1.
Socorro County, New Mexico
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Socorro County is a county in the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 17,866, the county was formed in 1852 as one of the original nine counties of New Mexico Territory. Socorro was originally the name given to a Native American village by Don Juan de Oñate in 1598, having received vitally needed food and assistance from the native population, Oñate named the pueblo Socorro. Socorro Countys history is linked with the rich history of the surrounding area. Bands of Apache effectively controlled the Magdalena-Datil region from the century until they were defeated in the Apache Wars in the late nineteenth century. Outlaw renegades Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and notorious Apaches like Cochise, vicks Peak was named after Victorio, “a Mimbreño Apache leader whose territory included much of the south and southwest New Mexico. Perhaps most famous outlaw was the Apache Kid whose supposed grave lies within the Apache Kid Wilderness, stories of depredations by the Apache Kid, and of his demise, became so common and dramatic that in southwestern folklore they may be exceeded only by tales of lost Spanish gold. Native Americans lingered in the San Mateos well into the 1900s and we know this by an essay written by Aldo Leopold in 1919 where he documents stumbling upon the remains of a recently abandoned Indian hunting camp. A mining rush followed the Apache wars – gold, silver and it wasn’t until this time that extensive use of the area by non-Native Americans occurred. In fact, the last regularly used cattle trail in the United States stretched 125 miles westward from Magdalena, the route was formally known as the Magdalena Livestock Driveway, but more popularly known to cowboys and cattlemen as the Beefsteak Trail. The trail began use in 1865 and its peak was in 1919, the trail was used continually until trailing gave way to trucking and the trail official closed in 1971. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 6,649 square miles. It is the second-largest county in New Mexico by area, after Catron County, Socorro County ranges in elevation from approximately 4,528 ft on the banks of the Rio Grande to 10,784 ft at the top of South Baldy peak in the Magdalena Mountains. The southern portion of the Rocky Mountains extend into New Mexico, there are several mountain ranges that spread throughout the county. The Forest Service manages portions of four ranges, the Bear, Datil, Magdalena. Most of the land that comprises these mountains are within the Cibola National Forest and these ranges, as well as Ladron Peak located in Socorro County, are classified as sky islands. The population density was 3 people per square mile, there were 7,808 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile. 48. 73% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
2.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Truth or Consequences, New Mexico
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Truth or Consequences is a spa city and the county seat of Sierra County, New Mexico, United States. In 2012, the population was 6,411 and it is commonly known within New Mexico as T or C. It has frequently noted on lists of unusual place names. The first bath in the area was built at John Cross Ranch over Geronimo Springs in the late 1800s, however, major settlement did not begin until the construction of Elephant Butte Dam and Reservoir in 1912, the dam was completed in 1916. Elephant Butte Dam was a part of the Rio Grande Project, in 1916, the town was incorporated as Hot Springs. It became the Sierra County seat in 1937, originally named Hot Springs, the city changed its name to Truth or Consequences, the title of a popular NBC Radio program. Edwards visited the town during the first weekend of May for the next 50 years and this event was called Fiesta and included a beauty contest, a parade, and a stage show. The city still celebrates Fiesta each year during the first weekend of May, the parade generally features area celebrities such as the Hatch Chile Queen. Fiesta also features a dance in Ralph Edwards Park, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 12.8 square miles, of which 12.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles is water. The city is located on the Rio Grande, near Elephant Butte Reservoir, the winter season from October to March has pleasantly mild and sunny days and cold to very cold nights, with very occasional rainfall from extratropical cyclones. On average over the year 88.6 days top 90 °F or 32.2 °C,12.9 days top 100 °F or 37.8 °C, and 91.1 nights fall below 32 °F or 0 °C. Temperatures have fallen below 0 °F or −17.8 °C only twice since 1951, during 1987 and 2011, with the record low being −6 °F on February 3,2011. The lowest maximum temperature on record has been 20 °F on December 25,1987, precipitation is generally scarce apart from monsoonal storms. 1991 was also the wettest full calendar year with 17.04 inches or 432.8 millimetres, Truth or Consequences hosts several local hot springs. The combined flow of the hot springs complex in Truth or Consequences is estimated at 99 liters per second, before World War II, there were about 40 hot springs spas in Truth or Consequences. By 2008, the Hot Springs Association in Truth or Consequences had 10 spa facilities as members. Five of those obtained their water wells, and La Paloma Hot Springs & Spa, Indian Springs Bath House, Artesian Bath house. The New Mexico Department of Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources created two demonstration projects using geothermal energy in Truth or Consequences in the 1980s
5.
Socorro, New Mexico
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Socorro is a city in Socorro County in the U. S. state of New Mexico. It is in the Rio Grande Valley at an elevation of 4,579 feet, in 2012 the population was 8,906. It is the county seat of Socorro County, Socorro is located 74 miles south of Albuquerque and 146 miles north of Las Cruces. In June 1598, Juan de Oñate led a group of Spanish settlers through the Jornada del Muerto, as the Spaniards emerged from the desert, Piro Indians of the pueblo of Teypana gave them food and water. Therefore, the Spaniards renamed this pueblo Socorro, which means help or aid, later, the name Socorro would be applied to the nearby Piro pueblo of Pilabó. Nuestra Señora de Perpetuo Socorro, the first Catholic mission in the area, was established c. Fray Agustín de Vetancurt would later write that around 600 people lived in the area during this period, Mines in the Socorro mountains were opened by 1626. During the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Spanish refugees stopped in the pueblo of Socorro, a number of Piro Indians followed the Spaniards as they left the province to go south to safety. With no protection of Spanish troops, Socorro was destroyed and the remaining Piro were killed by the Apache, the Spanish did not initially resettle Socorro when they re-conquered New Mexico. Other than El Paso, there were no Spanish settlements south of Sabinal until the 1800s, in 1800, governor Fernando Chacon gave the order to resettle Socorro and other villages in the area. However, Socorro was not resettled until about 1815, in 1817,70 Belen residents petitioned the crown for land in Socorro. The 1833 Socorro census lists over 400 residents, with a total of 1,774 people living within the vicinity of the village, the mission of San Miguel de Socorro was established soon after Socorro was resettled. The church was built on the ruins of the old Nuestra Señora de Socorro, in August 1846, during the Mexican–American War, New Mexico was occupied by the American Army. In Las Vegas, New Mexico, Colonel Stephen W. Kearny proclaimed New Mexicos independence from Mexico, on their way to begin their assault on Mexico, American troops stopped in Socorro. A British officer, Lt. George Ruxton, commented that these soldiers were unwashed and unshaven, were ragged and dirty, in September 1850, New Mexico became a territory of the United States. At the time, New Mexico encompassed what is now the states of New Mexico, in 1850, the population of Socorro was only 543 people. This included 100 American soldiers who were moved to Valverde. The first military post built near Socorro was Fort Conrad,30 miles south of the town, built in August 1851, the fort was badly constructed and was abandoned for Fort Craig, located a few miles away
6.
Cibola County, New Mexico
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Cibola County is a county in the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 27,213 and it is New Mexicos youngest county, created on June 19,1981, from the westernmost four-fifths of the formerly much larger Valencia County. Cibola County comprises the Grants, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is part of the Albuquerque-Santa Fe-Las Vegas. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,542 square miles, the population density was 6 people per square mile. There were 10,328 housing units at a density of 2 per square mile. 33. 42% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,21. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.95 and the family size was 3.41. In the county, the population was out with 30. 70% under the age of 18,9. 60% from 18 to 24,27. 50% from 25 to 44,21. 50% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 95.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $27,774, and the median income for a family was $30,714. Males had an income of $27,652 versus $20,078 for females. The per capita income for the county was $11,731, about 21. 50% of families and 24. 80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32. 00% of those under age 18 and 17. 70% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 27,213 people,8,860 households, the population density was 6.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,101 housing units at a density of 2.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 41. 8% white,41. 0% American Indian,1. 0% black or African American,0. 5% Asian,0. 1% Pacific islander,12. 4% from other races, and 3. 1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 36. 5% of the population, in terms of ancestry,5. 4% were Irish, and 1. 5% were American. The average household size was 2.79 and the family size was 3.30. The median age was 36.6 years, the median income for a household in the county was $37,361 and the median income for a family was $41,187
7.
