1.
Ferdinando Fuga
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Ferdinando Fuga was an Italian architect, born in Florence, known for his work in Rome and Naples. Much of his work was in Rome, notably, the Palazzo della Consulta at the Quirinal, the Palazzo Corsini, the façade of the Santa Maria Maggiore. He later moved to Naples and notably designed the Albergo dePoveri, the façade of the Chiesa dei Gerolomini, after studying under Giovanni Battista Foggini, Fuga settled in Rome in 1718. Fuga also travelled to Palermo in 1729-1730 in connection with a bridge over the Milicia. After his return to Rome, he was nominated as the architect of the palaces by his Florentine countryman Pope Clement XII Corsini. Fugas masterwork is the palazzo-like screening facade he erected in front of the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, a similar project, as if it were a dry run for the greater project, is the facade he provided for Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. In both cases, care was not to mar the mosaics of the medieval fronts that still lie behind Fugas screens. Fuga ordered the two-storey facade with a piano nobile whose windows have low arched heads set in fielded panels, on the lower storey, the panels have channeled rustication and rusticated quoins at the corners. Pilasters are applied only to the central block, which barely projects. Fuga was himself a member of this confraternity which possessed its own coemeterium on the banks of the Tiber behind, the previous church of 1575 was demolished in 1733, and Fuga gave the new one an elliptical plan under an elliptical dome. Skulls wreathed with laurel serve as brackets for the pediment of the door, after Christinas death in 1689, her sculpture gallery and her library were emptied. Fuga was called in to pull together the 15th and 16th-century amenagements for the Corsini brothers, Fuga worked on the garden front of the palazzo, beginning with work on the library wing for Neri Corsini. Then the two were linked with a ground-floor portico, in the interiors, fuga managed in innovative ways to maintain a separation of the functional service circulation from the suites of parade rooms. The church of SantApollinare was another commission and he completed the Palazzo del Quirinale and the adjoining building housing the Segretario delle Cifre and the extended new wing. In 1748, he was called to Naples along with a team under Luigi Vanvitelli, to work for the new Bourbon King of Naples Charles III, King of the Two Sicilies. The immediate part of the planning involved, for example. It was intended as a hospice to shelter 8,000 poor from all over the kingdom, but especially the people of Naples. Fugas final design, centered on a church, devoted one courtyard to each of the intended social classes— men, women, boys
2.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
3.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
4.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
5.
Ecclesiastical district
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The particular churches and liturgical rites of the Catholic Church are closely related yet distinct. The term church refers to an ordered assembly of the faithful, whereas the term rite refers to a liturgical, theological. Therefore, even though particular churches and liturgical rites are often closely interrelated, in Catholic canon law, a particular church is an ecclesiastical community headed by a bishop or someone recognised as the equivalent of a bishop. There are two kinds of churches, Autonomous particular church or Church sui iuris, In this context the descriptors autonomous and sui iuris are synonymous. These are aggregations of local churches that share a specific liturgical, theological and canonical tradition. They have also called particular Churches or rites. The largest such autonomous particular church is the Latin Church, the other 23 are referred to collectively as the Eastern Catholic Churches, headed by bishops who have the title and rank of Patriarch or Major Archbishop. In Catholic ecclesiology, a church is an assembly of the faithful, hierarchically ordered, to be a sacrament of the Mystical Body of Christ in the world, a church must have both a head and members. The sacramental sign of Christ the head is the sacred hierarchy – the bishops, priests, more specifically, it is the local bishop, with his priests and deacons gathered around and assisting him in his office of teaching, sanctifying and governing. Thus, the church is fully present sacramentally wherever there is a sign of Christ the head, a bishop and those who assist him, each diocese is therefore considered a particular church. In this sense of church, the list of churches in the Catholic Church has only one member, within the Catholic Church there are local particular churches, of which dioceses are the most familiar form. Other forms include territorial abbacies, apostolic vicariates and apostolic prefectures, the Code of Canon Law states, Particular Churches, in which and from which the one and only Catholic Church exists, are principally dioceses. A list of Catholic dioceses, of which on 31 December 2011 there were 2,834, is given at List of Catholic dioceses and these are known as autonomous churches. There are 24 such autonomous Catholic churches, One Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, although each of them has its own specific heritage, they are all in full communion with the Pope in Rome. For the particular churches within the Catholic Church, whether autonomous ritual churches or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches, theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place or for a particular community of the one, whole Catholic Church. It is in these and formed out of them that the one, there are 24 autonomous churches, one Latin Church and twenty-three Eastern Catholic Churches, a distinction by now more historical than geographical. The term sui iuris means, literally, of its own law, although all of the particular churches espouse the same beliefs and faith, their distinction lies in their varied expression of that faith through their traditions, disciplines, and canon law. All are in communion with the Holy See, for this kind of particular church, the 1983 Code of Canon Law uses the unambiguous phrase autonomous ritual Church
6.
Gualtiero Bassetti
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Gualtiero Bassetti is an Italian archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church. He attended the minor and major seminary of the archdiocese of Florence and was ordained a priest on 29 June 1966 in Florence and he served as vicar in the parish of St. Michael in San Salvi. In 1968 he became assistant at the seminary of Florence. Seven years later, he was appointed rector of the major seminary of Florence. He served there for 11 years and was then appointed pro-vicar and vicar general of the archdiocese, on 9 July 1994 he was appointed bishop of Massa Marittima-Piombino and consecrated on 8 September 1994 by Cardinal Silvano Piovanelli, Archbishop of Florence. He was named bishop of Arezzo on 21 November 1998 and he was named the archbishop of Perugia-Città della Pieve on 16 July 2009. He was elected head of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Umbria in 2012 and is deputy president of the Italian Episcopal Conference, on 22 February 2014, the archbishop, along with 18 others, was inducted into the College of Cardinals by Pope Francis. Bassetti commented in response to his nomination, My aims have not changed, I want to visit factories and hospitals, because as the Pope says, we must be pastors with the odor of sheep. This is the time to roll our sleeves back and he also praised the Popes nomination of Archbishop Loris Capovilla as a direct reference the Second Vatican Council. La Stampa called it a surprise nomination and it was the first time a bishop of Perugia had been named a cardinal since Gioacchino Pecci in 1853. His selection was seen, according to John L. Allen, as a demonstration of Francis preference for traditionally neglected locales, another observer described him as instantly papabile, a man cut from the same cloth as Francis. Giovanni Paciullo, Rector of the University for Foreign Students of Perugia, called the nomination a tribute to Bassettis constant concern for the least, the excluded, which brought him into the paths of marginalization and suffering. Bassetti has been praised by traditionalists for being a proponent of the traditional Tridentine Latin mass. Pope Francis named him a member of Congregation for Bishops, Congregation for the Clergy, Cardinals created by Francis Gualtiero Bassetti Christmas sermon,2013
7.
Church (building)
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A church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for Christian religious activities, particularly worship services. The term in its sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious buildings. In traditional Christian architecture, the church is arranged in the shape of a Christian cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle, towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. The earliest identified Christian church was a church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, a cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. In standard Greek usage, the word ecclesia was retained to signify both a specific edifice of Christian worship, and the overall community of the faithful. This usage was retained in Latin and the languages derived from Latin, as well as in the Celtic languages. In the Germanic and some Slavic languages, the word kyriak-ós/-ē/-ón was adopted instead, in Old English the sequence of derivation started as cirice, then churche, and eventually church in its current pronunciation. German Kirche, Scottish kirk, Russian церковь, etc. are all similarly derived, according to the New Testament, the earliest Christians did not build church buildings. Instead, they gathered in homes or in Jewish worship places like the Second Temple or synagogues, the earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church, the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, in addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain, a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross. These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing. The Latin word basilica was used to describe a Roman public building
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Churches of Rome
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There are more than 900 churches in Rome, including some notable Roman Catholic Marian churches. Most, but not all, of these are Roman Catholic, the first churches of Rome originated in places where Christians met. Peters, Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, only the tituli were allowed to distribute sacraments. The most important priest in a titulus was given the name of Cardinal, Pope Marcellus I confirmed that the tituli were the only centres of administration in the Church. Peters Basilica were referred to as the seven cardinals of S. Peters, the four basilicas had no cardinal, since they were under the direct supervision of the Pope. The Basilica of St. John Lateran was also the seat of the bishop of Rome, in the Great Jubilee in 2000, the seventh church was instead Santuario della Madonna del Divino Amore as appointed by Pope John Paul II. This is a list of churches of Rome cited in Wikipedia articles or with related files on Wikimedia Commons, the churches are grouped according to the time of their initial construction, the dates are those of the first record of each church. The reader, however, should not expect the current fabric of the buildings to reflect that age, almost all the churches will thus appear considerably more recent, and as a patchwork of periods and styles. A number of interesting churches are now closed, it must be noted, except on special occasions and these include, Santa Balbina, Santi Nereo e Achilleo, San Cesareo in Palatio and SantUrbano. Architecture of Rome Religion in Rome Kehr, Paul Fridolin, Rome of the Pilgrims and Martyrs, A Study in the Martyrologies, Itineraries, Syllogae, & Other Contemporary Documents. Le chiese di Roma nel medio evo, cataloghi ed appvnti, H. W. Klewitz, Die Entstehung des Kardinalskollegiums, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Krautheimer, R. Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romae, vol, cardinalis, The History of a Canonical Concept. A Catholics Guide to Rome, Discovering the Soul of the Eternal City, thayers Churches of Rome, including the books by Christian Huelsen, Mariano Armellini, and Filippo Titi Clarkes Churches of Rome Map of titular churches
9.
