1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
3.
Provinces of Argentina
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Argentina is subdivided into twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation as decided by Congress. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, during the War of Independence the main cities and their surrounding countrysides became provinces though the intervention of their cabildos. The Anarchy of the Year XX completed this process, shaping the original thirteen provinces, Jujuy seceded from Salta in 1834, and the thirteen provinces became fourteen. After seceding for a decade, Buenos Aires Province accepted the 1853 Constitution of Argentina in 1861, a law from 1862 designated as national territories those under federal control but outside the frontiers of the provinces. In 1884 they served as bases for the establishment of the governorates of Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, La Pampa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. The agreement about a dispute with Chile in 1900 created the National Territory of Los Andes, its lands were incorporated into Jujuy, Salta. La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951, Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, Buenos Aires City itself is divided into communes. Provinces hold all the power that they not to delegate to the federal government, they must be representative republics. Beyond this they are autonomous, they enact their own constitutions, freely organize their local governments. Since 1983 four provinces were intervened, namely Catamarca, Corrientes, Santiago del Estero, article 61 of the Constitution of the city of Buenos Aires states that Suffrage is free, equal, secret, universal, compulsory and not accumulative. The foreign residents enjoy this right, with the obligations, on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in this district. Argentina is divided into seven geographical regions, many provinces having their territories across more than one. Source, Demographics of Argentina ISO 3166-2, AR, the ISO codes for the provinces of Argentina. com Argentine Provinces since 1973 at World Statesmen
4.
Jujuy Province
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Jujuy is a province of Argentina, located in the extreme northwest of the country, at the borders with Chile and Bolivia. The only neighboring Argentine province is Salta to the east and south, pre-Columbian inhabitants known as the Omaguacas and Ocloyas, who were later conquered by the Incas during their expansion period, practiced agriculture and domesticated the guanaco. They had huts made of mud, and erected stone fortresses to protect their villages, an example of such fortresses is Pucará de Tilcara, Pucará meaning fortress. In 1593, a settlement was erected in the Jujuy valley by the effort of Francisco de Argañaraz y Murguía. In spite of the attacks of the Calchaquíes and Omaguacas aborigines, at the end of the 17th century, the customs to the Viceroyalty of Peru was transferred from Córdoba to Jujuy. With the separation from Peru and the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, Jujuy lost its importance and its population started to diminish. During the May Revolution and the battles for the independence of the United provinces of the South, the people of Jujuy had to endure the Jujuy Exodus, a massive evacuation with a scorched earth policy, led by General Manuel Belgrano. Finally the Spanish surrendered, but the war affected the economy of the area. After a series of conflicts, the province declared its autonomy from Tucumán. Jujuy started a process of economic and social improvement, and at the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the century, the railway already connected the province with Buenos Aires. Heavy industry first arrived in Jujuy at the hand of General Manuel Savio, in 1969, Jujuy joined oil-rich neighboring Salta Province with the discovery of petroleum by the state-owned YPF. There are 3 main areas in Jujuy, the Altiplano, a 3,500 meters high plateau with peaks of 5,000 meters, covers most of the province. The Río Grande of Jujuy cuts through the Quebrada de Humahuaca canyon, to the Southeast, the sierras descends to the Gran Chaco region. The vast difference in height and climate produces desert areas such as the Salinas Grandes salt mines, in spite of the different areas, the terrain of the province is mainly arid and semi-desertic, except for the El Ramal valley of the San Francisco River. Temperature difference between day and night is wider in higher lands, and precipitations are scarce outside the area of the San Francisco River. The Grande River and the San Francisco River flow to the Bermejo River, the San Juan, La Quiaca, Yavi and Sansana flow to the Pilcomayo River. Jujuys economy is underdeveloped, yet very diversified
5.