McKinley County, New Mexico
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McKinley County is a county in the northwestern section of the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 71,492, the county was created in 1901 and named for President William McKinley. McKinley County is Gallups micropolitan statistical area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 5,455 square miles, of which 5,450 square miles is land and 5.5 square miles is water. San Juan County - north Sandoval County - east Cibola County - south Apache County, the population density was 14 people per square mile. There were 26,718 housing units at a density of 5 per square mile. 12. 40% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,19. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.44 and the family size was 3.99. In the county, the population was out with 38. 00% under the age of 18,9. 70% from 18 to 24,27. 80% from 25 to 44,17. 60% from 45 to 64. The median age was 27 years, for every 100 females there were 93.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $25,005, and the median income for a family was $26,806. Males had an income of $26,963 versus $21,014 for females. The per capita income for the county was $9,872, about 31. 90% of families and 36. 10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42. 30% of those under age 18 and 31. 50% of those age 65 or over. The countys per-capita income makes it one of the poorest counties in the United States, McKinley County is one of only 38 county-level census divisions of the United States where the most spoken language is not English and one of only 3 where it is neither English nor Spanish. 45. 75% of the population speak Navajo at home, followed by English at 38. 87%, Zuñi at 9. 03%, and Spanish at 5. 72%. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 71,492 people,21,968 households, the population density was 13.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 25,813 housing units at a density of 4.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 75. 5% American Indian,15. 2% white,0. 8% Asian,0. 5% black or African American,4. 9% from other races, and 3. 1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 13. 3% of the population, in terms of ancestry, and 1. 4% were American
8.
Cibola National Forest
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The Cibola National Forest is a 1,633,783 acre United States National Forest in New Mexico, USA. The name Cibola is thought to be the original Zuni Indian name for their pueblos or tribal lands, the name was later interpreted by the Spanish to mean, buffalo. The forest is disjointed with lands spread across central and northern New Mexico, west Texas, the Cibola National Forest is divided into four Ranger Districts, the Sandia, Mountainair, Mt. Taylor, and Magdalena. The Forest includes the San Mateo, Magdalena, Datil, Bear, Gallina, Manzano, Sandia, Mt. Taylor, the Forest also manages four National Grasslands that stretch from northeastern New Mexico eastward into the Texas Panhandle and western Oklahoma. The Cibola National Forest and Grassland is administered by Region 3 of the United States Forest Service from offices in Albuquerque, elevation ranges from 5,000 ft to 11,301 ft. The Cibola National Forest currently has 137,701 acres designated as Wilderness, in addition to these acres, it has 246,000 acres classified as Inventoried Roadless Areas pursuant to the Roadless Area Conservation Rule. The Cibola National Forest is organized into several divisions over three states, the combined Cibola National Grasslands are 262,141 acres in size. New Mexico is home to much of the Forest, including the Kiowa National Grassland 136,417 acres in Harding, Union, Mora, and Colfax counties, New Mexico. The Cibola National Forests Sandia Ranger District is just east of Albuquerque in Central New Mexico, the Sandia District includes national forest land in eastern Bernalillo and southeastern Sandoval counties, and includes the Sandia Peak Tram and the Sandia Crest National Scenic Byway. The Sandia Mountains lie in the portion of the District. It is here where Congress designated the Sandia Mountain Wilderness in 1978, the Cibolas Sandia Ranger District also includes the Manzanita Mountains, which stretch south, between the Sandia and the Manzano Mountains. The Manzano Mountains are managed by the Cibola National Forests Mountainair Ranger District, the Mountainair Ranger District manages national forestland in Torrance, northwestern Lincoln, and eastern Valencia counties, which are in central New Mexico. Within the Mountainair District are the Gallinas Mountains and the Manzano Mountains, Congress designated the Manzano Wilderness in 1978. The Mount Taylor Ranger District manages land in northern Cibola, southern McKinley, Mount Taylor and Zuni Mountains are within the Mount Taylor District. Overseeing approximately 800,000 acres, the Magdalena Ranger District is the largest of the Cibola National Forests four mountain districts, the Cibola’s Magdalena District manages land in south central New Mexico in western Socorro, northeastern Catron, and northern Sierra counties. The Bear Mountains, Datil Mountains, Magdalena Mountains and San Mateo Mountains are all within the Magdalena District, there are two Wilderness areas in this District - the Apache Kid and the Withington Wilderness areas, both of which are in the San Mateo Mountains. In addition to the designated Wilderness, the Magdalena Ranger District has 205,972 acres of Inventoried Roadless Areas, the Magdalena Ranger Districts officers are stationed in the Village of Magdalena. The District has roots in the Gila Forest Reserve, created by President William McKinley in 1899, making the U. S. Forest Service the “oldest continuous business in Magdalena. ”Cibola biomes range from Chihuahuan desert to short grass prairie to piñon-juniper to sub-alpine spruce and fir
9.
Apache Kid Wilderness
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Apache Kid Wilderness is a 44, 626-acre Wilderness area located within the Magdalena Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest in the state of New Mexico. The Apache Kid Wilderness lies just south of the Withington Wilderness, the Apache Kid is also surrounded by 84,527 total acres of Inventoried Roadless Area with the San Jose IRA to the south and the Apache Kid Contiguous IRA to the north, east, and west. Some 68 miles of trails provide access to the Apache Kid Wilderness, the Wilderness was designated by Congress in 1980 and provides outstanding hiking, backpacking, star-gazing, hunting, and horseback-riding opportunities. The Apache Kid Wilderness has a long, rich history, full of lore from the Wild West, bands of Apache effectively controlled the Magdalena-Datil region from the seventeenth century until they were defeated in the Apache Wars in the late nineteenth century. In fact, the Apache Kid Wilderness is named for a Native American called the Apache Kid, angered by his relentless raids, in 1906, local ranchers hunted him down into Blue Mountain, killed him and blazed a tree to mark the spot. However, some say that it was actually the famous warrior Massai who died that day. The hacked remains of the tree can still be seen today, while the Apache Kid is perhaps the most famous outlaw of the area, other notorious Apaches like Cochise and Geronimo and outlaw renegades Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch also have ties to the area. The Apache Kid Wilderness includes Vicks Peak, which was named after Victorio, “a Mimbreño Apache leader whose territory included much of the south, Native Americans lingered in the San Mateos well into the 1900s. We know this by a written by Aldo Leopold in 1919 where he documents stumbling upon the remains of a recently abandoned Indian hunting camp. A mining rush followed the Apache wars – gold, silver and it wasn’t until this time that extensive use of the area by non-Native Americans occurred. In fact, the last regularly used cattle trail in the United States stretched 125 miles westward from Magdalena, the route was formally known as the Magdalena Livestock Driveway, but more popularly known to cowboys and cattlemen as the Beefsteak Trail. The trail began use in 1865 and its peak was in 1919, the trail was used continually until trailing gave way to trucking and the trail official closed in 1971. Wildlife in the Apache Kid Wilderness is abundant, species found here include Coues white-tailed deer, mule deer, elk, black bear, bobcat, cougar, antelope, javelina, coyote, rabbit, squirrel, and quail. The area contains critical habitat for the threatened Mexican spotted owl and is an important breeding ground, the San Mateo Mountains have been identified as a key conservation area by The Nature Conservancy due to their biodiversity and ecological richness. The Apache Kid Wilderness Area provides phenomenal hiking, camping, backpacking, hunting, horseback-riding, stargazing opportunities, an extensive network of trails is located in the Wilderness Area. Many loop trips can be made, and the area can accommodate a 1-week backpack trip. The Wilderness Area is located in the remote and rugged San Mateo Mountains, far from any population centers, the area will surely offer solitude for those who venture into the backcountry
10.