Trastevere
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Trastevere is the 13th rione of Rome, on the west bank of the Tiber, south of Vatican City, and within Municipio I. Its name comes from the Latin trans Tiberim, meaning literally beyond the Tiber and its logo is a golden head of a lion on a red background, the meaning of which is uncertain. To the north, Trastevere borders the XIV rione, Borgo, in Romes Regal period, the area across the Tiber belonged to the hostile Etruscans, the Romans named it Ripa Etrusca. Rome conquered it to control of and access to the river from both banks, but was not interested in building on that side of the river. In fact, the connection between Trastevere and the rest of the city was a small wooden bridge called the Pons Sublicius. By the time of the Republic c.509 BC, the number of sailors and fishermen making a living from the river had increased, immigrants from the East also settled there, mainly Jews and Syrians. The area began to be considered part of the city under Augustus, since the end of the Roman Republic the quarter was also the center of an important Jewish community, which inhabited there until the end of the Middle Ages. With the wealth of the Imperial Age, several important figures decided to build their villae in Trastevere, including Clodia, and Julius Caesar. The regio included two of the most ancient churches in Rome, the Titulus Callixti, later called the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, and the Titulus Cecilae, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. In the Middle Ages Trastevere had narrow, winding, irregular streets, moreover, at the end of the 15th century these mignani were removed. Nevertheless, Trastevere remained a maze of narrow streets, there was a strong contrast between the large, opulent houses of the upper classes and the small, dilapidated houses of the poor. The streets had no pavement until the time of Sixtus IV at the end of the 15th century, at first bricks were used, but these were later replaced by sampietrini, which were more suitable for carriages. In 1744 Benedict XIV modified the borders of the rioni, giving Trastevere its modern limits, nowadays, Trastevere maintains its character thanks to its narrow cobbled streets lined by ancient houses. At night, natives and tourists flock to its many pubs and restaurants. The unique character of this neighborhood has attracted artists, foreign expats, in the sixties and seventies, the American musicians/composers Frederic Rzewski and Richard Teitelbaum, of the group Musica Elettronica Viva, lived in Via della Luce. Sergio Leone, the director of Spaghetti Westerns, grew up in Viale Glorioso, ennio Morricone, the film music composer, went to the same school, and for one year was in the same class as Sergio Leone. Public libraries in Trastevere include Casa della Memoria e della Storia
10.
Rioni of Rome
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A rione of Rome is a traditional administrative division of the city of Rome. Rione is an Italian term used since the 14th century to name a district of a town, the term was born in Rome, originating from the administrative divisions of the city. The word comes from the Latin word regio, during the Middle Ages the Latin word became rejones, currently, all the rioni are located in Municipio I of Rome. According to tradition, Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, first divided the city into regiones, all but Transtiberim were on the left bank of the river Tiber. During the 12th century a division in 12 parts started being used, though not officially, even if the areas were different from the ancient ones, they still used the same name, regio in Latin and rione in the vulgar language. The limits of the rioni became more definitive and official in the 13th century, their number increased to 13, in this period, anyway, the limits were quite uncertain. The rione was not an entity, but only an administrative one. The chief of a rione was the Caporione, during the Renaissance there was a deep reorganization and expansion of the city, so it became necessary to delimit the rioni exactly. In 1586 Sixtus V added to the 13 rioni another one, Borgo and this situation, thanks to the low population increase, did not change until the 19th century. In 1744 Pope Benedict XIV, because of frequent misunderstanding, decided to replan the administrative division of Rome, the marble plates defining the borders of each rione, many of which still exist, were installed in that year on the facades of houses lying at each riones border. So the smaller rioni were united to the large ones, at this time the French affixed in each street a plate with its name and the areas it belonged to. After Napoleon lost his power there were no significant changes in the organization of the city until Rome became the capital of the newborn Italy, the needs of the new capital caused a great urbanization and an increase of the population, both within the Aurelian walls and outside them. In 1874 the rioni became 15, with the addition of Esquilino, at the beginning of the 20th century some rioni started being split up and the first parts outside the Aurelian walls started being considered part of the city. In 1921 the number of the rioni increased to 22, Prati was the last rione to be established and the only one outside the walls of Urbanus VIII. The latest reform, which is still valid, was made in 1972, Rome was divided in 20 circoscrizioni and 20 rioni constituted the first one. The two remaining, Borgo and Prati, belonged to the XVIIth municipality until 2013, since then they belong too to the first Municipio. Media related to Districts of Rome at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Saint Cecilia
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Saint Cecilia is the patroness of musicians. It is written that as the musicians played at her wedding she sang in her heart to the Lord and her feast day is celebrated in the Latin Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox churches on November 22. She is one of seven women, excluding the Blessed Virgin, while the details of her story appear to be fictional, her existence and martyrdom are considered a historical fact. She is said to have been beheaded with a sword, an early Roman Christian church, Santa Cecilia, was founded in the fourth century in the Trastevere section of Rome, reputedly on the site of the house in which she lived. A number of compositions are dedicated to her, and her feast day, November 22, became the occasion for concerts. St. Cecilia is one of the most famous of the Roman martyrs, according to Johann Peter Kirsch, while it is a pious romance, like so many others compiled in the fifth and sixth century, the existence of the martyrs, however, is a historical fact. The relation between St. Cecilia and Valerianus, Tiburtius, and Maximus, mentioned in the Acts of the Martyrs, has some historical foundation. Her feast day has been celebrated since about the fourth century, the research of Giovanni Battista de Rossi agrees with the statement of Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers, that she perished in Sicily under Emperor Marcus Aurelius between 176 and 180. According to the story, despite her vow of virginity, she was forced by her parents to marry a nobleman named Valerian. During the wedding, Cecilia sat apart singing to God in her heart, when Valerian asked to see the angel, Cecilia replied that he could if he would go to the third milestone on the Via Appia and be baptized by Pope Urban I. After following Cecilias advice, he saw the angel standing beside her, the martyrdom of Cecilia is said to have followed that of her husband Valerian and his brother at the hands of the prefect Turcius Almachius. The legend about Cecilia’s death says that after being three times on the neck with a sword, she lived for three days, and asked the pope to convert her home into a church. Cecilia was buried at the Catacombs of St. Callistus, in 1599, her body was found still incorrupt, seeming to be asleep. There is no mention of Cecilia in the Depositio Martyrum, but there is a record of an early Roman church founded by a lady of this name, the church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is reputedly built on the site of the house in which she lived. The original church was constructed in the century, during the ninth century. In 1599, while leading a renovation of the church, Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrati had the remains, the name Cecilia was shared by all women of the Roman gens known as the Caecilii, whose name may be related to the root of caecus. Legends and hagiographies, mistaking it for a name, suggest fanciful etymologies. The first record of a festival in her honor was held at Évreux in Normandy in 1570
12.
Pope Urban I
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Pope Urban I was Bishop of Rome or pope from 222 to 23 May 230. He was born in Rome and succeeded Pope Callixtus I, who had been martyred and it was previously believed for centuries that Urban I was also martyred. However, recent historical discoveries now lead scholars to believe that he died of natural causes, much of Urbans life is shrouded in mystery, leading to many myths and misconceptions. Despite the lack of sources he is the first Pope whose reign can be definitely dated, two prominent sources do exist for Urbans pontificate, Eusebius history of the early Church and also an inscription in the Coemeterium Callisti which names the Pope. Urban ascended to the Chair of Saint Peter in the year of the Roman Emperor Elagabalus assassination and it is believed that Urbans pontificate was during a peaceful time for Christians in the Empire as Severus did not promote the persecution of Christianity. Urban is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church and it is believed that the schismatic Hippolytus was still leading a rival Christian Congregation in Rome, and that he published the Philosophumena, an attack on Pope Urbans predecessor Callixtus. Urban is said to have maintained the policy of Callixtus when dealing with the schismatic party. Due to the freedoms the Christian community had during Severus reign the Church in Rome grew. It had been believed that he was buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati where a tomb was inscribed with his name, however, when excavating the Catacomb of Callixtus Italian archaeologist Giovanni de Rossi uncovered the lid of a sarcophagus which suggested that Pope Urban was in fact buried there. De Rossi also found a list of martyrs and confessors who were buried at St. Callistus, de Rossi therefore concluded that the Urban buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati was another bishop and Pope Urban was located in Catacomb of St. Callistus. Therefore, it is possible that Pope Urban is indeed buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati, as no contemporary accounts of Urbans pontificate exist there have been many legends and acts attributed to him which are fictitious or difficult to ascertain the factual nature of. The legendary Acts of St. Cecilia and the Liber Pontificalis both contain information on Urban, although of doubtable accuracy, chaucer had him a character in his Second Nuns Tale in the Canterbury Tales. A story that was included in the Catholic Churchs Breviary states that Saint Urban had many converts among whom were Tiburtius and his brother Valerianus. Tradition credits Saint Urban with the miracle of toppling an idol through prayer and this event is believed to have led to Saint Urban being beaten and tortured before being sentenced to death by beheading. A further belief, now known as an invention from the century, was that Urban had ordered the making of silver liturgical vessels. Urban is found in pieces of artwork usually in one of two forms. Often he is found sitting wearing the Papal Tiara, Papal robes, otherwise Urban may be portrayed wearing Papal garb and a Bishops Mitre while holding a bible and a bunch of grapes. An image of Pope Saint Urbanus is on a 12th-century fresco at Chalivoy-Milon in the Berry Art Gallery, other less common depictions of Pope Urban are, after his beheading, with the papal tiara near him
13.