Radical Civic Union
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The Radical Civic Union is a centrist social-liberal political party in Argentina. The party has been ideologically heterogeneous, ranging from classical liberalism to social democracy, the UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina, for many years the party was either in opposition to Peronist governments or illegal during military rule. The UCRs main support comes from the middle class, throughout its history the party has stood for free elections, supremacy of civilians over the military and liberal democratic values. Especially during the 1970s and 1980s it was perceived as an advocate for human rights. By May 2014, the UCR had 42 Deputies and 14 Senators, the party was a breakaway from the Civic Union, which was led by Bartolomé Mitre and Leandro Alem. The party unsuccessfully led an attempt to force the departure of President Miguel Juárez Celman in the Revolution of the Park. Eventually a compromise was reached with Juárez Celmans government, hardliners who opposed this agreement founded the current UCR, led by Alems nephew, the young and charismatic Hipólito Yrigoyen. In 1893 and 1905 the party led unsuccessful revolutions to overthrow the government, as well as backing more popular participation, UCRs platform included promises to tackle the countrys social problems and eradicate poverty. The Radical Civic Union remained in power during the next 14 years, Yrigoyen was succeeded by Marcelo T. de Alvear in 1922 and again by himself in 1928. The first coup in Argentinas modern history occurred on September 6,1930 and it was only in 1958 that a faction of the party allied with banned Peronists came back to power, led by Arturo Frondizi. The growing tolerance of Frondizi towards his Peronist allies provoked unrest in the army, after a brief military government, presidential elections took place in 1963 with the Peronist Party banned. The outcome saw the candidate of the Peoples Radical Civic Union Arturo Illia coming first, although Argentina experienced during Illias presidency one of the most successful periods of history in terms of economic performance, the president was ousted by the army in June 1966. Illias peaceful and ordered style of governing - sometimes considered too slow, during the 1970s Peronist government, the Radical Civic Union was the second-most supported party, but this didnt actually grant the party the role of being the political opposition. In fact, the Peronist governments most important criticisms came from the same Peronist Party, the growing fight between left-wing and right-wing Peronists took the country into chaos and many UCR members were targeted by both factions. The subsequent coup in 1976 ended Peronist rule, during the military regime many members of the UCR were disappeared, as were members of other parties. Alfonsín was succeeded by Carlos Saúl Menem of the Peronist Justicialist Party, in 1997 the UCR participated in elections in coalition with Front for a Country in Solidarity, itself an alliance of many smaller parties. This strategy brought Fernando de la Rúa to the presidency in the 1999 elections, during major riots triggered by economic reforms implemented by the UCR government, President de la Rúa resigned and fled the country to prevent further turmoil
6.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
7.
Argentine Northwest
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The Argentine Northwest is a geographic and historical region of Argentina composed of the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, La Rioja, Salta, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán. The Argentine Northwest comprises very distinct biomes, or geographical and climatic regions, besides the Yungas jungle on the eastern fringe of the region, the only fertile lands are those near the river basins, which have been irrigated extensively. Across millennia the erosive forces of these rivers has created a multitude of red-rock canyons, such as the Quebrada de Humahuaca. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot and classified as subtropical, owing to its rugged topography, the region is climatically diverse, depending on the altitude, temperature and distribution of precipitation. Consequentially, the vegetation will differ at these different climate types, in general, the climate can be divided into 2 main types, a cold arid or semi-arid climate at the higher altitudes and warmer subtropical climate in the eastern parts of the region. The atmospheric circulation is controlled by the two semi–permanent South Atlantic and South Pacific highs, and a low pressure system east of the Andes. The movement of moist air into the region during the results in very high precipitation. Most of the moisture comes from the east since the Andes block any moisture from the Pacific Ocean, cold fronts that travel northwards to the region can produce precipitation during the summer months and is more prominent in the southern parts of the region. For example, in Tucuman Province, these fronts are responsible for 70% of the rainfall in that province. In contrast, during the months, the Chaco low attracts air masses from the South Pacific high, creating a dry. This effect is more prominent in the months, when the intensity of the cold is more stronger. This leads to enhanced precipitation in the form of thunderstorms during the summer months. At the highest altitudes, westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean can penetrate during the winter months, precipitation in the region is highly seasonal and is mostly concentrated in the summer months in which precipitation decreases from east to west. Precipitation is distributed irregularly owing to relief, as moist air reaches the eastern slopes of the mountains, this moist air raises up vertically, cooling adiabatically, leading to formation of clouds which generate copious amounts of rain. Eastern slopes of the mountains can receive between 1,000 to 1,500 mm of precipitation a year although some places can receive 2,500 mm of precipitation per year owing to orographic precipitation. In the south, the effect is enhanced by advancing cold fronts from the south. The high rainfall on these first slopes creates a jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges. Beyond the first slopes of the Andes into the valleys, the air descends vertically, warming adiabatically, in the temperate valleys, which include major cities such as Salta and Jujuy, they have average precipitation ranging between 500 to 1,000 mm
8.
Quebrada de Humahuaca
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The Quebrada de Humahuaca is a narrow mountain valley located in the province of Jujuy in northwest Argentina,1,649 km north of Buenos Aires. It is about 155 km long, oriented north-south, bordered by the Altiplano in the west and north, by the Sub-Andean hills in the east, the name quebrada translates as a deep valley or ravine. It receives its name from Humahuaca, a city of 11,000 inhabitants. The Grande River, which is dry in winter, flows copiously through the Quebrada in the summer, the region has always been a crossroads for economic, social and cultural communication. It has been populated for at least 10,000 years, since the settlement of the first hunter-gatherers, the Quebrada de Humahuaca was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 2 July 2003. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
9.
Census
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A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population, the term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses, other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. United Nations recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications, the word is of Latin origin, during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that kept track of all adult males fit for military service. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the level of detail but raise concerns about privacy. A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population, typically main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are used for research, business marketing, and planning. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling, similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions. In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide accurate information than attempts to get a population census. A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as its intent is to count everyone in a rather than a fraction. However, population censuses rely on a frame to count the population. This is the way to be sure that everyone has been included as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, the use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect data on the individuals in the nation. This process of sampling marks the difference between historical census, which was a house to house process or the product of a decree. The sampling frame used by census is almost always an address register, thus it is not known if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, as a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, a particular problem is what are termed communal establishments which category includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons etc
10.