Withington Wilderness
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The Withington Wilderness is a 19, 000-acre Wilderness area within the Magdalena Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest. The Withington sits within the section and on the eastern slope of the San Mateo Mountains in Socorro County. The Withington Wilderness was designated by Congress in 1980, the Withington Wilderness ranges from 6,800 feet to 10,100 feet atop Mount Withington. While the origin of the name for Mount Withington is unclear, the 8, 039-acre White Cap Inventoried Roadless Area is directly adjacent to the Withington Wilderness. The Apache Kid Wilderness, also in the San Mateo Mountains, to the north of the Withington Wilderness and San Mateo Mountains is the world-renowned Very Large Array radio telescope observatory. The topography in the northern San Mateo Mountains is gentler than in the south, winters are cold enough to bring snow, and during July and August, the desert monsoon season, rainwater may flood narrow canyons. The vegetation ranges from pine, spruce, and fir at high elevations to pinion, near the eastern boundary, at the lowest elevation in the Wilderness, ocotillo stands are found. Habitats in the Withington Wilderness support populations of mountain lion, black bear, elk, mule deer, coyote, turkey, a portion of the Wilderness is critical habitat for the threatened Mexican spotted owl. The greater San Mateo Mountains were identified as a key area by The Nature Conservancy due to their ecological diversity. Quiet recreation opportunities including hiking, backbacking, stargazing, hunting, the wild scenery is spectacular, with dramatic views from the top of ridgelines and open canyons available for exploration. Two developed campgrounds – Bear Trap and Hughes Mills – located just outside the Wilderness provide hiking access to Mount Withington, Cibola National Forest List of U. S. Wilderness Areas Cibola National Forest official website Socorro County InfoNet New Mexico Game and Fish Bear Trap Campground Hughes Mills Campground Ungnade, Guide to the New Mexico Mountains. New Mexicos Wilderness Areas, The Complete Guide
11.
Fault block
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Fault blocks are very large blocks of rock, sometimes hundreds of kilometres in extent, created by tectonic and localized stresses in the Earths crust. Large areas of bedrock are broken up into blocks by faults, blocks are characterized by relatively uniform lithology. The largest of these blocks are called crustal blocks. Large crustal blocks broken off from tectonic plates are called terranes and those terranes which are the full thickness of the lithosphere are called microplates. Continent-sized blocks are called variously microcontinents, continental ribbons, H-blocks, extensional allochthons, because most stresses relate to the tectonic activity of moving plates, most motion between blocks is horizontal, that is parallel to the Earths crust by strike-slip faults. However vertical movement of blocks produces much more dramatic results, landforms are sometimes formed when the faults have a large vertical displacement. Adjacent raised blocks and down-dropped blocks can form high escarpments, often the movement of these blocks is accompanied by tilting, due to compaction or stretching of the crust at that point. Fault-block mountains often result from rifting, another indicator of tensional tectonic forces and these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems, such as the East African Rift zone. Death Valley in California is a smaller example, there are two types of block mountains, lifted and sloped. Another graben is the basin of the Narmada River in India, tilted type block mountains have one gently sloping side and one steep side with an exposed scarp, and are common in the Basin and Range region of the western United States. Orogeny Plummer, Charles, David McGeary, and Diane Carlson, physical Geology 8th ed. McGraw-Hill, Boston,1999. Monroe, James S. and Reed Wicander, the Changing Earth, Exploring Geology and Evolution. 2nd educational Belmont, Wadsworth Publishing Company,1997, ISBN 0-314-09577-2 Fault-Block Mountains — Universe Today
12.
Rio Grande rift
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The Rio Grande Rift is a north-trending continental rift zone. It separates the Colorado Plateau in the west from the interior of the North American craton on the east, the rift extends from central Colorado in the north to the state of Chihuahua, Mexico in the south. The rift zone consists of four basins that have a width of 50 kilometers. The rift can be observed on location at Rio Grande National Forest, White Sands National Monument, Santa Fe National Forest, the Rio Grande Rift has been an important site for humans for a long time, because it provides a north-south route that follows a major river. The Rio Grande follows the course of the rift from southern Colorado to El Paso, important cities, including Albuquerque, Santa Fe, Taos, Española, Las Cruces, El Paso, and Ciudad Juárez lie within the rift. The Rio Grande Rift represents the easternmost manifestation of widespread extension in the western U. S. during the past 35 million years, the rift consists of three major basins and many smaller basins, less than 100 km2. The three major basins are the San Luis, Española, and Albuquerque basins, further south, the rift is defined by a network of smaller, less topographically distinct alternating basins and ranges. The distinction between these basins and those of the Basin and Range Province becomes blurred in northern Mexico. Basin size generally decreases to the north in the rift, where the Española covers approximately 120 km north-south and 40 km east-west, the Albuquerque basin is the largest of the three basins, spanning 160 km north-south and 86 km east-west at its widest points. It is the oldest of the three basins, and contains 7,350 m of Paleogene clastic sediments deposited on Precambrian basement. The southernmost Albuquerque basin contains pre-rift volcanic deposits, while the central, the southernmost Rio Grande Rift broadens, becoming more complex in structure and physiographically indistinguishable from the adjoining Basin and Range province. In cross-section, the geometry of the basins within the rift are asymmetrical half-grabens, with major fault boundaries on one side, which side of the basin has the major fault or the hinge alternates along the rift. The alternation between these half-grabens occurs along transfer faults, which trend across the rift to connect the major basin-bounding faults, flanking mountains are generally taller along the east side of the rift. The thickness of the crust increases to the north beneath the rift, the crustal thickness underneath the rift is on average 30–35 km, thinner by 10–15 km than the Colorado Plateau on the west and the Great Plains to the east. The rift is presently nearly tectonically quiescent, but significant deformation and this extension is associated with very low seismic velocities in the upper mantle above approximately 400 km depth associated with relatively hot mantle and low degrees of partial melting. This intrusion of the asthenosphere into the lithosphere and continental crust is thought to be responsible for all of the volcanism associated with the Rio Grande rift. The sedimentary fill of the basins consists largely of alluvial fan, the most alkalic lavas erupted outside the rift. The sediments that were deposited during rifting are commonly known as the Santa Fe Group and this group contains sandstones, conglomerates, and volcanics
13.
Plains of San Agustin
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The Plains of San Agustin is a region in the southwestern U. S. state of New Mexico in the San Agustin Basin, south of U. S. Highway 60. The area spans Catron and Socorro Counties, about 50 miles west of the town of Socorro, the plains extend roughly northeast-southwest, with a length of about 55 miles and a width varying between 5–15 miles. The Continental Divide lies close to much of the southern and western boundaries of the plains, the Plains of San Agustin were purportedly the site of a UFO crash landing in 1947, an event thought to be connected to the Roswell UFO incident. Geologically, the Plains of San Agustin lie within the Mogollon-Datil volcanic field, just south of the southeast edge of the Colorado Plateau, the graben is younger than the Datil-Mogollon volcanic eruptions. The flat floor of the plains was created by a Pleistocene lake, although the graben has dropped an estimated 4,000 ft. the surface relief has been reduced to about 2,000 ft. by sedimentation. A great deal of the sediments entered the San Agustin basin prior to the formation of Lake San Agustin in the last glacial period, there is no evidence of tectonic activity in the area after Lake San Agustin became extinct. Ecologically, the plains lie near the end of the Chihuahuan Desert. The plains are probably best known as the site of the Very Large Array, the plains were chosen for the observatory because of their isolated location away from large population centers, and the partial shielding effect of the surrounding mountain ranges. The edges of the plains have sites of archaeological interest such as a prehistoric rockshelter known as Bat Cave, other sites in the area include a ghost town called Old Horse Springs and the Ake Site, a prehistoric occupation site. Basin and Shore Features of the Extinct Lake, San Augustin, New Mexico Journal of Geomorphology 2, pp. 345–356 Weber, Robert H. Pluvial Lakes of the Plains of San Augustin In Chamberlin, R. M. et al. Mogollon Slope, West-Central New Mexico and East-Central Arizona pp. 9–11, New Mexico Geological Society, Forty-Fifth Annual Field Conference, Socorro, New Mexico. North American Deserts Geography Department, Radford University, Radford, Virginia, USA U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Plains of San Agustin
14.
Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array
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The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array is a radio astronomy observatory located on the Plains of San Agustin, between the towns of Magdalena and Datil, some 50 miles west of Socorro, New Mexico. It comprises 27 25-meter radio telescopes in a Y-shaped array and all the equipment, instrumentation, the VLA stands at an elevation of 6970 ft above sea level. It is a component of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, the radio telescope comprises 27 independent antennae, each of which has a dish diameter of 25 meters and weighs 209 metric tons. The antennae are distributed along the three arms of a track, shaped in a wye -configuration, using the rail tracks that follow each of these arms—and that, at one point, intersect with U. S. The angular resolution that can be reached is between 0.2 and 0.004 arcseconds, there are four commonly used configurations, designated A through D. The observatory normally cycles through all the possible configurations every 16 months. Moves to smaller configurations are done in two stages, first shortening the east and west arms and later shortening the north arm and this allows for a short period of improved imaging of extremely northerly or southerly sources. The frequency coverage is 74 MHz to 50 GHz, the Array Operations Center for the VLA is located on the campus of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico. In 2011, a long upgrade project had resulted in the VLA expanding its technical capacities by factors of as much as 8,000. The 1970s era electronics were replaced with state-of-the-art equipment, on March 31,2012, the VLA was officially renamed in a ceremony inside the Antenna Assembly Building. In 1989 the VLA was used to receive communications from the Voyager 2 spacecraft as it flew by Neptune. It is not, despite depictions in culture such as the movie Contact. It has been used to carry out several surveys of radio sources, including the NRAO VLA Sky Survey. The driving force for the development of the VLA was David S. Heeschen and he is noted as having sustained and guided the development of the best radio astronomy observatory in the world for sixteen years. Congressional approval for the VLA project was given in August 1972, the first antenna was put into place in September 1975 and the complex was formally inaugurated in 1980, after a total investment of USD $78.5 million. It was the largest configuration of radio telescopes in the world, with a view to upgrading the venerable 1970s technology with which the VLA was built, the VLA has evolved into the Expanded Very Large Array. The upgrade has enhanced the sensitivity, frequency range. A second phase of this upgrade may add up to eight additional dishes in other parts of the state of New Mexico, up to 300 km away, in 1995 and 1996, the VLA was used for following up the Wow. signal from the SETI project
15.
Topographic prominence
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It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
16.
Paleoindian
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The prefix paleo- comes from the Greek adjective palaios, meaning old or ancient. The term Paleo-Indians applies specifically to the period in the Western Hemisphere and is distinct from the term Paleolithic. Evidence suggests big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from Eurasia into North America over a land and ice bridge, small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 – c. 13,500 BCE, ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and this allowed animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the interior. The people went on foot or used primitive boats along the coastline, the precise dates and routes of the peopling of the New World are subject to ongoing debate. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods, scientific evidence links Indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. There is evidence for at least two separate migrations, between 8000–7000 BCE the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in more sedentary lifestyle. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets, another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age. Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indians migration out of Beringia, ranges from c. 40,000 – c. 16,500 years ago and this time range is a source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. However, alternative theories about the origins of Paleoindians exist, including migration from Europe, the Paleo-Indian would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles. Food would have been plentiful during the few months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds, nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a time because foodstuffs would have to be stored
17.
New World
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The New World is one of the names used for the Earths Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas. The term was coined by Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci, the Americas were also referred to as the fourth part of the world. New World are meaningful in historical context and for the purpose of distinguishing the worlds major ecozones, and to classify plant and animal species that originated therein. One can speak of the New World in a context, e. g. when discussing the voyages of Christopher Columbus. For lack of alternatives, the term is still useful to those discussing issues that concern the Americas. The term New World is used in a context, when one speaks of Old World. Biological taxonomists often attach the New World label to groups of species that are exclusively in the Americas, to distinguish them from their counterparts in the Old World. New World monkeys, New World vultures, New World warblers, the label is also often used in agriculture. Common Old World crops, and domesticated animals did not exist in the Americas until they were introduced by contact in the 1490s. Other famous New World crops include the cashew, cocoa, rubber, sunflower, tobacco, and vanilla, there are rare instances of overlap, e. g. In wine terminology, New World has a different definition, Vespucci was finally convinced when he proceeded on his mapping expedition through 1501-02, covering the huge stretch of coast of eastern Brazil. But this opinion is false, and entirely opposed to the truth, Vespuccis letter was a publishing sensation in Europe, immediately reprinted in several other countries. The Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto had used the term un altro mundo to refer to sub-Saharan Africa, however, this was merely a literary flourish, not a suggestion of a new fourth part of the world. Cadamosto was quite aware sub-Saharan Africa was firmly part of the African continent, the Italian-born Spanish chronicler Peter Martyr dAnghiera often shares credit with Vespucci for designating the Americas as a new world. Peter Martyr used the term Orbe Novo in the title of his history of the discovery of the Americas as a whole, a year later, Peter Martyr again refers to the marvels of the New Globe and the Western hemisphere. Christopher Columbus touched the continent of South America in his 1498 third voyage, in another letter, Columbus refers to having reached a new heavens and world and that he had placed another world under the dominion of the Kings of Spain. The Vespucci passage above applied the New World label to merely the continental landmass of South America, although the proceedings of the Toro-Burgos conferences are missing, it is almost certain that Vespucci articulated his recent New World thesis to his fellow navigators there. In English usage the term New World was problematic and only accepted relatively late, while it became generally accepted after Vespucci that Columbuss discoveries were not Asia but a New World, the geographic relationship between the two continents was still unclear
18.
Megafauna
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In terrestrial zoology, megafauna are large or giant animals. The most common thresholds used are weight over 40 kilograms, over 44 kilograms and this includes many species not popularly thought of as overly large, such as white-tailed deer, red kangaroo, and humans. In practice, the most common encountered in academic and popular writing describes land mammals roughly larger than a human that are not domesticated. It is also used for the largest extant wild land animals, especially elephants, giraffes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses. Megafauna may be subcategorized by their position into megaherbivores, megacarnivores. The term is sometimes applied to animals of great size relative to a more common or surviving type of the animal. These characteristics, although not exclusive to such megafauna, make them vulnerable to human overexploitation, in part because of their slow population recovery rates. In an examination of body mass changes over time, the maximum increase possible in a given time interval was found to scale with the interval length raised to the 0.25 power. A strikingly faster rate of change was found for large decreases in body mass, when normalized to generation length, the maximum rate of body mass decrease was found to be over 30 times greater than the maximum rate of body mass increase for a ten-fold change. Starting from just a few kg before the event, maximum size had reached ~50 kg a few years later. However, when considered from the standpoint of rate of size increase per generation, megaherbivores eventually attained a body mass of over 10000 kg. A similar trend emerges when rates of increase of body mass per generation for different mammalian clades are compared. Among terrestrial mammals, the fastest rates of increase of body mass0.259 vs. time occurred in perissodactyls, followed by rodents and proboscids, the rate of increase for artiodactyls was about a third that of perissodactyls. The rate for carnivorans was slightly lower yet, while primates, terrestrial mammalian carnivores from several eutherian groups all reached a maximum size of about 1000 kg. The largest known metatherian carnivore, Proborhyaena gigantea, apparently reached 600 kg and it has also been suggested that maximum size for mammalian carnivores is constrained by the stress the humerus can withstand at top running speed. Analysis of the variation of body size over the last 40 Ma suggests that decreasing temperature. However, the two parameters are interrelated, making the driver of the trends in maximum size more difficult to identify. Since tetrapods returned to the sea in the Late Permian, they have dominated the top end of the body size range
19.
Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch
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Butch Cassidys Wild Bunch was one of the loosely organized outlaw gangs operating out of the Hole-in-the-Wall in Wyoming during the Old West era in the United States. It was popularized by the 1969 movie, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and they were the most successful train-robbing gang in history. This Wild Bunch gang claimed to make every attempt to abstain from killing people, the claims about the gang were false, however. Kid Curry, George Curry, Will Carver and other members of the gang killed numerous people during law enforcements pursuit of them, Kid Curry alone killed 9 lawmen while with the gang, and another two civilians during shootouts, becoming the gangs most feared member. Elzy Lay killed another two following a robbery, for which he was wounded, arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. Flat-Nose George Curry killed at least two lawmen, before being killed himself by Grand County, Utah lawmen, the gang was also closely associated with female outlaws Ann Bassett and Josie Bassett, whose ranch near Browns Park supplied the gang often with fresh horses and beef. Both Bassett girls would become involved with several members of the gang. Associations with ranchers like these in the area allowed the gang considerable mobility, giving them an easy resupply of horses and supplies. At 1,00 a. m on June 2,1899, Cassidy, Sundance Kid, Harvey Logan and Lay robbed a Union Pacific train near Wilcox and they wore masks made from white napkins, possibly pilfered from a Harvey House restaurant. In the holdup, they stole between $30,000 and $60,000, the gang split up afterward, a common ploy to throw off pursuers, and several fled to New Mexico. On July 11,1899, gang members robbed a train near Folsom, New Mexico, the pursuit by a posse led by Sheriff Ed Farr culminated in two gun battles, during which Sheriff Farr and two deputies were killed. Gang member Sam Ketchum was wounded and died in custody, elzy Lay, one of Cassidys closest friends and cofounder of the Wild Bunch gang, was wounded and also captured. Cassidy and the members regrouped in Wyoming. On August 29,1900, Cassidy, the Sundance Kid, Kid Curry and another unidentified gang member believed to have been Will Carver, held up another Union Pacific train at Tipton, Wyoming. Less than a later, on September 19,1900, they raided the First National Bank of Winnemucca, Nevada. These and other lucrative robberies led to notoriety and fame. That same year on April 1, Will Carver was wounded by lawmen, ben Kilpatrick and Laura Bullion were captured in Tennessee in December 1901, he received a 20-year prison sentence and she was sentenced to five years. Kid Curry killed two lawmen in Knoxville, Tennessee, he escaped capture and traveled to Montana, where he killed the rancher who had killed his brother Johnny years before and he was captured on his return to Tennessee, but escaped again
20.
