1.
James Lambdin
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James Reid Lambdin was an American born artist, famous for many of his portraits of U. S. Presidents. James Lambdin was born on May 10,1807, in Pittsburgh and he later studied art in Philadelphia for two years under Thomas Sully. He is famous for his portraits of U. S. Presidents, including portraits of William Henry Harrison, Lambdin became professor of fine arts at the University of Pennsylvania. He had one son, George C, Lambdin, born in 1830 in Pittsburgh. In 1839 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician
2.
Newport, New Hampshire
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Newport is a town in and the county seat of Sullivan County, New Hampshire, United States. It is 43 miles west-northwest of Concord, the population was 6,507 at the 2010 census. A covered bridge is in the northwest, the area is noted for maple sugar and apple orchards. The town also includes the villages of Kelleyville and Guild, granted in 1753 by Colonial Governor Benning Wentworth, the town was named Grenville after George Grenville, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and brother-in-law of William Pitt. But ongoing hostilities during the French and Indian War, as close as the Fort at Number 4 at Charlestown, nevertheless, in 1761 the town would be incorporated as Newport, for Henry Newport, a distinguished English soldier and statesman. It was first settled in 1763 by pioneers from North Killingworth, Absalom Kelsey was one of the earliest settlers. The first blow in clearing the forests was struck by Absalom Kelsey on the D. F, pike farm at the foot of Claremont Hill, Newport, New Hampshire. At that time, the Connecticut River was the route for travel. The following year, the first gristmill was established, but dissatisfied with treatment by the state government far beyond the mountains, Newport in 1781 joined 33 other towns along the Connecticut River and seceded from New Hampshire to join Vermont. George Washington, however, would dissolve their union with Vermont in 1782, with excellent soil for farming, and abundant water power from the Sugar River and its South Branch to run mills, Newport grew prosperous. The first cotton mill was established by Colonel James D. Wolcott in 1813, local cabinet making flourished, producing much fine furniture. The plan was abandoned before it got started, in 1871, the Sugar River Railroad connected to Newport from Bradford. This plan worked, and over 120 water wheels would turn along the streams course, by 1859, when the population was 2,020, Newport had three woolen mills and two tanneries. It also had the Sibley Scythe Company, established in 1842, the following year, in June 1766, these men having an addition of two to their number, making eight in all, five having families, came and made the first permanent settlement. No record or tradition is showing the precise day of their arrival. The following were among the earliest settlers, the first five having families.7 square miles, of which 43.6 sq mi is land and 0.1 sq mi is water, comprising 0. 18% of the town. The central village of Newport, a place, has an area of 10.9 sq mi. Other settlements within the town include North Newport, Kelleyville, Guild, Newport is drained by the Sugar River and its South Branch, with the town center at their confluence
3.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
4.
Nursery rhyme
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A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem or song for children in Britain and many other countries, but usage of the term only dates from the late 18th/early 19th century. In North America the term Mother Goose Rhymes, introduced in the century, is still often used. From the mid-16th century they begin to be recorded in English plays, the first English collections, Tommy Thumbs Song Book and a sequel, Tommy Thumbs Pretty Song Book, were published before 1744. John Newberys compilation of English rhymes, Mother Gooses Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle, is the first record we have of many classic rhymes, the oldest childrens songs of which we have records are lullabies, intended to help a child sleep. Lullabies can be found in human culture. The English term lullaby is thought to come from lu, lu or la la sounds made by mothers or nurses to calm children, until the modern era lullabies were usually only recorded incidentally in written sources. The Roman nurses lullaby, Lalla, Lalla, Lalla, aut dormi, aut lacta, is recorded in a scholium on Persius and may be the oldest to survive. Many medieval English verses associated with the birth of Jesus take the form of a lullaby, including Lullay, my liking, my son, my sweting. However, most of those used today date from the 17th century, for example, a well known lullaby such as Rock-a-bye, baby on a tree top, cannot be found in records until the late-18th century when it was printed by John Newbery. A French poem, similar to Thirty days hath September, numbering the days of the month, was recorded in the 13th century, from the later Middle Ages there are records of short childrens rhyming songs, often as marginalia. From the mid-16th century they begin to be recorded in English plays, pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, bakers