Suburb
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
11.
National Route 9 (Argentina)
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The road is a limited access motorway from Buenos Aires to Rosario. Between the cities of San Nicolás de los Arroyos and Rosario, the section between Buenos Aires and the south of what it is today Cordoba Province, was shared with the Camino Real del Oeste which branched towards San Luis, Mendoza and Santiago. The road had a system of inns and establishments every 30–50 km where travellers could rest. After the coming of the railroad, in the half of the 19th Century. The first train from Buenos Aires arrived in the town of La Quiaca in Argentinas northern border with Bolivia on 30 December 1907, with the advent of the automobile, the Federal Government decided to build roads throughout the Republic. In 1936 the road from Buenos Aires to La Quiaca was named Ruta Nacional 9, in 1943 the road was open to traffic in its full length, even though most of it was unpaved. The road started competing against the railroad, taking passengers and cargo, the last passenger train to La Quiaca arrived on December 1993, and the last cargo train in July 1994. The Buenos Aires to Rosario section was paved by 27 December 1936, the work reached Córdoba on 5 June 1937. In 1939 access to Buenos Aires from Pilar was completed, passing through Campo de Mayo, in those days, the Buenos Aires - General Pacheco - Campana - Zárate section was part of National Route 12. This way they shortened the distance between the two most populous cities in Argentina. You can see in the map the new layout of National Route 9 in red. After the change of layout in 1979, the route was paved except for a short piece north of Humahuaca, in Jujuy Province. Works to finalize the route started in 1997 and were extended until 30 April 2004, the section passing through Greater Buenos Aires to the Port of Campana access road is part of Acceso Norte. The section between Avenida General Paz to the start of National Route 8 is named Autopista Pascual Palazzo, in 1943 the Dirección Nacional de Vialidad presented a plan for access to the city of Buenos Aires. Based on this plan, by the end of the work was started in what is known today as Acceso Norte to Buenos Aires. In 1971 the section Garín-Campana was opened, in 1977 the Campana-Zárate highway was opened, allowing access to the Zárate-Brazo Largo Bridge inaugurated that same year. In the year 1978 the section from San Nicolás de los Arroyos to Rosario was opened and this section is called Teniente General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. In 1987 the last section of highway was completed, between Campana and the Tala River
12.
La Quiaca
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La Quiaca is a small city in the north of the province of Jujuy, Argentina, on the southern bank of the La Quiaca River, opposite the town of Villazón, Bolivia. It lies at the end of National Route 9,289 km from San Salvador de Jujuy, La Quiaca has 14,751 inhabitants as per the 2001 census. It is the town of the Yaví Department, which includes also the towns of Barrios, Cangrejillos, El Cóndor, Pumahuasi. The area is serviced by an airport located at 22°09′02″S 65°34′39″W, La Quiaca is an approximate antipode to Hong Kong. It has all the amenities of a modern city and this city is one of the north of the Puna which has all the basic facilities for the convenience of tourists, one of the most important urban settlement in northern Argentina. In the country, this city is the reference to the northern end of the country, though in reality this distinction is held by the town of Salvador Mazza, or Pocitos. In 1985, after a national tour, the renowned composer León Gieco released a folk album called De Ushuaia a La Quiaca. In spite of its location within the tropics, because it is located at over 3,400 metres above sea level, La Quiaca has a cold semi-arid climate, with an annual precipitation of 334.6 mm. During winter months, temperatures during the day are cool, averaging 14.7 °C in July while the nights can get very cold, precipitation is rare during the winter months although snowfalls are possible. During the summer months, temperatures during the day are mild to warm, most of the precipitation that La Quiaca receives falls during the summer months. The city is sunny throughout the year, averaging 3410 hours of sunshine or 76. 9% of possible sunshine ranging from a low of 62. 5% in February to a high of 87. 5% in July. The highest temperature recorded was 28.8 °C on February 4,1998 while the lowest temperature was −15.2 °C, humahuaca Iruya Tilcara Purmamarca Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
13.