Cochise
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Cochise was leader of the Chihuicahui local group of the Chokonen and principal chief of the Chokonen band of the Chiricahua Apache. A key war leader during the Apache Wars, he led an uprising against the American government which began in 1861, Cochise County, Arizona is named after him. Cochise was one of the most noted Apache leaders to resist intrusions by European Americans during the 19th century and he was described as a large man, with a muscular frame, classical features, and long black hair, which he wore in traditional Apache style. He was about six feet tall and weighed about 175 pounds, in his own language, his name Cheis meant having the quality or strength of oak. As Spain and later Mexico attempted to gain dominion over the Chiricahua lands, cycles of warfare developed, which the Apache mostly won. Eventually, the Spanish tried a different approach, they tried to make the Apache dependent, giving them older firearms, after Mexico gained independence from Spain and took control of this territory, it ended the practice, perhaps lacking the resources to continue it. The various Chiricahua bands resumed raiding in the 1830s to acquire what they wanted after the Mexicans stopped selling goods to them. As a result, the Mexican government began a series of operations in order to stop the raiding by the Chiricahua. Cochises father was killed in the fighting, Cochise deepened his resolve and the Chiricahua Apache pursued vengeance against the Mexicans. Mexican forces captured Cochise at one point in 1848 during an Apache raid on Fronteras, Sonora, for a time, the two peoples managed peaceful relations. In the late 1850s, Cochise may have supplied firewood for the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach station at Apache Pass, the tenuous peace did not last, as European-American encroachment into Apache territory continued. In 1861 the Bascom Affair was a catalyst for armed confrontation, an Apache raiding party had driven away a local ranchers cattle and kidnapped his twelve-year-old son. Cochise and his band were accused of the incident. Army officer Lt. George Bascom, invited Cochise to the Armys encampment in the belief that the warrior was responsible for the incident, Cochise maintained his innocence and offered to look into the matter with other Apache groups, but the officer tried to arrest him. Cochise escaped by drawing a knife and slashing his way out of the tent, Cochise may have been shot as he fled. Bascom captured some of Cochises relatives, who apparently were taken by surprise as Cochise escaped, Cochise eventually also took hostages to use in negotiations to free the Apache Indians. However, the negotiations fell apart, because the arrival of U. S. troop reinforcements led Cochise to believe that the situation was spiraling out of his control, both sides eventually killed all their remaining hostages. Cochise went on to carry out about 11 years of relentless warfare, Dan Thrapp estimated the total death toll of settlers and Mexican/American travelers may have reached 5,000, but most historians believe it was more likely a few hundred
21.
Geronimo
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Geronimo was a prominent leader and medicine man from the Bedonkohe band of the Chiricahua Apache tribe. While well known, Geronimo was not a chief among the Chiricahua or the Bedonkohe band, at any one time, about 30 to 50 Apaches would be following him. However, since he was a leader in raiding and warfare he frequently led large numbers of men and women beyond his own following. During Geronimos final period of conflict from 1876 to 1886 he surrendered three times and accepted life on the Apache reservations in Arizona, reservation life was confining to the free-moving Apache people, and they resented restrictions on their customary way of life. Geronimo was later transferred to General Nelson Miles at Skeleton Canyon, in his old age, Geronimo became a celebrity. He appeared at fairs, including the 1904 Worlds Fair in St. Louis, however, he was not allowed to return to the land of his birth. He died at the Fort Sill hospital in 1909 and he was still a prisoner of war. He is buried at the Fort Sill Indian Agency Cemetery surrounded by the graves of relatives, Apache is the collective term for several culturally related groups of Native Americans originally from the Southwest United States. The current division of Apachean groups includes the Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, raids ranged from stealing livestock and other plunder, to the capture and/or killing of victims, sometimes by torture. Mexicans and Americans responded with attacks against the Apache which were no less violent. The raiding and retaliation fed the fires of a virulent revenge warfare that reverberated back and his fighting ability extending over 30 years forms a major characteristic of his persona. Among Geronimos own Chiricahua tribe many had mixed feelings about him, while respected as a skilled and effective leader of raids or warfare, he emerges as not very likable, and he was not widely popular among the other Apache. Nevertheless, Apache people stood in awe of Geronimos powers which he demonstrated to them on a series of occasions and these powers indicated to other Apaches that Geronimo had super-natural gifts that he could use for good or ill. In eye-witness accounts by other Apaches, Geronimo was able to become aware of distant events as they happened and he also demonstrated powers to heal other Apaches. His grandfather, Mahko, had been chief of the Bedonkohe Apache and he had three brothers and four sisters. His parents raised him according to Apache traditions, after the death of his father, his mother took him to live with the Chihenne, Geronimo married a woman named Alope, from the Nedni-Chiricahua band of Apache when he was 17, they had three children. She was the first of nine wives, on March 5,1851, a company of 400 Mexican soldiers from Sonora led by Colonel José María Carrasco attacked Geronimos camp outside Janos while the men were in town trading. Among those killed were his wife, children and mother, the loss of his family led Geronimo to hate all Mexicans for the rest of his life, he and his followers would frequently attack and kill any group of Mexicans that they encountered
22.
Apache Kid
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His exact date of birth is unknown, but is believed to have been sometime in the 1860s. His year of death is given as 1894, but some New Mexico cattle ranchers had him living until the 1930s. The Apache Kid Wilderness in New Mexico was named after him, the Apache Kid character in Marvel Comics was also named after him but otherwise has no connection. Haskay-bay-nay-ntayl was captured by Yuma Indians as a boy, and after being freed by the U. S. Army, as a teenager, in the mid-1870s, the Kid met and essentially became adopted by Al Sieber, the Chief of the Army Scouts. A few years later, in 1881, the Kid enlisted with the US Cavalry as a scout, by July 1882, owing to his remarkable abilities in the job, he was promoted to sergeant. Shortly thereafter he accompanied General Crook on an expedition into the Sierra Madre Occidental, in May 1887, Sieber and several army officers left the San Carlos post on business, and the Kid was left in charge of the scouts in their absence. The scouts decided to have a party, and brewed up what was called tiswin, during the drinking, several became intoxicated, and an altercation between a scout named Gon-Zizzie and the Kids father, Togo-de-Chuz resulted in the Kids father being killed. In turn, friends of the Kid killed Gon-Zizzie, the Kid also killed Gon-Zizzies brother, Rip. The Kid and the others complied, but a shot was fired from a crowd that had gathered to watch the events, several other shots were fired from the crowd, including one that hit Sieber in the ankle. During the confusion, the Apache Kid and several others fled, the army reacted swiftly, sending two troops of the 4th Cavalry in pursuit of the escapees. The Kid and his followers evaded the soldiers, while relying on assistance from sympathetic Apaches, the Kid contacted the army and stated that if the soldiers were recalled, he would surrender. They were, and he did, on June 25,1887 and he and four others were court martialed, found guilty of mutiny and desertion, and sentenced to death by firing squad. In August, this was commuted to life in prison, General Miles intervened, and further reduced the sentence to ten years in prison. The five were sent to Alcatraz, where remained until their convictions were overturned in October,1888. They were freed, but in October,1889, enraged Apaches in the area were able to force the issue of new warrants, again they were arrested, and again they were convicted, this time sentenced to seven years in prison, and transported to Yuma Territorial Prison. Shortly afterward, the five escaped by overpowering three guards, Glen Reynolds, Eugene Middleton, and W. A. Holmes, a fierce snowstorm prevented any pursuit of the escapees. For years there were unconfirmed reports of sightings, but nothing came of any of them. For all practical purposes, he vanished, during an 1890 shootout between Apache renegades and Mexican soldiers, a warrior was killed and found to be in the possession of Reynolds watch and pistol
23.