Severus Alexander
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Severus Alexander was Roman Emperor from 222 to 235 and the last emperor of the Severan dynasty. He and his cousin were both grandsons of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa, who had arranged for Elagabalus acclamation as emperor by the famous Third Gallic Legion and it was the rumor of Alexanders death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother. As emperor, Alexanders peace time reign was prosperous, however, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids, but when campaigning against Germanic tribes, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman Army and led to a conspiracy to assassinate, under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state. He employed noted jurists to oversee the administration of justice, such as the famous jurist Ulpian and his advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and it is claimed that he created a select board of 16 senators, although this claim is disputed. He also created a council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome. The following year he decreased the amount of metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity. In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind and it is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll, in legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, Alexander also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills. On the whole, Alexanders reign was prosperous until the rise, in the east, of the war that followed there are various accounts. Making Antioch his base, he marched at the head of his troops towards Ctesiphon, but an army was destroyed by the Persians. Nevertheless, although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed a lack of discipline. In 232 there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, who proclaimed Taurinus emperor, Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233, after the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with the famous Origen, one of the greatest Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexanders mother, Julia Mammaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity, while Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexanders success in the Persian war, in A. D234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that even caused panic at the gates of Rome
14.
Baptistery
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In Christian architecture the baptistery or baptistry is the separate centrally planned structure surrounding the baptismal font. The baptistery may be incorporated within the body of a church or cathedral, in the early Church, the catechumens were instructed and the sacrament of baptism was administered in the baptistery. The sacramental importance and sometimes architectural splendor of the baptistery reflect the importance of baptism to Christians. The octagonal plan of the Lateran Baptistery, the first structure built as a baptistery, provided a widely followed model. In a narthex or anteroom the catechumens were instructed and made their confession of faith before baptism, the main interior space centered upon the baptismal font, in which those to be baptized were immersed thrice. Three steps led down to the floor of the font, the iconography of frescos or mosaics on the walls were commonly of the scenes in the life of Saint John the Baptist. The font was at first always of stone, but latterly metals were often used, the Lateran baptisterys font was fed by a natural spring. When the site had been the dwelling of the Laterani, before Constantine presented it to Bishop Miltiades. It will be quickly apprehended that as the requirements for Christian baptisteries expanded, there are also examples of the transition from miraculous springs to baptisteries from Gregory of Tours and Maximus, bishop of Turin. Baptisteries belong to a period of the church when great numbers of adult catechumens were baptized, after the 9th century, with infant baptism increasingly the rule, few baptisteries were built. Some of the older baptisteries were very large, so large that we hear of councils, during the months when there were no baptisms the baptistery doors were sealed with the bishops seal, a method of controlling the orthodoxy of all baptism in the diocese. Some baptisteries were divided into two parts to separate the sexes, sometimes the church had two baptisteries, one for each sex, a fireplace was often provided to warm the neophytes after immersion. Though baptisteries were forbidden to be used as burial-places by the Council of Auxerre they were not uncommonly used as such, the Florentine Antipope John XXIII was buried in the Baptistery facing Florences Duomo with great ceremony and a tomb erected. Many of the archbishops of Canterbury were buried in the baptistery at Canterbury. Baptisteries, we find from the records of early councils, were first built, as soon as Christianity made such progress that baptism became the rule, and as soon as immersion gave place to sprinkling, the ancient baptisteries were no longer necessary. They are still in use, however, in Florence. The baptistery of the Lateran must be the earliest ecclesiastical building still in use, a large part of it remains as built by Constantine. Attached to one side, towards the Lateran basilica, is a porch with two noble porphyry columns and richly carved capitals, bases and entablatures
15.
Pope Symmachus
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Pope Symmachus was Pope from 22 November 498 to his death in 514. His tenure was marked by a serious schism over who was elected pope by the citizens of Rome. Symmachus was baptized in Rome, where he became Archdeacon of the Roman Church under Pope Anastasius II, Symmachus was elected pope on 22 November 498 in the Constantinian basilica. Both factions agreed to allow the Gothic King Theodoric the Great to arbitrate and he ruled that the one who was elected first and whose supporters were the most numerous should be recognized as pope. This was a political decision. An investigation favored Symmachus and his election was recognized as proper, Symmachus proceeded to call a synod, to be held at Rome on 1 March 499, which was attended by 72 bishops and all of the Roman clergy. Afterwards he was assigned the diocesis of Nuceria in Campania, in 501, the Senator Rufius Postumius Festus, a supporter of Laurentius, accused Symmachus of various crimes. The initial charge was that Symmachus celebrated Easter on the wrong date, the king Theodoric summoned him to Ariminum to respond to the charge. The pope arrived only to discover a number of charges, including unchastity. Symmachus panicked, fleeing from Ariminum in the middle of the night only one companion. His flight proved to be a miscalculation, as it was regarded as an admission of guilt, Laurentius was brought back to Rome by his supporters, but a sizeable group of the clergy, including most of the most senior clerics, withdrew from communion with him. A visiting bishop, Peter of Altinum, was appointed by Theodoric to celebrate Easter 502 and assume the administration of the See, pending the decision of a synod to be convened following Easter. Presided over by the other Italian metropolitans, Peter II of Ravenna, Laurentius of Milan, and Marcellianus of Aquileia, although the majority of the assembled bishops agreed with this, the Apostolic Visitor could not be made to withdaw without Theodorics permission, this was not forthcoming. In response to this deadlock, rioting by the citizens of Rome increased, causing a number of bishops to flee Rome, King Theodoric refused their request to move the Synod, ordering them instead to reconvene on 1 September. On 27 August the King wrote to the Bishops that he was sending two of the Majores Domus nostrae, Gudila and Bedeulphus, to see to it that the Synod assembled in safety, upon reconvening, matters were no less acrimonious. Symmachus retreated to St. Peters and refused to come out, the Life of Symmachus, however, presents these killings as part of the street-fighting between the supporters of Senators Festus and Probinus on the one side, and Senator Faustus on the other. The attacks were directed particularly against clerics, including Dignissimus a priest of S. Pietro in Vinculis, giovanni e Paolo, though the rhetoric of the passage extends the violence to anyone who was a supporter of Symmachus, man or woman, cleric or layperson. It was unsafe for a cleric to walk about in Rome at night, at this point, the synod petitioned king Theodoric once again, asking permission to dissolve the meeting and return home
16.
Pope Vigilius
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Pope Vigilius was Pope from 29 March 537 to his death in 555. He is considered the first pope of the Byzantine Papacy and he belonged to an aristocratic Roman family, his father Johannes is identified as a consul in the Liber pontificalis, having received that title from the emperor. According to Procopius, his brother Reparatus was one of the senators taken hostage by Witigis, but managed to escape before the Ostrogothic king ordered their slaughter in 537. Vigilius entered the service of the Roman Church and was ordained a deacon in 531, Vigilius was chosen by Pope Boniface II as his successor and presented to the clergy assembled in St. Peters Basilica. The opposition to such a procedure led Boniface in the year to withdraw his designation of a successor. The second successor of Boniface, Pope Agapetus I, appointed Vigilius papal representative at Constantinople, Vigilius is said to have agreed to the plans of the intriguing empress who promised him the Papal See and a large sum of money. While Vigilius was in Constantinople, Pope Agapetus died on 22 April 536, soon after Silverius was ordained, the Byzantine general Belisarius occupied Rome, which was then besieged by the Goths. Although the Goths were unable to encircle the city completely, both the Byzantine soldiers and the inhabitants feared they would be destroyed. Soon after the siege began, for example, Belisarius ordered the women, children, around the same time, Silverius was accused of offering to betray Rome to the Goths. Belisarius had him deposed, put in a habit and exiled to Greece. Several other senators were also banished from Rome on the same charges, what part Vigilius played in the deposition of Silverius is unclear in the primary sources. Procopius, on the hand, states that Belisarius appointed Vigilius shortly after Silverius was deposed. It is certain that Vigilius was consecrated and enthroned Pope on 29 March 537, after the death of his predecessor Vigilius was recognized as pope by all the Roman clergy, even though the manner of his elevation was not regular. Empress Theodora soon learned that she had been deceived, after Vigilius had attained the object of his ambition and been made pope, he maintained the same position as his predecessor against the Monophysites and the deposed Anthimus. A letter purported to be from the pope to the deposed Monophysite patriarchs Anthimus, Severus and this letter, however, is not regarded as genuine by most investigators and bears all the marks of forgery. The pope did not restore Anthimus to his office, in the year 540 Vigilius took a stand in regard to Monophysitism, in two letters sent to Constantinople. One of the letters is addressed to Emperor Justinian, the other to the Patriarch Menas, in both letters the pope supports positively the Synods of Ephesus and Chalcedon, the decisions of his predecessor Pope Leo I, and the deposition of the Patriarch Anthimus. Several other letters written by the pope in the first years of his pontificate give information respecting his interposition in the affairs of various countries
17.