Salta
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Salta is a city located in the Lerma Valley, at 1,152 metres above sea level in the northwest part of Argentina. It is also the name for the city of Salta Province. Along with its area, it has a population of 619,000 inhabitants. It is situated in the Lerma Valley,1,152 metres above sea level, the weather is warm and dry, with annual averages of 756 mm of rainfall and an average temperature of 16.4 °C. January, February and march are the months with greatest rainfall, during the spring, Salta is occasionally plagued by severe, week-long dust storms. Nicknamed Salta la Linda, it has become a major tourist destination due to its old, colonial architecture, tourism friendliness, excellent weather and natural scenery of the valleys westward. Attractions in the city include the 18th century Cabildo, the neo-classical style Cathedral. Salta used to be the point of the Train to the Clouds. The Martín Miguel de Güemes Airport,6 kilometres southwest of the city, has flights to Buenos Aires, Tucumán, Jujuy, Córdoba, Iguazu, Rio de Janeiro. Salta was founded on April 16,1582 by the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Lerma, the origin of the name Salta is a matter of conjecture, with several theories being advanced to explain it. During the war of independence, the city became a commercial, Salta emerged from the War of Independence politically in disarray and financially bankrupt, a condition that lingered throughout much of the 19th century. Salta has a highland climate, and it is famous in Argentina for having very pleasant weather. Fall brings dry weather, pleasant days at around 22 °C, by winter, the dryness is extreme, with very few rain episodes. Nights are cold at 3 °C on average, but daytime heating allows for high temperatures of 19 °C, snow is rare and frost is quite common, with temperatures reaching down to −7 °C during the coldest nights. Spring brings sunny weather with warm days and cool nights, days range from 25 to 28 °C with nights between 10 to 14 °C, of the over 700 millimetres of rain that Salta receives yearly, over 80% falls between December and March, when thunderstorms occur almost daily. During the rest of the year, blue skies dominate the region, Salta receives 1863 hours of bright sunshine each year or about 5.1 hours per day. The highest recorded temperature was 39.9 °C on November 28,1972 while the lowest recorded temperature was −9.4 °C on August 5,1966, the city centre features a number of buildings dating back to the 18th and 19th and early 20th centuries. The Plaza is almost completely surrounded by a gallery, within walking distance of the 9th July Square are the Saint Francis Church and the citys three pedestrian streets, Alberdi, Florida and Caseros
14.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
15.
Tilcara
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San Francisco de Tilcara is a city in the province of Jujuy, Argentina, and the head town of the Tilcara Department. It had 5,640 inhabitants at the 2001 census, traces of human habitation in the area date back more than 10,000 years, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements of Argentina. Tilcara is located 84 km from the capital, San Salvador de Jujuy, beside National Route 9, at about 2,500 m above sea level. The area features dramatic mountainous landscapes and rich traditions, which make it a major tourist attraction in northwestern Argentina. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
16.
Humahuaca
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Humahuaca is a city in the province of Jujuy, Argentina. It has 11,369 inhabitants as per the 2001 census, the city is widely known for its location at the Quebrada de Humahuaca, a long valley east of the central Andean Altiplano. Humahuaca is located north of Tilcara and Purmamarca, in the valley of Quebrada de Humahuaca. Uña Ramos, compositor and Quena player, born in Humahuaca, Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina. San Francisco Solano de la Bendición Coord, geográficas + imágenes NASA, Google Verónico Cruz
17.
Calilegua National Park
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The Calilegua National Park is a federal protected area in Jujuy Province, Argentina. Established on 19 July 1979, it houses a representative sample of the Southern Andean Yungas biodiversity in good state of conservation, located at the Ledesma Department on the eastern slopes of the Calilegua hills. And with an area of 76,306 ha, it is the largest national park in the Argentine Northwest and this area was occupied a long time ago by native groups. Their settlements were located in the lower knoll, near the farming grasslands, the archaeological pieces and sites found in the park, such as pottery and polished stone axes, are related to the communities that inhabited the Yungas region. From the 15th century on, this territory was occupied by the Incas, at present, this region is inhabited by Kolla communities. The park has a landscape, which you can see when transiting the Provincial Route 83 that runs through it. Along the route, you see three different environments, the foothills, mountain forest and mountain woods, each with their own characteristic vegetation. The park is home to the jaguar, the largest South American predator, along with other cats like the jaguarundi, the ocelot, the puma, the largest mammal in the Yungas, the tapir, also inhabits the reserve. Calilegua National Park and nearby towns offer a range of activities. The park has a climate with a dry winter season. Mean temperatures fluctuate between 17 °C in winter to 28 °C in summer, summers are hot with temperatures reaching up to 40 °C. In contrast, occasional frosts can occur at the high altitudes, the park receives 1,800 mm of precipitation per year with most of it falling between November to April. During these months, rainfall is often intense, baritú National Park Administración de Parques Nacionales
18.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
19.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
20.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
21.
Ledesma S.A.A.I.
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Ledesma is a diversified agribusiness and manufacturing firm in Argentina. Its interests include food processing, fossil fuels, bioethanol production and his heirs established a sugar mill, powered with a steam engine, in 1876. The establishment, Ovejero Hermanos, was incorporated as Ingenio Ledesma in 1889, the term Ledesma is in honor of Martín de Ledesma y Valderrama, who established the first defensive fort in the San Francisco River valley around the middle of the 17th century. He became the namesake of the Ledesma River and the Ledesma Department, enrique Wollmann and Carlos Delcasse purchased the company in 1911, subsequently investing in technology and in increasing production capacity. Herminio Arrieta became president of the company in 1927 and he fostered the growth of the companys sugar business by increasing land area under production and adding two sugar mills. Arrieta also diversified the company, establishing a cellulose and paper plant based on insourced sugar cane fiber, the company was reincorporated under its present name in 1956. Dr. Carlos Pedro Blaquier became president of the company in 1970, blaquiers tenure was distinguished by a marked diversification in the company’s interests. His son, Alejandro Blaquier, succeeded him in 2007 and his tenure was highlighted by the inaugural of a bioethanol plant in 2010. Ledesma remains a leading Argentine agribusiness firm, with over 7,700 employees and its facilities include, Libertador General San Martín, Sugarcane plantations totaling 40,000 hectares res). Fruit packaging and fruit concentrate facilities, installed electricity generation capacity of over 51 Megawatts. Roads totaling 600 km and irrigation canals of 1,400 km, San Luis and Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Glucovil Argentina S. A. a maker of milled corn products for the food processing industry. Manufacture of notebooks, writing paper, and other school supplies, paper production totals 105,000 metric tons annually. Salta Province, Citrus orchards in Colonia Santa Rosa and a packaging plant, pampas, La Biznaga, La Bellaca, Magdala, and Centella estancias for the production of beef and cereal
22.