Aldo Leopold
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Aldo Leopold was an American author, philosopher, scientist, ecologist, forester, conservationist, and environmentalist. He was a professor at the University of Wisconsin and is best known for his book A Sand County Almanac, Leopold was influential in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation. His ethics of nature and wildlife preservation had a impact on the environmental movement. He emphasized biodiversity and ecology and was a founder of the science of wildlife management, Rand Aldo Leopold was born in Burlington, Iowa, on January 11,1887. His father, Carl Leopold, was a businessman who made walnut desks, charles Starker, father of Clara and uncle of Carl, was a German immigrant, educated in engineering and architecture. Rand Aldo was named two of Carls business partners—C. W. Rand and Aldo Sommers—although the Rand was eventually dropped, the Leopold family included younger siblings Mary Luize, Carl Starker, and Frederic. Leopolds first language was German, although he mastered English at an early age, Aldo Leopolds early life was highlighted by the outdoors. Carl would take his children on excursions into the woods and taught his oldest son woodcraft, Aldo showed an aptitude for observation, spending hours counting and cataloging birds near his home. Mary would later say of her brother, He was very much an outdoorsman. He was always out climbing around the bluffs, or going down to the river and he attended Prospect Hill Elementary, where he ranked at the top of his class, and then, the overcrowded Burlington High School. Every August, the family vacationed in Michigan at the forested Les Cheneaux Islands in Lake Huron, which the children took to exploring. In 1900, Gifford Pinchot, who oversaw the newly implemented Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture, hearing of this development, the teenage Leopold decided on forestry as a vocation. His parents agreed to let him attend The Lawrenceville School, a college in New Jersey in order to improve his chances of admission to Yale. The Burlington High School principal wrote in a letter to the headmaster at Lawrenceville that Leopold was as earnest a boy as we have in school. He arrived at his new school in January 1904, shortly before he turned seventeen and he was considered an attentive student, although he was again drawn to the outdoors. Lawrenceville was suitably rural, and Leopold spent much time mapping the area, Leopold studied at the Lawrenceville School for a year, during which time he was accepted to Yale University. Because the Yale School of Forestry granted only graduate degrees, he first enrolled in Sheffield Scientific Schools preparatory forestry courses for his undergraduate studies, in 1909, Leopold was assigned to the Forest Services District 3 in the Arizona and New Mexico territories
24.
Spotted owl
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The spotted owl is a species of true owl. It is a resident species of forests in western North America. Nests can be between 12 to 60 metres high and usually two eggs. It is an owl, which feeds on small mammals. Three subspecies are recognized, ranging in distribution from British Columbia to Mexico, the spotted owl is under pressure from habitat destruction throughout its range, and is currently classified as near threatened. The spotted owl has a length of 43 cm, wingspan of 114 cm. Its eggs are a little over 50 mm long, and are white, the spotted owl is similar in appearance to the barred owl but has cross-shaped markings on the underparts, whereas the barred owl is alternately barred on the breast and streaked on the belly. Barred owls are larger and grayer than spotted owls, in recent years the California and northern subspecies of spotted owl have been displaced by barred owls, which are more aggressive, have a broader diet and occur in more varied habitats. Though the two species may hybridize in areas where displacement is occurring, they are quite distinct. The northern spotted owl has a contiguous range from southwestern British Columbia south through western Washington and Oregon to Marin County. Spotted owls occur in a variety of hardwood and coniferous forest habitats, preferably in closed-canopy, uneven-aged, late-successional, the Mexican subspecies may also make use of chaparral and pinyon woodlands, including areas in deep, steep-walled canyons with little canopy cover. The California subspecies uses unlogged, complex early seral forests created by wildfire for foraging, large trees seem to constitute preferred nesting and roosting habitat for all three subspecies, and canopy cover greater than 40% is generally sought out. Substantial tall shrub cover is a characteristic of spotted owl habitat. Spotted owls can be found at elevations of 70–6,600 feet for the subspecies, at 1, 000–8,500 feet for the California subspecies. All subspecies appear to value the proximity of water sources, Spotted owl home ranges are generally large but of variable size, with extents of 661–14,169 acres, depending on subspecies, habitat, and prey availability. Home ranges are smaller in the season than in the nonbreeding season. Spotted owls do not build their own nests, instead making use of found in trees, deadwood and snags. Some nest sites are used repeatedly, Spotted owls most often choose the same type of cover selected for nesting sites for daytime roosting
25.
The Nature Conservancy
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The Nature Conservancy is a charitable environmental organization, headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, United States. Its mission is to conserve the lands and waters on all life depends. The Conservancys work focuses on the priorities of Lands, Water, Climate, Oceans. Founded in Arlington, Virginia, in 1951, The Nature Conservancy now impacts conservation in 69 countries, the Conservancy has over one million members, and has protected more than 119,000,000 acres of land and thousands of miles of rivers worldwide. The Nature Conservancy also operates more than 100 marine conservation projects globally, the organizations assets total $6.71 billion as of 2015. The Nature Conservancy is the largest environmental nonprofit by assets and by revenue in the Americas, the Nature Conservancy rates as one of the most trusted national organizations in Harris Interactive polls every year since 2005. Forbes magazine rated The Nature Conservancys fundraising efficiency at 88 percent in its 2005 survey of the largest U. S. charities, the Nature Conservancy is led by President and CEO Mark Tercek, a former managing director at Goldman Sachs. He is the author of the Washington Post and Publisher’s Weekly bestselling book Nature’s Fortune, How Business, the Nature Conservancys Chief Scientist is Australian Hugh Possingham, who was named to this position in 2016. The current board chairman is Craig McCaw, the Chairman & CEO of Eagle River Inc, other current members include former U. S. Senator Bill Frist, chairman of the Alibaba Group Jack Ma, the Nature Conservancy developed out of an older organization known as the Ecological Society of America. The latter society was founded in 1915 and two later formed a Committee on Preservation of Natural Areas for Ecological Study, headed by Victor Shelford. The divide in viewpoints led the society to dissolve the committee, the latter group eventually took the name The Nature Conservancy, in emulation of the British agency of that name, which pursued a mission of conserving open space and wildlife preserves. The Nature Conservancy was incorporated in the United States as an organization on October 22,1951. The Nature Conservancy takes an approach to conservation, setting goals that describe the results it wants to achieve for biodiversity. The Nature Conservancy sets both long-term and near-term goals for conserving the abundance and geographic distribution of species and ecological systems. The organizations overall goal is to ensure the survival of all biodiversity on Earth. The Nature Conservancy works with all sectors of society including businesses, individuals, communities, partner organizations, the Nature Conservancy has pioneered new land preservation techniques such as the conservation easement and debt for nature swaps. A conservation easement is a way for owners to ensure that their land remains in its natural state while capitalizing on some of the lands potential development value
26.
Wilderness Act
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The Wilderness Act of 1964 was written by Howard Zahniser of The Wilderness Society. It created the legal definition of wilderness in the United States, when Congress passed and President Lyndon Johnson signed the Wilderness Act on September 3,1964, it created the National Wilderness Preservation System. The current amount of areas designated by the NWPS as wilderness totals 757 areas encompassing 109.5 million acres of federally owned land in 44 states, when Congress designates each wilderness area, it includes a very specific boundary line—in statutory law. Once a wilderness area has added to the system, its protection. The basics of the set out in the Wilderness Act are straightforward. Wilderness designation is a protective overlay Congress applies to selected portions of forests, parks, wildlife refuges. Within wilderness areas, the Wilderness Act strives to restrain human influences so that ecosystems can change over time in their own way, free, as much as possible, from human manipulation. In these areas, as the Wilderness Act puts it, “the earth, but the law limits uses to those consistent with the Wilderness Act mandate that each wilderness area be administered to preserve the “wilderness character of the area. Along with many uses for the American people, wilderness areas are popular for diverse kinds of outdoor recreation—but without motorized or mechanical vehicles or equipment. Scientific research is allowed in wilderness areas, as long as it is non-invasive. Specifically, mining, grazing, water uses, or any other uses that don’t significantly impact the majority of the area, can remain in some degree. When the Wilderness Act was passed, it ignored lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management because of uncertainty of policy makers surrounding the future of those areas, some argue that the criteria to determine wilderness are vague and open to interpretation. For example, one criterion for wilderness is that it be roadless, congressional bills are pending to designate new wilderness areas in Utah, Colorado, Washington, California, Virginia, Idaho, West Virginia, Montana and New Hampshire. The U. S. Forest Service has recommended new wilderness designations, Wilderness Week in September, and the National Wilderness Conference. “Making Wilderness Work, Frank Church and the American Wilderness Movement. ”The Enduring Wilderness, conducting Wilderness Characteristics Inventory on BLM Lands,15 March 2012 Jeffrey 0. Struggle Over Utahs San Rafael Swell, Wilderness, National Conservation Areas, the Promise of Wilderness, American Environmental Politics since 1964
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
29.
