silkworm can only be found in the tropics, the eggs are laid by female moths and hatch within nine to 12 days, so the resulting type can have up to eight separate life cycles throughout the year. Eggs take about 14 days to hatch into larvae, which eat continuously and they have a preference for white mulberry, having an attraction to the mulberry odorant cis-jasmone. They are not monophagous since they can eat other species of Morus, as well as some other Moraceae and they are covered with tiny black hairs. When the color of their heads turns darker, it indicates they are about to molt, after molting, the instar phase of the silkworms emerge white, naked, and with little horns on their backs. After they have molted four times, their bodies become slightly yellow, the larvae then prepare to enter the pupal phase of their lifecycle, and enclose themselves in a cocoon made up of raw silk produced by the salivary glands. The final molt from larva to pupa takes place within the cocoon, to prevent this, silkworm cocoons are boiled. The heat kills the silkworms and the water makes the cocoons easier to unravel, often, the silkworm itself is eaten. As the process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larvae, sericulture has been criticized by animal welfare, mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy not to hurt any living thing
7.
Ricinus
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Ricinus communis, the castorbean or castor-oil-plant, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is the species in the monotypic genus, Ricinus. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied using modern genetic tools and it reproduces with a mixed pollination system which favors selfing by geitonogamy but at the same time can be an out-crosser by anemophily or entomophily. Its seed is the bean, which, despite its name, is not a true bean. Castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses. The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly ricinolein, the seed also contains ricin, a water-soluble toxin, which is also present in lower concentrations throughout the plant. An unrelated plant species, Fatsia japonica, is similar in appearance, Ricinus communis can vary greatly in its growth habit and appearance. The variability has been increased by breeders who have selected a range of cultivars for leaf and flower colours and it is a fast-growing, suckering shrub that can reach the size of a small tree, but it is not cold hardy. The glossy leaves are 15–45 centimetres long, long-stalked, alternate and palmate with 5–12 deep lobes with toothed segments. In some varieties they start off dark purple or bronze when young, gradually changing to a dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge. Plants with the leaves can be found growing next to those with green leaves. The stems also vary in pigmentation, the fruit capsules of some varieties are more showy than the flowers. The flowers are borne in terminal inflorescences of green or, in some varieties, shades of red. The fruit is a spiny, greenish capsule containing large, oval, shiny, bean-like, castor seeds have a warty appendage called the caruncle, which is a type of elaiosome. The caruncle promotes the dispersal of the seed by ants, the name Ricinus is a Latin word for tick, the seed is so named because it has markings and a bump at the end that resemble certain ticks. The common name castor oil probably comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum and it has another common name, palm of Christ, or Palma Christi, that derives from castor oils reputed ability to heal wounds and cure ailments. Castor oil has many uses in medicine and other applications, an alcoholic extract of the leaf was shown, in lab rats, to protect the liver from damage from certain poisons. Methanolic extracts of the leaves of Ricinus communis were used in testing against eight pathogenic bacteria in rats
8.
Actias luna
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The luna moth is a lime-green, Nearctic Saturniid moth in the family Saturniidae, subfamily Saturniinae. It has a wingspan of up to 114 mm, making it one of the largest moths in North America. This moth is found in North America, from east of the Great Plains in the United States to northern Mexico, luna moths are common as far south as Seminole County in central Florida. Now it is found in Khetri Assam, based on the climate in which they live, the luna moths produce differing numbers of generations. In Canada and northern regions, they can live up to 7 days and these reach adulthood from early June to early July. In the northeastern United States around New Jersey or New York, the first of these appear in April and May, and the second group can be seen approximately nine to eleven weeks later. In the southern United States, there can be as many as three generations and these are spaced every eight to ten weeks beginning in February. Females lay 400–600 eggs, 4–7 eggs at a time, on the underside of leaves, the moths will lay more eggs in a favorable climate. Each instar generally takes five days to a week to complete. After hatching, the caterpillars tend to wander around before settling on eating the particular plant they are on. These caterpillars tend to be gregarious for the first two to three instars, but separate and live independently after that and these caterpillars go through five instars before cocooning. At the end of each instar, an amount of silk is placed on the major vein of a leaf. The caterpillar then undergoes ecdysis, or molts from that position leaving the old exoskeleton behind, sometimes the shed exoskeleton is eaten. Each instar is green, though the first two instars do have some variation in which some caterpillars will have black underlying splotches on their dorsal side, variation after the second instar is still noticeable, but slight. The dots that run along the side of the caterpillars vary from a light yellow to a dark magenta. The final instar grows to approximately nine centimeters in length, the luna moth pupates after spinning a cocoon. The cocoon is thin and single layered, shortly before pupation, the final, fifth instar caterpillar will engage in a gut dump where any excess water, food, feces, and fluids are expelled. The caterpillar will also have an underlying golden reddish‐brown color and become less active, as a pupa, this species is particularly active
9.