Tobacco
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Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae family, while more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world, Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco. They can be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco. Tobacco use is a factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word tabaco, the precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to either a roll of tobacco leaves or to tabago. Tobacco has long used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco, traditionally, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying ones thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in a known as Los Cigarrales named after the continuous plagues of cicadas. Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah. The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success, Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular, James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production
23.
Citrus
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Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops like oranges, lemons, grapefruit, pomelo, the most recent research indicates an origin in Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an area since ancient times. At various times, citrus plants were thought to be native to Asia, Europe, but the European oranges were originally brought from India at around the time of Alexander the Great, and the native oranges of Florida actually originated with the Spanish Conquistadors. The lemon reached Europe during the time of classical Rome, the generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as Citron or a conifer tree. It is somehow related to the ancient Greek word for cedar and this may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are known by the Romance loanword agrumes. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years, Citrus plants diverged from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, which was about when it diverged from the closely related severinia, for example the Chinese box orange. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts, the three original species in the citrus genus that have been hybridized into most modern commercial citrus fruit are the mandarin orange, pummelo, and citron. Within the last few years, all common citrus fruits were created by crossing those original species. Something similar has occurred with the array of chili peppers originating in the hybridization of a few initial species. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, apart from these four core citrus species, there are Australian limes and the recently discovered Mangshanyegan. Kumquats and Clymenia sp. are now considered to belong within the citrus genus. Trifoliate orange, which is used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the species of Oxanthera from New Caledonia should be transferred to the genus Citrus and these plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in corymbs, each flower 2–4 cm diameter, with five white petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is a hesperidium, a berry, globose to elongated, 4–30 cm long and 4–20 cm diameter. The outermost layer of the pericarp is a called the flavedo
24.
Quechua people
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The Quechua people are the indigenous peoples of South America who speak any of the Quechua languages. Most Quechua speakers live in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, the most common Quechua dialect is Southern Quechua. The Kichwa people of Ecuador speak the Kichwa dialect, in Colombia, the Quechua word for a Quechua speaker is runa or nuna, the plural is runakuna or nunakuna. Some historical Quechua peoples are, The Chanka people, who lived in the Huancavelica, Ayacucho, the Huanca people of the Junín Region of Peru, who spoke Quechua before the Incas did. The Inca, who established the largest empire of the pre-Columbian era, the Cañari of Ecuador, who adopted the Quechua language from the Inca. The Chincha, an extinct merchant kingdom of the Ica Region of Peru, have an only slight sense of common identity. The various Quechua dialects are in some cases so different that no mutual understanding is possible, Quechua was not only spoken by the Incas, but in some cases also by long-term enemies of the Inca Empire. These include the Huanca and the Chanka of Peru, and the Kañari in Ecuador, Quechua became Peru’s second official language in 1969 under the military regime of Juan Velasco Alvarado. An indication of this effort is the organization of the Kichwa peoples in Ecuador. Some Christian organizations also refer to a people, ” such as the Christian shortwave radio station HCJB. Some Quechua speakers claim that if nation states in Latin America had been following the European pattern, they should be a single. Despite their ethnic diversity and linguistic distinctions, the various Quechua ethnic groups have numerous cultural characteristics in common and they also share many of these with the Aymara, or other indigenous peoples of the central Andes. Traditionally, Quechua identity is locally oriented and inseparably linked in each case with the economic system. It is based on agriculture in the lower regions. The typical Andean community extends over several altitude ranges and thus includes the cultivation of a variety of arable crops and/or livestock, the land is usually owned by the local community and is either cultivated jointly or redistributed annually. Harsh conditions of exploitation led to revolts by the indigenous farmers. The largest of these revolts occurred 1780-1781 under the leadership of José Gabriel Kunturkanki, the agrarian reforms included the expropriation of large landowners. In Bolivia there was a redistribution of the land to the population as their private property
25.