Big Burro Mountains
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The Big Burro Mountains are a moderate length 35-mile long, mountain range located in central Grant County, New Mexico. The ranges northwest-southeast ridgeline is located 15 mi southwest of Silver City, on the other hand, the Big Burro Mountains are on the northwest perimeter of the Chihuahuan Desert as it extends into southern New Mexico through the Playas and Animas Valleys. The Big Burro Mountains are 35 mi long with widths up to 12–18 mi. The range is in a point between the Gila Wilderness area north of Silver City, and the northern headlands of the two north-south valleys to the southwest, the Animas and Playas Valleys. Many mountain ranges in this region are not easily defined with mountain range perimeters, the highest peak in the Big Burro Mountains is Burro Peak, at 8,035 feet. It is located at 32. 590635°N108. 432827°W /32.590635, Bullard Peak,7,064 feet, is the approximate center of the range. The Continental Divide starts to leave the mountain regions as it goes southwest from Silver City. It finally enters a series of ranges, including the Pyramid and Animas Mountains. Range highpoint, Burro Peak– Burro Peak Summit, mountainzone. com, elevation,8022 ft Big Burro Mountains Big Burro Mountains Range, mountainzone. com Bullard Peak Summit, coordinates
30.
Big Hatchet Mountains
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The Big Hatchet Mountains are an 18 mi long, mountain range in southeast Hidalgo County, New Mexico, adjacent the northern border of Chihuahua state, Mexico. The mountain range lies in the extreme northwest of the Chihuahuan Desert, the range is 18 mi long and only about 8 mi wide. It trends northwest by southeast as does the Alamo Hueco Mountains to the south, the Little Hatchet Mountains bordering the range northwest, trend similarly, but have a more true north traverse. Geologically this range is part of the Basin and Range Province which spans much of the southwestern U. S. and it is a fault-block range made up of Paleozoic limestone and Cretaceous shale and sandstones. Ecologically, the Big Hatchet Mountains lie near the Chihuahuan Desert and the Sonoran Desert, notable inhabitants include bats, raptors, bighorn sheep, and javelina. However, the route on the peak, along the South Ridge from Thompson Canyon, is straightforward. The highest peak in the range, Big Hatchet Peak,8,366 feet, is at the northwest terminus of the range, another peak anchors the southeast terminus of the range, New Well Peak, at 6,284 feet. The Continental Divide lies north of the Big Hatchet Mountains and traverses the northern Playas Valley on its water divide, the main traverse of the CDT exits from the southwest quarter of the range, to meet the northwest end of the Alamo Hueco Mountains
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Big Hatchet Peak
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Big Hatchet Peak is the high point of the Big Hatchet Mountains, a small but rugged range in the southwest corner of New Mexico, in the United States. The mountains are located in southeast Hidalgo County, about 50 miles southwest of Deming, the range runs roughly northwest-southeast, and is about 12 miles long, the southeastern edge of the range is within 3.5 miles of the border with Mexico. They lie primarily on BLM land, the peak rises steeply out of the Playas Valley, to the west, and the Hachita Valley, to the east of the range. The summit stands about 4,000 feet above the valley floors, also, the north and west faces of the peak are particularly steep, making for an impressive mountain. There are a few other minor summits in this range, but most are not named, except for New Well Peak with a summit elevation of 6,284 feet. Geologically this range is part of the Basin and Range Province which spans much of the southwestern U. S. and it is a fault-block range made up of Paleozoic limestone and Cretaceous shale and sandstones. Ecologically, the Big Hatchet Mountains lie near the Chihuahuan Desert and the Sonoran Desert, notable inhabitants include bats, raptors, bighorn sheep, and javelina. The Big Hatchet Mountains are far from population centers, and have no paved road access or developed recreation sites, however the standard route on the peak, along the South Ridge from Thompson Canyon, is straightforward
32.
Black Range
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The Black Range is an igneous mountain range running north-south in Sierra and Grant counties in west-central New Mexico, in the southwestern United States. Its central ridge forms the western and eastern borders, respectively, the range is about 55 miles long from north to south and up to 18 miles wide. The highest point is McKnight Mountain, at 10,165 feet, the Black Range lies almost entirely within the Gila National Forest. The Mimbres River originates from the snow pack and run-off. The Mimbres Mountains, the southernmost part of the range, are included as part of the Black Range. Access to the range is primarily via NM Highway 152, which crosses the Black Range on its way from the town of Kingston on the east towards the equally small San Lorenzo on the west. NM152 crosses the range at 8228-foot Emory Pass, where there is a trail that covers the entire north-south length of the mountains along the central ridge. There are also a number of campgrounds, some hiking trails. With the exception of the areas along NM152, most of the range is difficult to traverse. The Aldo Leopold Wilderness lies along the crest of the Black Range north of NM152. The southern portion of the Black Range, which are known as the Mimbres Mountains, was occupied by the Mimbres people whose culture peaked about 1000 C. E. Their most famous site is the Gila Cliff Dwellings, silver was discovered in the Black Range in the late 1870s, first in 1876 at Lake Valley, and then by Harry Pye in 1879 at Chloride, New Mexico. This led to a rush, and silver and gold mines flourished in the Black Range through the end of the 19th century
33.
Chuska Mountains
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The Chuska Mountains are an elongate range on the southeast Colorado Plateau and within the Navajo Nation whose highest elevations approach 10,000 feet. The range is about 80 by 15 km and it trends north-northwest and is crossed by the state line between Arizona and New Mexico. The highlands are a plateau, with an average elevation of about 2,740 m. The highest point is Roof Butte at 2,994 m, other high points include the satellite Beautiful Mountain at 2,861 m and Lukachukai Mountains at 2,885 m, both also near the northern end, and Matthews Peak at 2,911 m. The San Juan Basin borders the Chuskas on the east, the eastern escarpment of the mountains is marked by slumps and landslides that extend out onto the western margin of the San Juan Basin. To the north, the Chuskas are separated from the Carrizo Mountains by Red Rock Valley, major peaks of the Chuskas include, Much of the range is Navajo Nation Forest, ponderosa pine, spruce, and fir are among the important tree varieties. Trees there were cut and transported more than 75 km to the east to construct pueblos in Chaco Culture National Historical Park in the San Juan Basin as early as 974 A. D, following a period of contentious debate, logging in the Chuskas was suspended in 1994. There has been discussion among the government about resuming logging at some future time. The forests of the Chuska Mountains and of the Defiance Uplift receive higher rainfall than the lowlands. Runoff from snowmelt and seasonal thunderstorms along the crest of the Chuskas generates more than half the water of the Navajo Nation. Canyons of Canyon de Chelly National Monument were cut by streams with headwaters in the Chuskas, the Chuska Mountains are sparsely populated. Nearby settlements are small, including Crystal, New Mexico, Lukachukai, Arizona, trading posts at Crystal and at Two Grey Hills, are associated with distinctive patterns used in Navajo rugs. A paved road, New Mexico Highway 134, crosses the range through Narbona Pass, later it was renamed Washington Pass, after Colonel John M. Washington, who commanded a military expedition against the Navajo. Narbona was a Navajo headman killed in an encounter with Washingtons troops in 1849, the Chuska Mountains and the Defiance Uplift immediately to the southwest form one of the prominent uplifted highlands of the Colorado Plateau. The uplifted region is separated from the San Juan Basin to the east by the Defiance, relative uplift, basin subsidence, and monocline formation began in the early stages of the Laramide orogeny about 75 to 80 million years ago. Although the Chuska Mountains can be considered part of the Defiance Uplift and they are capped by an erosional remnant of Chuska Sandstone, a unit locally more than 500 meters thick. The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone rests unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed in the Defiance monocline, biotite in layers of altered volcanic ash within the Chuska Sandstone has yielded radiometric ages of 35 and 33 million years by argon-argon dating. The Chuska Sandstone is formed of sand deposits, and it appears to be a remnant of a huge Oligocene sand sea
34.