Ailanthus altissima
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Ailanthus altissima /eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsᵻmə/, commonly known as tree of heaven, ailanthus, or in Standard Chinese as chouchun, is a deciduous tree in the Simaroubaceae family. It is native to both northeast and central China, as well as Taiwan, unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus, it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics. The tree grows rapidly and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres in 25 years, in China, the tree of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in countless Chinese medical texts for its ability to cure ailments ranging from mental illness to baldness. The roots, leaves and bark are used today in traditional Chinese medicine. The tree has grown extensively both in China and abroad as a host plant for the ailanthus silkmoth, a moth involved in silk production. Ailanthus has become a part of culture as well, with the tree serving as the central metaphor. The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s and it was one of the first trees brought west during a time when chinoiserie was dominating European arts, and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen. However, enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its suckering habits and its foul smelling odour, despite this, it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century. Outside Europe and the United States the plant has spread to many other areas beyond its native range. In a number of these, it has become a species due to its ability both to colonise disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with allelopathic chemicals. It is considered a weed in Australia, the United States, New Zealand and many countries of central. The tree also resprouts vigorously when cut, making its eradication difficult, in many urban areas, it has acquired the derisive nicknames of ghetto palm, stink tree, and tree of Hell. A. altissima is a tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 metres with a diameter at breast height of about 1 metre. The bark is smooth and light grey, often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages, the twigs are stout, smooth to lightly pubescent, and reddish or chestnut in colour. They have lenticels as well as heart-shaped leaf scars with many bundle scars around the edges, the buds are finely pubescent, dome shaped, and partially hidden behind the petiole, though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars. The branches are light to dark gray in colour, smooth, lustrous, the ends of the branches become pendulous. All parts of the plant have a strong odour that is often likened to peanuts, cashews
10.
Sericulture
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Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most widely used. Silk was first produced in China as early as the Neolithic period, sericulture has become an important cottage industry in countries such as Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, and Russia. Today, China and India are the two producers, with more than 60% of the worlds annual production. According to Confucian text, the discovery of silk production dates to about 2700 BC, by about the first half of the 1st century AD it had reached ancient Khotan, by a series of interactions along the Silk Road. By 140 AD the practice had been established in India, in the 6th century the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire led to its establishment in the Mediterranean, remaining a monopoly in the Byzantine Empire for centuries. Chinese sericulture process Silkworm larvae are fed with leaves, and, after the fourth moult, climb a twig placed near them. This process is achieved by the worm through a fluid secreted from its structural glands. The silk is a continuous filament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two glands in the head of each larva, and a gum called sericin, which cements the filaments. The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water and this is known as the degumming process. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkworm pupae, single filaments are combined to form thread, which is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied to form yarn, after drying, the raw silk is packed according to quality. The stages of production are as follows, The silk moth lays thousands of eggs, the silk moth eggs hatch to form larvae or caterpillars, known as silkworms. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves, having grown and moulted several times silkworm weaves a net to hold itself It swings its head from side to side in a figure 8 distributing the saliva that will form silk. The silk solidifies when it contacts the air, the silkworm spins approximately one mile of filament and completely encloses itself in a cocoon in about two or three days. The amount of quality silk in each cocoon is small. As a result, about 2500 silkworms are required to produce a pound of raw silk The intact cocoons are boiled, the silk is obtained by brushing the undamaged cocoon to find the outside end of the filament. The silk filaments are wound on a reel
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