Theodora (6th century)
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Theodora was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian I. She was one of the most influential and powerful of the Byzantine empresses, some sources mention her as empress regnant with Justinian I as her co-regent. Along with her husband, she is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the main historical sources for her life are the works of her contemporary Procopius. The historian offered three contradictory portrayals of the Empress, the Wars of Justinian, largely completed in 545, paints a picture of a courageous and influential empress who saved the throne for Justinian. Later he wrote the Secret History, which survives in one manuscript suggesting it was not widely read during the Byzantine era. The work revealed an author who had become disillusioned with the emperor Justinian, the empress. Yet much of the covers the same time period as The Wars of Justinian. Besides her piety, her beauty is excessively praised, although Theodora was dead when this work was published, Justinian was alive, and probably commissioned the work. Her contemporary John of Ephesus writes about Theodora in his Lives of the Eastern Saints and he mentions an illegitimate daughter not named by Procopius. Various other historians presented additional information on her life, theophanes the Confessor mentions some familial relations of Theodora to figures not mentioned by Procopius. Victor Tonnennensis notes her familial relation to the empress, Sophia. Michael the Syrian, the Chronicle of 1234 and Bar-Hebraeus place her origin in the city of Daman, near Kallinikos and they contradict Procopius by making Theodora the daughter of a priest, trained in the pious practices of Miaphysitism since birth. These are late Miaphysite sources and record her depiction among members of their creed and these accounts are thus usually ignored in favor of Procopius. Theodora, according to Michael Grant, was of Greek Cypriot descent, there are several indications of her possible birthplace. Her father, Acacius, was a trainer of the hippodromes Green faction in Constantinople. Her mother, whose name is not recorded, was a dancer and her parents had two more daughters. After her fathers death, when Theodora was four, her mother brought her children wearing garlands into the hippodrome, from then on Theodora would be their supporter. Lynda Garland in Byzantine Empresses, Women and Power in Byzantium, employment as an actress at the time would include both indecent exhibitions on stage and providing sexual services off stage
18.
Pope Paschal I
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Pope Saint Paschal I was Pope from 25 January 817 to his death in 824. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Paschal was native of Rome and son of Bonosus, the Liber Censuum says that Paschal was from the Massimo family, as was his predecessor Pope Stephen IV. Paschal may have been a subdeacon, priest, and abbot of the monastery of St Stephen of the Abyssinians during the papacy of Pope Leo III, according to early modern accounts, Leo III may have elevated Paschal as the cardinal of Santa Prassede. Goodson attributes this account to a desire to explain the attention that the pope so lavishly and prominently paid to that later in his career. Paschal became pope on January 25,817, just one day after the death of Pope Stephen IV. This decision occurred before the sanction of the emperor Louis the Pious had been obtained, Paschal advised the emperor that the decision had been made to avoid factional strife in Rome. This document was challenged by historians as a forgery. At the time of Paschals reign, Rome was in a tumult, neither the papacy nor the nobles of the ever held control for very long. Paschal gave shelter to exiled monks from the Byzantine Empire who were persecuted for their opposition to iconoclasm and this is known because Byzantine Emperor Michael II wrote to Frankish King Louis the Pious in an attempt to stop it. In 822, he gave the legateship over the North to Ebbo and he licensed him to preach to the Danes, though Ebbo failed in three different attempts to convert them. Only later did Saint Ansgar succeed with them, in 823, Paschal crowned and anointed Lothair I as King of Italy, which set the precedent for the pope’s right to crown kings, and to do so in Rome. The decision outraged the Roman nobility, and led to an uprising against the authority of the Roman Curia in northern Italy, led by Paschal’s former legate, Theodore, and his son Leone. The revolt was suppressed, and the two leaders who were about to testify were seized at the Lateran, blinded and afterwards beheaded. Suspicious that the deaths were to cover up the involvement of the pope in the revolt, Paschal refused to submit to the authority of the imperial court, but issued an oath in which he denied all personal complicity in the crime. The commissioners returned to Aachen, and Emperor Louis let the matter drop, Paschal rebuilt three basilicas of Rome, Santa Prassede, Santa Maria in Domnica, and Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. Paschal also undertook significant renovations on Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, in addition, Paschal added two oratories to Old St. Peters Basilica, SS. Xistus et Fabianus, which did not survive the 16th century renovation of St. Peters, Paschal is also sometimes credited with the renovation of Santo Stefano del Cacco in early modern sources, but this renovation was actually undertaken by Pope Paschal II. According to Goodson, Paschal used church-building to express the authority of the papacy as an independent state, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere Paschal is credited with finding the body of Saint Cecilia in the Catacomb of Callixtus and translating it to the rebuild the basilica of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere
19.
Translation (relic)
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Translations could be accompanied by many acts, including all-night vigils and processions, often involving entire communities. The solemn translation of relics is not treated as the recognition of sanctity. This process is known as local canonization, the date of a translation of a saints relics was celebrated as a feast day in its own right. For example, on January 27 is celebrated the translation of the relics of St. John Chrysostom from the Armenian village of Comana to Constantinople, the most commonly celebrated feast days, however, are the dies natales. The relics of Saint Thyrsus at Sozopolis, Pisidia, in Asia Minor, were brought to Constantinople and his cult became popular in the Iberian Peninsula, where he is known as San Tirso or Santo Tirso. Some of his relics were brought to France, Thyrsus is thus the titular saint of the cathedral of Sisteron in the Basses Alpes, Thyrsus is thus the patron saint of Sisteron. Liborius of Le Mans became patron saint of Paderborn, in Germany, in the early church, the disturbance, let alone the division, of the remains of martyrs and other saints, was not of concern or interest, much less practised. It was assumed that they would remain permanently in their often unidentified resting places in cemeteries, then, martyriums began to be built over the site of the burial of saints. The earliest recorded removal of remains was that of Saint Babylas at Antioch in 354. However, partly perhaps because Constantinople lacked the many graves of Rome, translations soon became common in the Eastern Empire. The Eastern capital was able to acquire the remains of Saints Timothy, Andrew, the division of bodies also began, the 5th century theologian Theodoretus declaring that Grace remains entire with every part. An altar slab dated 357, found in North Africa but now in the Louvre, non-anatomical relics, above all that of the True Cross, were divided and widely distributed from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Basil the Great requested of the ruler of Scythia Minor, Junius Soranus, the sending of Sabbas relics and the writing of the actual letter has been attributed to Bretannio. This letter is the oldest known writing to be composed on Romanian soil and was written in Greek. The spread of all over Europe from the 8th century onward is explained by the fact that after 787. New churches, situated in areas newly converted to Christianity, needed relics, according to one legend concerning Saint Paternian, the inhabitants of Fano competed with those of Cervia for possession of his relics. Cervia would be left with a finger, while Fano would possess the rest of the saints relics, the translation of relics was a solemn and important event. In 1261, the relics of Lucian of Beauvais and his two companions were placed in a new reliquary by William of Grès, the bishop of Beauvais
20.
Catacomb of Callixtus
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The Catacomb is believed to have been created by future Pope Callixtus I, then a deacon of Rome, under the direction of Pope Zephyrinus, enlarging pre-existing early Christian hypogea. Callixtus himself was entombed in the Catacomb of Calepodius on the Aurelian Way, the Catacomb and Crypt were rediscovered in 1854 by the pioneering Italian archaeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi. The arcades form part of a graveyard that occupies 15 hectares and is almost 20km long. At its peak, the fifteen hectare site would have held the remains of sixteen popes, nine of those popes were buried in the Crypt of the Popes itself, to which Pope Damasus I built a staircase in the 4th century. Among the discovered Greek language inscriptions are associated with, Pope Pontian, Pope Anterus, Pope Fabian, Pope Lucius I. A more lengthy inscription to Pope Sixtus II by Furius Dionisius Filocalus has also been discovered, outside the Crypt of the Popes, the region of Saints Gaius and Eusebius is so named for the facing tombs of Pope Gaius and Pope Eusebius. In another region, there is a tomb attributed to Pope Cornelius, bearing the inscription CORNELIVS MARTYR, ISBN 0-7864-1527-4 Carragáin, Éamonn Ó, Neuman de Vegvar, Carol L. eds. Roma felix, formation and reflections of medieval Rome
21.
Pope Stephen III
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Pope Stephen III was the Pope from 7 August 768 to his death in 772. Born on 723 in Sicily, Stephen III was the son of a man named Olivus, coming to Rome during the pontificate of Pope Gregory III, he was placed in the monastery of St. Chrysogonus, where he became a Benedictine monk. During the pontificate of Pope Zachary, he was ordained a priest, Adrian in the area of the old Comitium. Here the combined assembly elected Stephen as pope and they then proceeded to the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, where they acclaimed Stephen as pope-elect, and escorted him to the Lateran Palace. Bishop Theodore, Constantine’s Vice-dominus, was blinded and had his tongue cut out, while Constantine’s brother, after Constantine was officially dethroned on August 6, Stephen was consecrated pope on the following day, August 7,768. The role of Stephen III in these events is somewhat obscure, according to the historian Horace Mann, Stephen was an impotent observer, and that the responsible agent was in reality the Chartularius, Gratiosus. However, according to Louis Marie DeCormenin, Stephen was the key responsible for issuing the orders. As Pepin had died, it was Charlemagne and Carloman I who agreed to send bishops to participate in the Lateran Council of 769. The council saw the condemnation of Constantine II, who was beaten and had his tongue removed before being returned to his monastic cell. All clerical appointments made by Constantine were declared null and void and it also set about establishing strict rules for papal elections, thereby restricting the involvement of the nobility in subsequent elections. Finally, the rulings of the Council of Hieria were rejected, in 770, Stephen was asked to confirm the election of Michael, a layperson, as Archbishop of Ravenna. However, Michael, in league with the Lombard king Desiderius, and the Duke of Rimini had imprisoned Leo, Stephen refused to confirm Michael’s election, citing the conventions of the Lateran council, he sent letters and envoys to Michael, demanding that he stand down. Leo followed soon after, when Stephen consecrated him as Archbishop of Ravenna, throughout his pontificate, Stephen was apprehensive about the expansionist plans of the Lombards. Placing his hope in the Franks, he attempted to mediate in the quarrels between Charlemagne and Carloman, which were helping the Lombard’s cause in Italy. In 769, he helped them reconcile, and pressured them to support the still infant Papal States and he also begged them to intercede on his behalf by entering into discussions with the Lombards. Consequently, an embassy was sent to the Lombard king, Desiderius, in 770 and their intervention achieved a result favourable to the Papacy by restoring to the pope the parts of Benevento that the popes claimed. To Stephen’s consternation however, Desiderius and Bertrada entered into discussions about a marriage between Desiderius’ daughter, Desiderata, and one Bertrada’s sons. It is also possible that discussions took place around the marriage of Charlemagne’s sister, Gisela to Desiderius’ son, Stephen therefore wrote to both Charlemagne and Carloman, protesting about the proposed alliance
22.