Aymara people
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The Aymara or Aimara people are an indigenous nation in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America, about 1 million live in Bolivia, Peru and Chile. Their ancestors lived in the region for centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca in the late 15th or early 16th century. With the Spanish American Wars of Independence, the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia, after the War of the Pacific, Chile acquired territory occupied by the Aymaras. Archeologists have found evidence that the Aymaras have occupied the Andes, in what is now western Bolivia, southern Peru and northern Chile and their origin is a matter of scientific dispute. The region where Tiwanaku and the modern Aymaras are located, the Altiplano, was conquered by the Incas under Huayna Capac and it is most likely that the Inca had a strong influence over the Aymara region for some time. Though conquered by the Inca, the Aymaras retained some degree of autonomy under the empire, the Spanish later classified a number of ethnic groups as Aymara in their effort to identify the native peoples. These were identified by chieftainties and included the following, the Charqa, Qharaqhara, Quillaca, Asanaqui, Carangas, SivTaroyos, Haracapi, Pacajes, Lupacas, Soras, at the time of Spanish encounter, these groups were living throughout the territory now included in Bolivia. Linguists have learned that Aymara was once spoken much further north, most Andean linguists believe that it is likely that the Aymara originated or coalesced as a people in this area. The Aymaras overran and displaced the Uru, a population from the Lake Titicaca. The Uru lived in area as recently as the 1930s. Most present-day Aymara-speakers live in the Lake Titicaca basin, a territory from Lake Titicaca through the Desaguadero River and they are concentrated south of the lake. The capital of the ancient Aymara civilization is unknown, according to research by Cornell University anthropologist John Murra, there were at least seven different kingdoms. The capital of the Lupaqa Kingdom may be the city of Chucuito, the present urban center of the Aymara region may be El Alto, a 750, 000-person city near the Bolivian capital, La Paz. For most of the 20th century, the center of cosmopolitan Aymara culture mightve been Chuquiago Marka, Bolivias capital mightve had moved from Sucre to La Paz during the government of General Pando and during the Bolivian Civil War. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala, it consists of seven colors quilted together with diagonal stripes, the native language of the Aymaras is Aymara. Many of Aymaras speak Spanish as a language, when it is the predominant language in the areas where they live. The Aymara language has one surviving relative, spoken by a small and this language, whose two varieties are known as Jaqaru and Kawki, is of the same family as Aymara. Some linguists refer to language as Central Aymara
26.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
27.
Manuel Belgrano
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Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano, usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano, was an Argentine economist, lawyer, politician, and military leader. He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and created the Flag of Argentina and he is regarded as one of the main Libertadores of the country. Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires, the child of Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri. He came into contact with the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment while at university in Spain around the time of the French Revolution and this rejection led him to work towards a greater autonomy for his country from the Spanish colonial regime. He favoured the May Revolution, which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power on 25 May 1810 and he was elected as a voting member of the Primera Junta that took power after the ouster. As a delegate for the Junta, he led the ill-fated Paraguay campaign and his troops were defeated by Bernardo de Velasco at the battles of Campichuelo and Paraguarí. Though he was defeated, the initiated the chain of events that led to the Independence of Paraguay in May 1811. He retreated to the vicinity of Rosario, to fortify it against a possible royalist attack from the Eastern Band of the Uruguay River, while there, he created the flag of Argentina. The First Triumvirate did not approve the flag, but because of communications, Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later. His counter-offensive at the Battle of Tucumán resulted in a key strategic victory, by then, the Asamblea del Año XIII had approved the use of Belgranos flag as the national war flag. Belgrano then went on a mission to Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia to seek support for the revolutionary government. He returned in time to part in the Congress of Tucumán. He promoted the Inca plan to create a monarchy with an Inca descendant as Head of State. This proposal had the support of San Martín, Martín Miguel de Güemes, and many provincial delegates, the Congress of Tucumán approved the use of his flag as the national flag. When Buenos Aires was about to be invaded by José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López, he moved the Army southwards, Belgrano died of dropsy on 20 June 1820. His last words reportedly were, ¡Ay, Patria mía. Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on 3 June 1770, at his fathers house. It was located near the Santo Domingo convent, at Santo Domingo street, though the city was still rather small, the Belgranos lived at one of the wealthiest neighbourhoods. Manuel Belgrano was baptised at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral the following day, as he was born in the Americas he was considered a criollo, a social class below the Peninsulars
28.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
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Argentine Declaration of Independence