Cookes Range
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The Cookes Range is a small, 17-mi long mountain range in northern Luna County, New Mexico, which extends slightly north into southeastern Grant County. The range is a continuation of the Mimbres Mountains, itself the southeast portion of the extensive north-south running Black Range. The Cooks Range is surrounded by lower elevation areas of the northwest Chihuahuan Desert, Cookes Range is about 17 mi long, and about 8 mi at its widest. The range is a basin and range north-south trending uplift with a center-north section intruded by granodiorite which forms Cookes Peak,8,408 feet, Cookes Peak is at the head of OK Canyon, which exits the range eastwards. South of OK Canyon is a transverse ridgeline, across the range west to east, one other larger peak occurs in the mountains and hills in the southern part of the range, Massacre Peak, at 5,667 feet. Other outlying lower elevation hills occur, east and west, in the north section, the range was named after its prominent peak, which in turn was named after Captain Philip St. George Cooke of the Mormon Battalion. Cookes Spring was a station on the Butterfield Trail, fort Cummings, located in the southeastern foothills of the range near Cookes Spring was established to restrict Apache raiding. Silver was discovered in the north of Cooks Peak in 1876. Silver, lead, and zinc were mined there until 1967, the higher elevations of the range are pinon-juniper shrublands habitat which gives way to Chihuahuan desert in the foothills. The Cookes Range Wilderness Study Area is located in the range, battle of Cookes Canyon Cookes Peak, Contiguous States US2,000 ft Prominence List. NMBGMR, Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Cookes Peak, Cookes Range, maps & photo galley
35.
Jemez Mountains
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The Jemez Mountains are a volcanic group of mountains in Rio Arriba, Sandoval, and Los Alamos counties, New Mexico, United States. The highest point in the range is Chicoma Mountain at an elevation of 11,561 feet, the town of Los Alamos and Los Alamos National Laboratory adjoin the eastern side of the range while the town of Jemez Springs is to the west. Pajarito Mountain Ski Area is the ski area in the Jemez. New Mexico State Highway 4 is the road that provides vehicular access to locations in the Jemez Mountains. The Jemez Mountains lie to the north of the Albuquerque Basin in the Rio Grande rift and they are a classic example of intracontinental volcanism and consist of a broadly circular ridge surrounding the famous Valles Caldera. The most recent known eruption was an obsidian flow dated to 50,000 to 60,000 years before the present, however, much of the material in these deposits now forms the Pajarito Plateau, a scenic region of canyons and mesas on which Los Alamos is situated. Redondo Peak, the second highest summit in the range at 11,254 ft, is a resurgent dome in the middle of the Valles Caldera, the caldera is segregated by these structures and its rim into multiple lush grass valleys. Much of the range is federal land, including Santa Fe National Forest, Bandelier National Monument, State lands include Fenton Lake State Park at 35°52′58″N 106°43′46″W in Sandoval County. The summits are generally easy to climb and require no technical-climbing skills, the region is prone to forest fires because of the tendency for spring weather to be dry and windy, creating conditions under which fires caused by human activities or lightning can spread rapidly. The Las Conchas Fire in 2011 was the most recent large wildfire, parts of Los Alamos National Laboratory were also damaged, although none of the laboratorys special nuclear materials were threatened or released. Census-designated places within the Jemez Mountains include Jemez Springs and Jemez Pueblo, the Jemez Mountains are home to a federally endangered species, the Jemez Mountains salamander. Santa Fe National Forest First Photo from Space identifies Jemez Mountains as Valle Grande Mts
36.
Chicoma Mountain
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Chicoma Mountain is the highest point in the Jemez Mountains, a prominent mountain range in the U. S. State of New Mexico. Like the rest of the Jemez, it is of volcanic origin, it lies on the northeast rim of the Valles Caldera, the mountain is sacred to many of the Puebloan peoples of New Mexico, who traditionally regarded it as the center of all. Much of it lies within the territory of the Santa Clara Pueblo, access by hikers, hunters, and others, is correspondingly limited, although the summit can be reached via public lands on the north side. The Puye Cliff Dwellings in Santa Clara Canyon are a site of some significance, however. Puye Cliff Dwellings are accessible via NM30 to NM5, the site is located on the pueblos land on the east side of the mountain, and are sometimes open to the public for a fee. Santa Fe National Forest Chicoma Mountain
37.
Redondo Peak
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Redondo Peak is a conspicuous summit in the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico, in the southwestern United States. It is located entirely within the Valles Caldera National Preserve and it is the second highest summit in the Jemez after Chicoma Mountain. It is the most visually prominent peak in the range when viewed from the south, for example, from many other directions it is less prominent or not visible, due to its location in the center of the Valles Caldera, well away from the Calderas rim. Redondo Peak is an example of the feature known as a resurgent dome. It was formed some time after the main caldera-forming eruptions of about 1.4 million and 1.1 million years ago, the summit of the mountain is composed of tuff ejected by the more recent caldera-forming eruption, rather than of subsequent volcanic ejecta. It is forested all the way to its summit, controversy concerning logging practices on the mountain contributed pressure to create the Valles Caldera National Preserve, within which logging is restricted. Redondo Peak is sacred to various Pueblo peoples of New Mexico and, as a result, hiking, the summit area is occupied by a shrine that was studied and excavated by anthropologist William Boone Douglass in the early 20th century and remained in use well into the 20th century. The shrine and its surroundings are closed to visitors
38.
Magdalena Mountains
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The Magdalena Mountains are a regionally high, mountain range in Socorro County, in west-central New Mexico in the southwestern United States. The highest point in the range is South Baldy, at 10,783 ft, the range runs roughly north-south and is about 18 miles long. The range lies just south of the village of Magdalena, the Magdalena Mountains are an east-tilted fault-block range, superimposed on Cenozoic calderas. The complex geologic history of the range has resulted in spectacular scenery, with unusual and they form part of the western edge of the Rio Grande Rift Valley, fronting the La Jencia Basin. The mountains remain isolated and natural due to the absence of any significant human development within or near the range, the range takes its name from a volcanic peak on the west side, named Magdalena Peak, after Mary Magdalene. A talus formation and shrub growth on the east slope of Magdalena Peak is said to resemble a womans face. ”Most of the Magdalena Mountains are within the Magdalena Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest, and parts are also administered by the Bureau of Land Management. While there are no designated Wilderness areas in the range, the Ryan Hill Inventoried Roadless Area is sizeable, in 1980, Public Law 96-550 established Langmuir Research Site in the Magdalena Mountains. Congress found the mountains uniquely suited for atmospheric and astronomical research which has conducted at Langmuir Laboratory near South Baldy since the mid-1960s. The Act designated a 31,000 acre portion of the mountain as essentially roadless, there is overlap between the Ryan Hill IRA and the congressionally designated Langmuir Research Site management area. Directly adjacent to the boundary of the Ryan Hill IRA lies the Devil’s Reach Wilderness Study Area. The Devils Reach WSA and its neighboring Devil’s Backbone WSA are both managed by the BLM, the Ryan Hill IRA, Devils Reach WSA, and Devils Backbone WSA combine to form a 44, 050-acre contiguous roadless area on the southern end of the range. A well-established network of trails exists in the Magdalena Mountains, providing adundant hiking, backpacking, hunting, horseback-riding, the Forest Service notes that there are over 60 miles of trails in the Magdalenas. Over half of the trails are in the Ryan Hill Inventoried Roadless Area, the Water Canyon Campground is a developed campsite located at 6,800 ft elevation in the Magdalenas. Visiting scientists at Langmuir also study bats, hummingbirds, butterflies, the same area hosts the Magdalena Ridge Observatory Interferometer, also operated by New Mexico Tech, along with other institutions. The history of the Magdalena Mountains is intimately linked with the history of the surrounding area. Bands of Apache effectively controlled the Magdalena-Datil region from the century until they were defeated in the Apache Wars in the late nineteenth century. A mining rush followed the Apache wars – gold, silver, in fact, the last regularly used cattle trail in the United States stretched 125 miles westward from Magdalena. The route was known as the Magdalena Livestock Driveway, but more popularly known to cowboys
39.
South Baldy (New Mexico)
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South Baldy is the highest point of the Magdalena Mountains in central New Mexico, in the United States. It is in the Magdalena Ranger District of the Cibola National Forest, South Baldy can be accessed easily from the dirt road leading to Langmuir. Alternately, it can be accessed by trail from below, a short hike south on this trail and a little off-trail ascent leads to the summit of South Baldy. The peak is the site of a mountain bike ascent race up the Langmuir Road as part of the Tour of Socorro