Pope Martin IV
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Pope Martin IV, born Simon de Brion, was Pope from 22 February 1281 to his death in 1285. He was the last French Bishop of Rome to have held court in the Holy See, Simon de Brion, son of Jean, sieur de Brion, was born at the château of Meinpincien, Île-de-France, France, in the decade following 1210. He had a brother named Gilo, who was a knight in diocese of Sens, the seigneurial family of Brion, who took their name from Brion near Joigny, flourished in the Brie français. He spent time at the University of Paris, and is said to have studied law at Padua. Through papal favour he received a canonry at Saint-Quentin in 1238 and spent the period 1248–1259 as a canon of the chapter in Rouen. At the same time he was appointed treasurer of the church of St. Martin in Tours by King Louis IX of France, an office he held until he was elected pope in 1281. In 1255-1259, King Louis IX founded the French royal convent at Longchamps for the Poor Clares, the Kings sister Isabelle was the patroness, and Simon de Brion was the Guardian. In 1259, he was appointed to the council of the king and he became Chancellor of Louis IX of France. On December 17,1261, the new French Pope, Urban IV, made Chancellor de Brion cardinal-priest, Simons previous experience at the French Court made him the perfect choice as Legate. Cardinal Simon therefore returned to France as Papal Legate for Urban IV, in 1264, on the eve of S. Bartholomew, he held a general synod at Paris. He was appointed again, by Pope Gregory X on 1 August 1274 and his first task was to raise support and money for a Crusade against Manfred, the Hohenstaufen candidate for the Imperial Crown. He immediately became involved in the negotiations for papal support for the assumption of the crown of Sicily by Charles of Anjou. As Legate he presided over several synods on reform, and on the raising of funds for Pope Gregorys crusade, the most important of these was held at Bourges on 13 September 1276. Signatures on papal bulls indicate that Cardinal Simon was back in Viterbo by 11 January 1268. In a letter of 14 or 15 January 1268, Pope Clement IV wrote to Cardinal Simon de Brion that he had heard that the Cardinal had fallen from his horse and he also wrote that Conradin and Ludwig Duke of Bavaria were at Verona, and were pressing for Pavia. Cardinal Simons injury must not have severe, since, on April 3,1268. In vetting names, Simon seemed the most suitable, Pope Clement IV fell ill on the Feast of S. Cecilia, and died at Viterbo on 29 November 1268. He had governed the Church for three years, nine months, and twenty-four days, the See of Peter was vacant for two years and nine months
23.
Innocent VIII
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Pope Innocent VIII, born Giovanni Battista Cybo, was Pope from 29 August 1484 to his death in 1492. Born into a prominent Genoese family he entered the church and was bishop in 1467 before being elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pope Sixtus IV. He was elected Pope in 1484 as compromise candidate after a stormy conclave, Giovanni Battista Cybo was born in Genoa of Greek ancestry, the son of Arano Cybo or Cibo and his wife Teodorina de Mari, of an old Genoese family. His paternal grandparents were Maurizio Cybo and his wife Seracina Marocelli, Arano Cybo was a senator in Rome under Pope Calixtus III. Giovanni Battistas early years were spent at the Neapolitan court, and subsequently he went to Padua, in Rome he became a priest in the retinue of cardinal Calandrini, half-brother to Pope Nicholas V. In 1467, he was made Bishop of Savona by Pope Paul II, in 1473, with the support of Giuliano Della Rovere, later Pope Julius II, he was made cardinal by Pope Sixtus IV, whom he succeeded on 29 August 1484 as Pope Innocent VIII. The papal conclave of 1484 was riven with faction, while gangs rioted in the streets, shortly after his coronation Innocent VIII addressed a fruitless summons to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the Turks. A protracted conflict with King Ferdinand I of Naples was the principal obstacle, the immediate conflict was not ended until 1494, after Innocent VIIIs death. Bayezid II ruled as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512 and his rule was contested by his brother Cem who sought the support of the Mamluks of Egypt. Defeated by his brothers armies, Cem sought protection from the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, prince Cem offered perpetual peace between the Ottoman Empire and Christendom. However, the sultan paid the Knights a large amount to keep Cem captive, Cem was later sent to the castle of Pierre dAubusson in France. Sultan Bayezid sent a messenger to France and requested Cem to be kept there, in March 1489 Cem was transferred to the custody of Innocent VIII. Cems presence in Rome was useful because whenever Bayezid intended to launch a campaign against the Christian nations of the Balkans. In exchange for maintaining the custody of Cem, Bayezid paid Innocent VIII120,000 crowns, a relic of the Holy Lance, and an annual fee of 45,000 ducats. Cem died in Capua on February 25,1495, while on an expedition under the command of King Charles VIII of France to conquer Naples. Kramer would later claim that witchcraft was to blame for bad weather, both the papal letter appended to the work and the supposed endorsement of Cologne University for it are problematic. In 1487, Innocent confirmed Tomas de Torquemada as Grand Inquisitor of Spain, also in 1487, Innocent issued a bull for the extermination of the Waldensians, offering plenary indulgence to all who should engage in the Crusade against them. Alberto de Capitanei, archdeacon of Cremona, responded to the bull by organizing a crusade to fulfill its order and launched an offensive in the provinces of Dauphiné and Piedmont
24.
Thomas Wolsey
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Thomas Wolsey was an English churchman, statesman and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. When Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, Wolsey became the Kings almoner, the 1515 appointment of Wolsey as a cardinal by Pope Leo X gave him precedence even over the Archbishop of Canterbury. The highest political position Wolsey attained was Lord Chancellor, the Kings chief adviser, in that position, he enjoyed great freedom and was often depicted as an alter rex. After failing to negotiate an annulment of Henrys marriage to Catherine of Aragon and he retreated to York to fulfill his ecclesiastical duties as Archbishop of York, a position he nominally held, but had neglected during his years in government. He was recalled to London to answer to charges of treason — a common charge used by Henry against ministers who fell out of favour —, Thomas Wolsey was born about 1473, the son of Robert Wolsey of Ipswich and his wife Joan Daundy. Widespread traditions identify his father as a butcher and a cattle dealer, Wolsey attended Ipswich School and Magdalen College School before studying theology at Magdalen College, Oxford. On 10 March 1498 he was ordained as a priest in Marlborough, Wiltshire and remained in Oxford, first as the Master of Magdalen College School, between 1500 and 1509 he held the living of Church of Saint Mary, Limington, in Somerset. In 1502 he left and became a chaplain to Henry Deane, archbishop of Canterbury and he was then taken into the household of Sir Richard Nanfan, who made Wolsey executor of his estate. After Nanfans death in 1507, Wolsey entered the service of King Henry VII, Wolsey benefitted from Henry VIIs introduction of measures to curb the power of the nobility - the king was willing to favour those from more humble backgrounds. Henry VII appointed Wolsey royal chaplain, in this position Wolsey served as secretary to Richard Foxe, who recognized Wolseys innate ability and dedication and appreciated his industry and willingness to take on tedious tasks. Thomas Wolseys remarkable rise to power from humble origins testifies to his intelligence, administrative ability, industriousness, ambition for power, in April 1508, Wolsey was sent to Scotland to discuss with King James IV rumours of the renewal of the auld alliance. Wolseys rise coincided with the accession of the new English monarch, Henry VIII, whose character, policies and diplomatic mindset differed significantly from those of his father. In 1509 Henry appointed Wolsey to the post of Almoner, a position that gave him a seat on the Privy Council, providing an opportunity to raise his profile and to establish a rapport with the King. A factor in Wolseys rise was the young Henry VIIIs relative lack of interest in the details of governing during his early years, Henry soon appointed to his Privy Council individuals more sympathetic to his own views and inclinations. Warham and Foxe, who failed to share the Kings enthusiasm for the French war which started in 1512, fell from power, in 1515, Warham resigned as Lord Chancellor, probably under pressure from the King and from Wolsey, and Henry appointed Wolsey in his place. Wolsey carefully tried to destroy or neutralise the influence of other courtiers, Wolseys rise to a position of great secular power paralleled his increased responsibilities in the Church. He became a Canon of Windsor in 1511, the year that he became a member of the Privy Council. In 1514 he was made Bishop of Lincoln, and then Archbishop of York in the same year, Pope Leo X made him a cardinal in 1515, with the titular church S. Cæciliæ trans Tiberim
25.