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What today is commonly referred as the Independence of Argentina was declared on July 9,1816 by the Congress of Tucumán. In reality, the congressmen who were assembled in Tucumán declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America, the Federal League Provinces, at war with the United Provinces, were not allowed into the Congress. At the same time, several provinces from the Upper Peru that would become part of present-day Bolivia, were represented at the Congress. The 1810 May Revolution followed the deposition of the Spanish king Ferdinand VII by the Napoleonic French, the revolution ended the authority of the Viceroy Cisneros and replaced it with the Primera Junta. When the Spanish monarchy resumed its functions in 1819, Spain was determined to control over its colonies in the Americas. Moreover, the royalists from Peru had been victorious at the battles of Sipe-Sipe, Huaqui, Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, in Upper Peru, on April 15,1815 a revolution ended the mandate of Carlos María de Alvear as Supreme Director and demanded that a General Congress be summoned. Delegate deputies, each representing 14,000 inhabitants, were sent from all the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to the sessions, however, the Federal League Provinces did not send delegates, the Argentine littoral Provinces, and the Eastern Province. The Congress was inaugurated in the city of Tucumán, with 33 deputies, the presidency of the Congress would be rotated monthly. Because the Congress had the freedom to choose topics to debate, the voting finally ended on July 9 with a declaration of independence. This was a concept that was also invoked by the other Spanish American declarations of independence, such as Venezuelas and Mexicos. The president of the Congress at the time was Francisco Narciso de Laprida, subsequent discussions centered on what form of government the emerging state should adopt. The house where the declaration was adopted has been rebuilt and is now a museum and monument, the House of Tucumán
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Salta Province
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Salta is a province of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the east clockwise Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, to the north it borders Bolivia and Paraguay and to the west lies Chile. The Atacamas lived in the Puna, and the Wichís, in the Chaco region, the first conquistador to venture into the area was Diego de Almagro in 1535, he was followed by Diego de Rojas. Hernando de Lerma founded San Felipe de Lerma in 1582, following orders of the viceroy Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa, by 1650, the city had around five hundred inhabitants. An intendency of Salta del Tucumán was created within the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, in 1774, San Ramón de La Nueva Orán was founded between Salta and Tarija. In 1783, in recognition of the importance of the city. The battle of Salta in 1813 freed the territory from Spain, gervasio de Posadas created the Province of Salta in 1814, containing the current provinces of Salta, Jujuy, and parts of southern Bolivia and northern Chile. Exploiting internal Argentine conflicts that arose after the Argentine Declaration of Independence, in 1834, Jujuy withdrew from Salta and became a separate province. The borders of Salta were further reduced in 1900, with the loss of Yacuiba to Bolivia. The National Government of Los Andes, constituted from the province in 1902 with a capital at San Antonio de los Cobres, was returned to Salta Province in 1943 as the Department of Los Andes. Antonio Alices painting, La muerte de Güemes, which received a Gold Medal at the Centenary Exposition, is on display at the offices of the Salta Provincial Government. The province is located in the zone and has a warm climate in general. The orientation of the Andes influences the distribution of precipitation within the province, the easternmost parts of the province have a semi-arid climate with a dry winter season. The mean annual temperature and precipitation are 20 °C and 500 millimetres, temperatures can reach up to 47 °C during summers, while they can fall down to −5 °C during winters. The first slopes of the Andes force the moist, easterly winds to rise, provoking very high condensation leading to the formation of clouds that generate copious amounts of rain. The eastern slopes of the mountains receive between 1,000 to 1,500 mm of precipitation a year, although some places receive up to 2,500 mm of precipitation annually owing to orographic precipitation. Most of the precipitation is concentrated in the summer, with winters being dry, the high rainfall on these first slopes creates a thick jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges, creating an area of great species diversity. At higher altitudes on these slopes, the climate is cooler and more humid, with the vegetation consisting of deciduous, between the high altitudes to the east and the low plains to the west lie the valleys
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1863 Jujuy earthquake
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The 1863 Jujuy earthquake took place in the province of Jujuy, Argentina on 14 January at about 11,00. It had a magnitude of 6.4 and its epicenter was at 23°36′S 65°00′W. This earthquake had an intensity of VIII on the Mercalli intensity scale. Its magnitude and duration made it exceptionally destructive, causing damage to the cathedral, the cabildo and precarious homes in San Salvador de Jujuy, List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica
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Central Northern Railway
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The Central Northern Railway was the first 1,000 mm railway built by the Argentine State Railway. Its aim was to extend the existing British-owned Central Argentine 5 ft 6 in railway from Córdoba to Tucuman, a Law promulgated in October 1868 destinated money collected from foreign trade and import taxes to the construction of a railway line between the Provinces of Córdoba and Jujuy. On 28 December 1876 the national government took over the running of the line, the line was the longest in South America with 547 km. A branch line from Frías to the city of Santiago del Estero was opened on 23 August 1884, and one from Recreo to Chumbicha was opened on 17 February 1886. This left the FCCN with only the 226 km section from Tucumán to Juramento which was extended to Güemes and from there branch lines were completed to Salta. The Central Northern only owned the Tucumán - Juramento section, the line continued expanding to North, first