Pope Gregory XIV
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Pope Gregory XIV, born Niccolò Sfondrato or Sfondrati, was Pope from 5 December 1590 to his death in 1591. Niccolò Sfondrati was born at Somma Lombardo, then part of the Duchy of Milan and his mother, of the house of Visconti, died in childbirth. His father Francesco Sfondrati, a senator of the ancient comune of Milan, was created Cardinal-Priest by Pope Paul III in 1544, in his youth he was known for his modest lifestyle and stringent piety. He studied law at Perugia and Padua, was ordained a priest and swiftly appointed Bishop of Cremona, in 1560, Pope Gregory XIII made him a Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere on 12 December 1583. Sfondrati was a follower of Carlo Cardinal Borromeo, and when cardinal he celebrated the Requiem Mass for Borromeo on 7 November 1584. Sfondrati was a friend and a great admirer of Philip Neri. After the death of Pope Urban VII on 27 September 1590, on 5 December 1590, after two months of deadlock, Sfondrati, one of Philip IIs seven candidates but who had not aspired to the office, was elected pope. Alessandro Cardinal Montalto came to Sfondratis cell to inform him that the Sacred College had agreed on his election, on the next day he was elected Pope Gregory XIV he burst into tears and said to the cardinals, God forgive you. In his bull of 21 March 1591, Cogit nos, he forbade under pain of excommunication all betting concerning the election of a Pope, Gregory XIVs brief pontificate was marked by vigorous intervention in favour of the Catholic party in the French Wars of Religion. Gregory XIV levied an army for the invasion of France, and he also sent a monthly subsidy of 15,000 scudi to Paris to reinforce the Catholic League. Gregory XIV created five cardinals, among whom was his nephew Paolo Emilio Sfondrati and he attempted to convince Philip Neri, a long-time friend, to accept the post of Cardinal, but Neri refused, saying that there were many more deserving of the honour than him. Also in 1591, Gregory XIV modified the Apostolic Constitution Effraenatam of Pope Sixtus V so that the penalty for abortion did not apply until the foetus became animated. The biographers mention that Pope Gregory XIV had a tendency to laughter. Gregory XIV, who was in poor health before his election to the papacy, cardinals created by Gregory XIV This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ott, Michael. Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Gregory XIV, biography on St. Michaels Call Papal Library Defending the Faith website, Gregory XIV Pope Gregory XIV. Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
26.
Mariano Rampolla
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Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro was an Italian Cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, and the last man to have his candidacy for papal election vetoed by a Catholic monarch. Born in Polizzi Generosa, Sicily, Rampolla was the son of Ignazio Rampolla, Count of Tindaro and he is often referred to with the title of marquess, but this appears to be inaccurate. Rampolla entered the Vatican Seminary in 1856, and in 1861 continued his education at the Collegio Capranica, having displayed a considerable knowledge in Oriental affairs, he was sent to the Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles as preparation for service in the Roman Curia. In 1866 Rampolla was ordained a priest and he obtained a doctorate in utroque iure in 1870. In 1874 he was named a Canon of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, in 1875 he was sent to Spain as Auditor of the papal Nunciature. In 1877 he returned to Rome and was named Secretary for Oriental Affairs of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, in the following year he was named a Protonotary apostolic de numero participantium, the highest rank of Monsignors. On 1 December 1882 Rampolla was appointed archbishop of Heraclea in Europa. This was in preparation for his nomination as Apostolic Nuncio to Spain, in the Consistory of 14 March 1887, Pope Leo XIII created Rampolla del Tindaro a Cardinal-Priest, at the age of 43, and on 26 May formally assigned him the titulus of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. On 2 June he was appointed Secretary of State, in this office, Rampolla employed Giacomo della Chiesa, the future Benedict XV, as his secretary. On 21 March 1894, Pope Leo XIII named Cardinal Rampolla to be Archpriest of Saint Peters Basilica, in this position, he was designated to canonically crown the venerated image of Santo Bambino of Aracoeli on 2 May 1897. As Secretary of State, Cardinal Rampolla supported the Austrian Christian Social Party, led by Karl Lueger, Lueger only entered office, over the disapproval of Emperor Franz Joseph, through the personal intervention of Leo XIII. Leugers Christian Social Party was the first Catholic social movement that was both anti-liberal and anti-Semitic, Rampolla began to swing papal policy away from support of Austria, come what may, toward support of France, Austrias enemy. In 1908 he became Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Fabric of Saint Peters, when Leo XIII died in 1903, it was widely expected that Rampolla would be elected pope. Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko, Prince-Archbishop of Kraków, expressed the veto on behalf of the Austrian emperor, Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko was subsequently decorated with the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary. Merry Del Val protested and refused even to accept the document, Rampolla, according to Merry del Val, actually gained votes after the veto. The specific reasons for Austrias opposition have never been clarified, possibly, the veto was a result of the pro-French positions adopted by Rampolla, which were reflected in the policies of Leo XIII. Part of the Holy Sees solution involving the French Republic was the attempt to reconcile French Catholics with their nations republican government via Laïcité and this was anathema to the powerful Ultramontanes. Informed sources at the time claimed that Austria acted on behalf of Italys government through the intervention of State Minister Zanardelli
27.
Carlo Maria Martini
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Carlo Maria Martini, S. J. was an Italian Jesuit and cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of Milan from 1980 to 2002 and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1983, a towering intellectual figure of the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Martini was the liberal contender for the Papacy in the 2005 conclave, following the death of Pope John Paul II. According to highly placed Vatican sources, Martini received more votes in the first round than Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, Ratzinger ended up with more votes in subsequent rounds and was elected Pope Benedict XVI. Martini entered the Society of Jesus in 1944 and was ordained a priest in 1952 and his appointment as Archbishop of Milan in 1980 was an unusual circumstance, as Jesuits are not traditionally named bishops. He was on the wing of the church hierarchy. Suffering from a form of Parkinsons Disease, he retired as Archbishop in 2002. He died at the Jesuit Aloisianum College in Gallarate near Milan, hours after his death, the Italian daily Corriere della Sera printed his final interview in which he described the Church as 200 years out of date. Our culture has aged, our churches are big and empty, the Church must admit its mistakes and begin a radical change, starting from the Pope and the bishops. The pedophilia scandals oblige us to take a journey of transformation, Carlo Maria Martini was born 15 February 1927 in Orbassano in the Province of Turin, Piedmont, to Leonardo, an engineer, and Olga Martini. He was baptised on the following 22 February and he was educated at Istituto Sociale, a school run by Jesuits in Turin. He entered the Society of Jesus on 25 September 1944 and was ordained to the priesthood by Cardinal Maurilio Fossati on 13 July 1952. Martini completed his studies in philosophy at the Jesuits House of Studies in Gallarate, in the province of Milan, in 1958, Martini was awarded his doctorate in fundamental theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University, with a thesis exploring the problems of the Resurrection accounts. After completing his studies, Martini quickly pursued an academic career. In 1962, he was given the Chair of Textual Criticism at the Pontifical Biblical Institute, a specialist institute of the Gregorian, throughout these years, he edited a number of scholarly works. Martini became active in the field by publishing various books. Furthermore, he received the honour of being the only Catholic member of the committee that prepared the new Greek edition of the New Testament. Thus his first diocesan appointment was to one of the largest and most prominent sees, in the consistory of 2 February 1983, he was assigned the title of Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. The motto he chose for his coat of arms is translated as For the love of truth, Martini served as Relator of the 6th General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops in 1983
28.
Pietro Cavallini
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Pietro Cavallini was an Italian painter and mosaic designer working during the late Middle Ages. Little is known about his biography, though it is known he was from Rome and his first notable works were the fresco cycles for the Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura, with stories from the New and Old Testament. They were destroyed by the fire of 1823 and his Last Judgment in the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere in Rome, painted c.1293 and considered Cavallinis masterwork, demonstrates an artistic style known as Roman naturalism. This naturalism influenced the work of working in other Italian cities such as Florence. In Florence, the influence of classical Roman forms combined with the Byzantine artistic heritage of the region to spark an interest in volumetric, naturalistic paintings and this work is in stark contrast to the comparatively flat and ornamented Gothic, International Gothic, and Byzantine styles. This naturalism is also evident in the Basilica of San Francesco dAssisi in Assisi, as the shrine was commissioned by the Roman church, its interior is painted in the Roman tradition. The identities of the artists at work in this church are for the most part not known and he returned to Rome before 1325, beginning the external decoration of the Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura in 1321, with a series of Byzantine-style mosaics. Cavallinis pupils included Giovanni di Bartolommeo and his works include, Jael and Tisseran, watercolour Scenes from the life of Mary, mosaics at the apse of Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome. The six scenes were made by the order of Bertoldo Stefaneschi, brother of Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the apse paintings at San Giorgio al Velabro, Rome, have been attributed to him on the basis of stylistic similarity to the Trastevere paintings. The apse mosaic of the San Crisogono church in the Trastevere district, sebastian and Chrysogonos, is also attributed to Cavallini. Enio Sindona, Pietro Cavallini, editorial Italian Institute, Milan 1958, guglielmo Matthiae, Pietro Cavallini, De Luca, Rome 1972. Paul Hetherington, Pietro Cavallini, a study in the art of Late Medieval Rome, The Sagittarius Press, ISBN 978-0-9503163-3-8 Angiola Maria Romanini, The Eyes of Isaac. Classicism and scientific curiosity between Giotto and Arnolfo di Cambio, in Medieval art, ns, I. Emma Simi Varanelli, contribution to the history of medieval perspectiva communis, in Medieval Art, ns III, p. 115-143. Serena Romano, Eclipse in Rome, mural painting in Rome and Lazio by Boniface VIII to Martin V, Argos, ISBN8885897142 Alessandro Parronchi, Cavallini disciple of Giotto, Florence 1994. ISBN8885977154 Pierluigi De Vecchi and Elda Cerchiari, The Times of art, Volume 1 Simon and Schuster, Milano 1999 Alessandro Tomei, Pietro Cavallini, Silvana, Cinisello Balsamo 2000. ISBN8882151654 Bruno Zanardi, Giotto and Pietro Cavallini, the question of Assisi, ISBN8884910560 Roman paintings of Giotto and Cavallini, catalog of the exhibition held in Rome in 2004 by Thomas Angelo and Strinati Tartuferi, Electa, Milano 2004. ISBN8837030622 Pietro Cavallinis The Last Judgement, Smarthistory
29.
Arnolfo di Cambio
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Arnolfo di Cambio was an Italian architect and sculptor. Arnolfo was born in Colle Val dElsa, Tuscany and he was Nicola Pisano’s chief assistant on the marble Siena Cathedral Pulpit for the Duomo in Siena Cathedral, but he soon began to work independently on an important tomb sculpture. In 1266–1267 he worked in Rome for King Charles I of Anjou, portraying him in the famous statue housed in the Campidoglio. In this period he worked on the presepio of Santa Maria Maggiore, on Santa Maria in Aracoeli, on the monument of Pope Boniface VIII. In 1294–1295 he worked in Florence, mainly as an architect, the surviving statues are now in the Museum of the Cathedral. While the design of the Church of Santa Croce has been attributed to Arnolfo, Vasari also attributed to him the urban plan of the new city of San Giovanni Valdarno. The monumental character of Arnolfos work has left its mark on the appearance of Florence and his funerary monuments became the model for Gothic funerary art. Giorgio Vasari included a biography of Arnolfo in his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, old basilica of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence Cathedral St. Peter Enthroned inside St. Peters Basilica, is often attributed to Arnolfo. Lo stil novo del Gotico italiano, Arnolfo di Cambio in the History of Art
30.
Francesco Acquaviva
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Francesco Acquaviva dAragona was an Italian Cardinal. His background was from the Acquaviva family, which included the Dukes of Atri and he filled various offices under Popes Innocent XI, Alexander VIII, Innocent XII, and Clement XI, who created him Cardinal, and Bishop of Sabina. He was buried at Rome in the Church of Santa Cecilia
31.
Ciborium (architecture)
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In ecclesiastical architecture, a ciborium is a canopy or covering supported by columns, freestanding in the sanctuary, that stands over and covers the altar in a basilica or other church. It may also be known by the general term of baldachin. Early ciboria had curtains hanging from rods between the columns, so that the altar could be concealed from the congregation at points in the liturgy, smaller examples may cover other objects in a church. In a very large church, a ciborium is a way of visually highlighting the altar. The altar and ciborium are often set upon a dais to raise it above the floor of the sanctuary, a ciborium is also a covered, chalice-shaped container for Eucharistic hosts. In Italian the word is used for the tabernacle on the altar. The ciborium arose in the context of a range of canopies. Some of these were temporary and portable, including those using poles and textiles, examples can be seen on many coins, the Missorium of Theodosius I, the Chronography of 354, and other Late Antique works. This structure, erected under Constantine the Great, may itself have been important in spreading the idea of ciboria over altars. Ciboria were placed over the shrines of martyrs, which then had built over them. They also served to shelter the altar from dust and the like from high ceilings that could rarely be reached. This is described as a fastigium in the earliest sources, but was probably a ciborium, like most major early examples it was of silver, whose weight is given, presumably meaning that decorated silver plaques were fixed to a wood or stone framework. No early examples in precious metal have survived, but many are recorded in important churches, the ciborium commissioned by Justinian the Great for Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and described by Paulus Silentarius is now lost. The roof had eight panels rising to the globe and cross, an example of this type is in mosaic in the apse of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, under a very large standing Virgin. It is placed in the church in order to represent concisely the crucifixion, burial and it similarly corresponds to the ark of the covenant of the Lord in which, it is written, is His Holy of Holies and His holy place. Next to it God commanded that two wrought Cherubim be placed on either side —for KIB is the ark, and OURIN is the effulgence, or the light, of God. The example by the Cosmati in the gallery is similar to another 12th-century Italian ciborium now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and that in the Basilica di San Nicola in Bari. By the Romanesque, gabled forms, as at SantAmbrogio, or ones with a top, as at the Euphrasian Basilica or St Marks
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Chancel
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In church architecture, the chancel is the space around the altar, including the choir and the sanctuary, at the liturgical east end of a traditional Christian church building. It may terminate in an apse and it is generally the area used by the clergy and choir during worship, while the congregation is in the nave. Direct access may be provided by a door, usually on the south side of the church. In smaller churches, where the altar is backed by the outside east wall and there is no distinct choir, in churches with a retroquire area behind the altar, this may only be included in the broader definition of chancel. In a cathedral or other large church there may be a choir area at the start of the chancel, before reaching the sanctuary. All these may be included in the chancel, at least in architectural terms, in churches with less traditional plans the term may not be useful in either architectural or ecclesiastical terms. The chancel may be a step or two higher than the level of the nave, and the sanctuary is often raised still further and this is an arch which separates the chancel from the nave and transept of a church. As well as the altar, the sanctuary may house a credence table, in some churches, the congregation may gather on three sides or in a semicircle around the chancel. In some churches, the pulpit and lectern may be in the chancel, the word chancel derives from the French usage of chancel from the Late Latin word cancellus. This refers to the form of rood screens. The chancel was formerly known as the presbytery, because it was reserved for the clergy, a large chancel made most sense in monasteries and cathedrals where there was a large number of singing clergy and boys from a choir school to occupy the choir. These usually sat in the nave, with any lay congregation, however the screen enjoyed a small revival in the 19th century, after the passionate urgings of Augustus Pugin, who wrote A Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts, and others. After the Reformation Protestant churches generally moved the forward, typically to the front of the chancel. The rear of deep chancels became little used in churches surviving from the Middle Ages, with the emphasis on sermons, and their audibility, some churches simply converted their chancels to seat part of the congregation. Fleming, John, Honour, Hugh, Pevsner, Nikolaus, Dictionary of Architecture,1980, Pevsner, Nikolaus, Priscilla Metcalf, The Cathedrals of England, Southern England,1985, Viking White, James F. The Cambridge Movement, The Ecclesiologists and the Gothic Revival,1962, Wipf and Stock Publishers, ISBN1592449379,9781592449378, google books Chancel
33.
Paul the Apostle
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Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul, and also known by his native name Saul of Tarsus was an apostle who taught the gospel of the Christ to the first century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, in the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul took advantage of his status as both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences, according to writings in the New Testament, Paul was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. He was struck blind but, after three days, his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah, approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Pauls life and works. Fourteen of the books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by scholars to have come from followers writing in his name. Other scholars argue that the idea of an author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Pauls epistles continue to be roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Catholic and Protestant traditions of the West. Augustine of Hippo developed Pauls idea that salvation is based on faith, martin Luthers interpretation of Pauls writings influenced Luthers doctrine of sola fide. The main source for information about Pauls life is the material found in his epistles, however, the epistles contain little information about Pauls past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Pauls life out of its narrative, such as his probable, some scholars believe Acts also contradicts Pauls epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Pauls visits to the church in Jerusalem. It has been assumed that Sauls name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity. His Jewish name was Saul, perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite, according to the Book of Acts, he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he bore the Latin name of Paul—in biblical Greek, Παῦλος. It was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him Saul, Saul in the Hebrew tongue in the book of Acts, later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, the Lord referred to him as Saul, of Tarsus
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Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
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Agatha of Sicily
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Saint Agatha of Sicily is a Christian saint and virgin martyr. Her memorial is on 5 February, Agatha was born at Catania or Palermo, Sicily, and she was martyred in approximately 251. She is one of seven women, who, along with the Blessed Virgin Mary, are commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass. She is the saint of Catania, Molise, Malta, San Marino, and Zamarramala. She is also the saint of breast cancer patients, martyrs, wet nurses, bell-founders, bakers, fire, earthquakes. Agatha is buried at the Badia di SantAgata, Catania and she is listed in the late 6th-century Martyrologium Hieronymianum associated with Jerome, and the Synaxarion, the calendar of the church of Carthage, ca. Agatha also appears in one of the carmina of Venantius Fortunatus, in the 6th century AD, the church was adapted to Arianism, hence its name Saint Agatha of Goths, and later reconsecrated by Gregory the Great, who confirmed her traditional sainthood. Agatha is also depicted in the mosaics of SantApollinare Nuovo in Ravenna and her image forms an initial I in the Sacramentary of Gellone, which dates from the end of the 8th century. One of the most highly venerated virgin martyrs of Christian antiquity, Agatha was put to death during the persecution of Decius in Catania, Sicily, according to Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda Aurea of ca. He sent Agatha to Aphrodisia, the keeper of a brothel, the madam finding her intractable, Quintianus sent for her, argued, threatened, and finally had her put in prison. Amongst the tortures she underwent was the cutting off of her breasts with pincers, peter the Apostle appeared to her and healed her wounds. Saint Agatha died in prison, according to the Legenda Aurea in the year of our Lord two hundred and fifty-three in the time of Decius, the emperor of Rome, osbern Bokenham, A Legend of Holy Women, written in the 1440s, offers some further detail. Catania Cathedral is dedicated to Saint Agatha, according to Maltese tradition, during the persecution of Roman Emperor Decius, Agatha, together with some of her friends, fled from Sicily, and took refuge in Malta. Some historians believe that her stay on the island was rather short, after some time, Agatha returned to Sicily, where she faced martyrdom. Agatha was arrested and brought before Quintanus, praetor of Catania, the crypt of St. Agatha is an underground basilica, which from early ages was venerated by the Maltese. At the time of St. Agathas stay, the crypt was a natural cave which later on. After the Reformation era, Agatha was retained in the calendar of the Church of Englands Book of Common Prayer with her feast on 5 February, several Church of England parish churches are dedicated to her. She is the saint of Catania, Sorihuela del Guadalimar, Molise, San Marino, Malta and Kalsa
36.