reaching Güemes with branches to Salta and Jujuy on January 31,1891. The acquisition included Colombres - Guzmán and Pacará - Río Salí branches, the company opened the Salta - Zuviría branch on October 8,1898. Two years later Pacará - Finca Elisa branch in Santiago del Estero Province was opened, in August 1901 the Finca Elisa - El Bracho line was opened in Tucumán Province. The FCCN also began to build a branch from Embarcación to Perico, reaching Ledesma in 1904, the first section of the line to Chile via Socompa from Empalme Cerrillos to Rosario de Lerma was completed on 27 August 1907. The section from Finca Elisa to El Bracho in Tucumán Province was opened in August 1901, on 17 January 1908 the section from Santa Fe to San Cristobal was opened and on 16 September 1909 the section from Las Cejas to Antilla was completed. The line from Bracho to Palá Palá was opened on 6 December 1909, in 1911 the service between Bandera and Los Juríes was opened and in 1912 between Quilmili to Gancedo and extended to Puerto Vilelas and to Tintina and Campo Gallo in 1914. The line from Rapelli to Betbeder was opened on 15 April 1915, from Naré a San Javier on 30 June 1915, the section from Formosa to Kilometre 100 was opened on 22 September 1910 and extended to Las Lomitas on 20 July 1915. The branch line from Pichanal to Orán was opened on 30 June 1915, the section between Talapampa and Alemania was opened on 7 October 1919. On 11 October 1909 the rail network built by the state-owned company Ferrocarril Argentino del Norte was taken over by the CNR, a branch line from Dean Funes to Laguna Paiva was completed on 21 December 1912. Branch from La Puerta to Alta Córdoba was opened in 1931, during those years more than 112 km of tracks were built. After the World War I Juan Quijano encouraged the creation of a 0,750 mm railway for forest, the line was built by the Argentine State for the Compañía Ganadera y Forestal. It was named ramal El Zapallar with a junction in Lapachito on the Resistencia - Jujuy line, the company bought some Henschel & Son locomotives for the line, that had an extension of 75 km. This line would be taken over by the Argentine State Railway in 1944, in 1938, the Córdoba Central Railway was taken over by the Argentine state, being added to the FCCN network
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National University of Jujuy
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The National University of Jujuy is an Argentine national university, situated in the city of San Salvador de Jujuy, capital of Jujuy Province. Its presursor, the Instituto Superior de Ciencias Económicas, was established by Governor Horacio Guzmán in 1959, the university maintains sixteen schools and five institutes, the latter of which are specialized in mining, geology, and zoology. It also operates an FM radio station, UNJu, and a publisher, science and Education in Argentina Argentine Higher Education Official Site Argentine Universities
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Argentine cinema
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Cinema of Argentina refers to the film industry based in Argentina. The Argentine cinema comprises the art of film and creative movies made within the nation of Argentina or by Argentine filmmakers abroad, the Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in Latin American cinema, along with those produced in Mexico and Brazil. Argentina has won fourteen Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film and it is also the only Latin American country that has won Academy Awards, in recognition of the films The Official Story and The Secret in Their Eyes. In 1896, French photographer Eugene Py was working for the Belgian Henri Lepage and the Austrian Max Glücksmann at the Casa Lepage, the three all saw the debut of the Lumière Cinématographe in Argentina, with a picture of the Lumiéres, took place on July 18,1896. At the Teatro Odéon, only a year after its debut in Paris, several Argentine artists continued to experime with the new invention, making news shorts and documentaries. Eugenio A. Cardini filmed Escenas Callejeras and Mario Gallo made the first Argentine film with a point-of-view, other directors such as Ernesto Gunche directed early documentaries. The Argentine history and literature provided the themes of the first years of film-making, one of the first successes of the national cinema was Nobleza Gaucha of 1915, inspired by Martín Fierro, the gaucho poem by José Hernández. Another notable 1917 debut, for Francisco Defilippis Novoas Flor de durazno, was Carlos Gardel. Directors such as José A. Ferreyra began to work on producing films in Argentine cinema, releasing films such as Palomas rubias, La Gaucha and Buenos Aires, ciudad de ensueño in 1922. In 1926, Ferreyra released La Vuelta al Bulín, La Costurerita que dio aquel mal paso and Muchachita de Chiclana followed by Perdón, many of these Ferreyra films featured two of the decades most popular stars, Alvaro Escobar and Elena Guido. Towards the end of the decade, directors such as Julio Irigoyen began to release such as Alma en pena in 1928. Films such as these began to feature the Argentine culture of tango dancing into films, List of Argentine films, 1930s In 1930, Adiós Argentina became the first Argentine film to have a soundtrack. The film starred actresses such as Libertad Lamarque and Ada Cornaro who both debuted in the film, in 1931, José A. Ferreyra directed Muñequitas porteñas, the first Argentine film to be made with Vitaphone sound synchronisation. That year, Ferreyra made a sound film, El Cantar de mi ciudad. Movietone arrived in 1933 and it allowed both voice and music in motion pictures, two such features which have endured in local culture are Honeysuckle, starring Libertad Lamarque and Casamiento en Buenos Aires, starring Niní Marshall. The two 1939 films each featured themes that have become Argentine musical standards, likewise immortalizing the two leading ladies. Manuel Romero was a prominent director of the mid-to-late 1930s and worked in comedy based films often with rising Argentine star Luis Sandrini in films such as Don Quijote del altillo. The film industry in Argentina reached a pinnacle in the late 1930s and 1940s when an average of forty-two films were produced annually, the films usually included tango, but even when a tango theme was omitted most cinema from this period still included humble heroes and wealthy villains
Argentina
Jujuy