Antonio del Massaro
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Antonio del Massaro da Viterbo, or Antonio da Viterbo, nicknamed il Pastura was an Italian painter. The earliest mention of Il Pastura occurs in December 1478, when the artist participated in the establishment of Foundation of Art and University of San Luca dei Pittori, in Rome. Il Pastura may have lived in Rome for some time before this event, however, Il Pastura certainly participated in decorating some work by Pinturicchio in the rooms of the Borgia Apartment in the Vatican. In Viterbo, Il Pastura painted the Presepio con i Santi Giovanni Battista e Bartolomeo, in Orvieto Cathedral he worked on pieces that featured Biblical scenes such as the Annunciation, Visitation, Presentation to the Temple, and Flight into Egypt. He returned to Viterbo in 1504, and painted a piece called San Terenziano, San Rocco e San Sebastiano and it is conserved in the church of Santa Maria a Capranica. After the death of Lorenzo da Viterbo, Il Pastura became the most important Viterbese painter of the time and he also decorated the aedicule for the courtyard of the Chigi Palace with a Madonna and Child. Other important works, executed between 1508 and 1509, include the decoration of the chancel of the cathedral of Tarquinia, the Italian scholar Italo Faldi has observed the success with critics that Il Pastura’s work has enjoyed. One of the first monographs on an Italian painter was one written on Il Pastura, in 1901, lacchia e A. Schiavi, Museo Borgogna. Guida alle Collezioni, Torino 1999, p. s. n, J. Turner, Dictionary of Art, New York 1996, p.817 F. Todini, La Pittura Umbra. Dal Duecento al primo Cinquecento, Milano 1989, tomo I, pp. 258–260, tomo II, pp. 537–541 F. Zeri, documenti e ricerche, Roma 1981 A. Venturi, Storia dellArte Italiana, Milano 1975, p.582 I. Faldi, Pittori Viterbesi di cinque secoli, Roma 1970, pp. 38–45 V. Viale, dipinti e sculture dal Medioevo al XVIII secolo, Viterbo 1955, pp-15, 19–21 I. Faldi, L. Mortari, La pittura viterbese dal XIV al XVI secolo, catalogo della mostra, Viterbo 1954 B. Direzione generale delle antichità e belle arti, Roma 1932, pp. 16–17,33 V. Viale, Guida alle raccolte dei musei Leone e Borgogna di Vercelli, Vercelli 1934, gnoli, Pittori e miniatori dellUmbria, Spoleto 1923, pp. 35–36 U. Gnoli, in Art in America, IX,1920, p.24 C, ricci, Antonio da Viterbo detto il Pastura e lAppartamento Borgia, in Per linaugurazione del Museo Civico di Viterbo, Viterbo 1912, pp. 23–27 C. Pinzi, Memorie sulla chiesa di Santa Maria della Verità, in Per linaugurazione del Museo Civico di Viterbo, Viterbo 1912, umbria, LXV,16 Fascicolo Antonio da Viterbo
37.
Luigi Vanvitelli
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Luigi Vanvitelli was an Italian engineer and architect. The most prominent 18th-century architect of Italy, he practised a sober classicizing academic Late Baroque style that made a transition to Neoclassicism. Vanvitelli was born in Naples, the son of an Italian woman, Anna Lorenzani, and a Dutch painter of land and cityscpapes, Caspar van Wittel and he was trained in Rome by the architect Nicola Salvi, with whom he worked on construction of the Trevi Fountain. Later it was used also as a hospital or as barracks. In Rome, Vanvitelli stabilized the dome of St. Peters Basilica when it developed cracks and he also built a bridge over the Calore Irpino in Benevento. Beginning in 1742 Vanvitelli designed the Chapel of St. John the Baptist for King John V of Portugal and it was built in Rome, disassembled in 1747, and shipped to Lisbon, where it was reassembled in the Church of St. Roch. It was completed in 1750, although the mosaics in it were not finished until 1752, built of many precious marbles and other costly stones, as well as gilt bronze, it was held to be the most expensive chapel in Europe up to that time. The size of the palace and gardens recalls the Palace of Versailles, included in the Reggia di Caserta was the fan-shaped Vigna del Ventaglio vineyard. Planted on sloping terrain in the San Leucio frazione near the palace, among the varieties known to have been planted in the Vigna del Ventaglio were native Campanian varieties Pallagrello bianco and Pallagrello nero. Vanvitelli worked on the project for the rest of his life, for Charles, in Naples he designed the citys royal palace and some aristocratic palaces, and churches. His engineering talents were exercised as well, for Caserta he devised the great aqueduct system that brought water to run the cascades, luigi Vanvitelli died at Caserta in 1773
38.
Sebastiano Conca
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Sebastiano Conca was an Italian painter. He was born at Gaeta, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, in 1706, along with his brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he settled in Rome, where for several years he worked only in chalk, to improve his drawing. He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who introduced him to Clement XI and he also painted an Assunta for the church of Santi Luca e Martina in Rome. Conca was knighted by the pope and he collaborated with Carlo Maratta in the Coronation of Santa Cecilia in the namesake church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. In 1718 He was elected to the Accademia di San Luca and he was also elected Principe in 1739-1741. His painting was influenced by the Baroque painter Luca Giordano. Sebastianos brother, Giovanni Conca, painted the altarpiece of the Madonna of the Rosary and St Dominic for the church of San Domenico. He received widespread acclaim and patronage. He worked for a period of time for the Savoy family in Turin on the Oratory of San Filippo and Santa Teresa, in the Venaria, for Basilica di Superga and he painted the frescoes of Probatica, in the Ospedale di Santa Maria della Scala of Siena. In Genoa, he painted the large canvases of the Palazzo Lomellini-Doria. In 1739, he published a guide to painting, Ammonimenti and he returned to Naples in 1752, and enjoyed the royal patronage of Charles III. He painted till late in life, the landscape is often a billowing cloud. Even in an intimate scene such as Rinaldo & Armida. Similarly, the introspection of the moment recounted by Christ at the Garden of Gesthmane is afflicted with a cascade of angels. It is an mannerist Baroque, not its distilled apotheosis, but an elaboration from its roots in Carracci. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conca. Media related to Sebastiano Conca at Wikimedia Commons
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Guido Reni
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Guido Reni was an Italian painter of high-Baroque style. Born in Bologna into a family of musicians, Guido Reni was the son of Daniele Reni, as a child of nine, he was apprenticed under the Bolognese studio of Denis Calvaert. Soon after, he was joined in studio by Albani. He may also have trained with a painter by the name of Ferrantini, when Reni was about twenty years old, the three Calvaert pupils migrated to the rising rival studio, named Accademia degli Incamminati, led by Lodovico Carracci. They went on to form the nucleus of a prolific and successful school of Bolognese painters who followed Lodovicos cousin Annibale Carracci to Rome, like many other Bolognese painters, Renis painting was thematic and eclectic in style. By late 1601, Reni and Albani had moved to Rome to work with the led by Annibale Carracci in fresco decoration of the Farnese Palace. During 1601–1604, his patron was Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrati. By 1604–1605, he received an independent commission for an altarpiece of the Crucifixion of St. Peter, after a few year sojourn in Bologna, he returned to Rome to become one of the premier painters during the papacy of Paul V. From 1607–1614, he was one of the painters patronized by the Borghese family, Renis frescoed ceiling of the large central hall of garden palace, Casino dellAurora located in the grounds of the Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi, is considered his masterpiece. The casino was originally a pavilion commissioned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the massive fresco is framed in quadri riportati and depicts Apollo in his Chariot preceded by Dawn bringing light to the world. The work is restrained in classicism, copying poses from Roman sarcophagi, there is little concession to perspective, and the vibrantly colored style is antithetical to the tenebrism of Caravaggios followers. Payments showed that he was paid in 247 scudi and 54 baiocchi upon completion on 24 September 1616, the two families were in rather bad relations, and the reason for such friction was their constant quest for temporal power. Also the Popes brother, Antonio Barberini, was a cardinal, in those days, the main church of the Capuchins in Rome was St. Nicholas, rather small and dating back to the Middle Ages. The Archangel Michael trampling Satan, wears a late Roman military cloak,1636, held in Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini, Rome. According to a legend, Reni became aware that Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj had slandered him, so, Reni, sensing an opportunity, decided to avenge himself by means of his own talent, at the same time pleasing his client, who belonged to the opposing family. According to existing portraits of him, Cardinal Pamphilj had a face, with thin hair, a scanty beard and a somewhat strange look in his eyes. Therefore, the face that Archangel Michael crushes under his foot looks almost identical to that of Giovanni Battista Pamphilj and this turned out even more embarrassing a few years later, when in 1644 the cardinal was elected Pope Innocent X. According to rumor, the chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to paint
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Stefano Maderno
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Stefano Maderno was an Italian sculptor. News about Madernos life are scarce and often contradictory and he is best known for the seemingly unposed, naturalistic recumbent marble of Santa Cecilia in the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, which immediately established his reputation. The ʻʻSanta Ceciliaʻʻ was a counter-statement to the current dry and hectic complications of Mannerism, to which it confronted a simple sweeping outline and a stark pose. This is not a sanitized hagiographical representation of a saint, but the representation of an uncorrupted corpse. The saints tomb had been opened in 1599, and Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrato commissioned Maderno, very young at the time, compare this statue with the passionately theatrical representations of Saint Theresa and Ludovica Albertoni by Bernini, and the Santa Rosa de Lima by Melchiorre Caffà. Peter for the façade of the Palazzo del Quirinale, a statue of St, of the few sculptures outside of Italy, Cincinnati has a small bronze portraying Hercules and Antaeus, wherein Hercules has to lift Antaeus off the ground to kill him. Catholic Encyclopedia article on Stefano Maderno Patricia Wengraf Ltd, a newly rediscovered terracotta reworking the theme of the Hermitage Marsyas. Ostrow in The dictionary of art, Macmillan 1996, vol,20, pp. 46–48 Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy 1600-1750
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Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
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Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
Rome, Italy
Media related to Santa Cecilia in Trastevere at Wikimedia Commons