man is one of the oldest surviving English nursery rhymes. The earliest recorded version of the rhyme appears in Thomas dUrfeys play The Campaigners from 1698. The publication of John Newberys compilation of English rhymes, Mother Gooses Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle, is the first record we have of many classic rhymes, about half of the currently recognised traditional English rhymes were known by the mid-18th century. In the early 19th century printed collections of rhymes began to spread to countries, including Robert Chamberss Popular Rhymes of Scotland and in the United States. Early folk song also often collected nursery rhymes, including in Scotland Sir Walter Scott and in Germany Clemens Brentano. By the time of Sabine Baring-Goulds A Book of Nursery Songs, folklore was a study, full of comments. A professional anthropologist, Andrew Lang produced The Nursery Rhyme Book in 1897, the early years of the 20th century are notable for the illustrations to childrens books including Caldecotts Hey Diddle Diddle Picture Book and Arthur Rackhams Mother Goose. The definitive study of English rhymes remains the work of Iona, many nursery rhymes have been argued to have hidden meanings and origins
5.
Mary Had a Little Lamb
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The nativity of Jesus or birth of Jesus is described in the gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the time of Herod the Great to a virgin whose name was Mary. In Christian theology the nativity marks the incarnation of Jesus as the second Adam, in fulfillment of the divine will of God, undoing the damage caused by the fall of the first man, Adam. The artistic depiction of the nativity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century, the nativity plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Christian congregations of the Western tradition begin observing the season of Advent four Sundays before Christmas, the traditional feast-day of his birth, which falls on December 25. The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, the Gospels of both Matthew and Luke place the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. However, Luke 1, 26–27 clearly states that Mary lived in Nazareth before the birth of Jesus, at the time of the Annunciation. The Gospel of Luke states that Mary gave birth to Jesus and placed him in a manger “because there was no place for them in the inn, but does not say exactly where Jesus was born. This could be a place to keep the sheep within the Bethlehem area, in the 2nd century, Justin Martyr stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while the Protoevangelium of James described a legendary birth in a cave nearby. In Contra Celsum 1.51, Origen, who from around 215 travelled throughout Palestine, the Quranic birth of Jesus, like the Gospels, places the virgin birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. This is how the birth of Jesus the Messiah came about, Mary, the mother of Jesus, was betrothed to Joseph, but was found to be pregnant through the Holy Spirit. Joseph intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in a dream that he should take Mary as his wife and name the child Jesus, Joseph awoke and did all that the angel commanded. Chapter 1 of Matthews Gospel recounts Jesus birth and naming and the beginning of chapter 2 reveals that Jesus was born in Bethlehem during the time of Herod the Great. Magi from the east came to Herod and asked him where they would find the King of the Jews, advised by the chief priests and teachers, Herod sent the Magi to Bethlehem, where they worshiped the child and gave him gifts. When they had departed an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned him to take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt, for Herod intended to kill him. The Holy Family remained in Egypt until Herod died, when Joseph took them to Nazareth in Galilee for fear of Herods son who now ruled in Jerusalem, so was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene. When the time of the birth drew near the Roman Emperor commanded a census of all the world, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the city of David, as he was of the House of David. In accordance with the Jewish law his parents presented the infant Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem, Joseph and Mary then returned to Nazareth
6.
Thanksgiving (United States)
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Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a public holiday celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States. It originated as a harvest festival, Thanksgiving has been celebrated nationally on and off since 1789, after a proclamation by George Washington. Together with Christmas and the New Year, Thanksgiving is a part of the holiday season. The event that Americans commonly call the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World in October 1621 and this feast lasted three days, and—as accounted by attendee Edward Winslow—it was attended by 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims. The New England colonists were accustomed to regularly celebrating thanksgivings—days of prayer thanking God for blessings such as military victory or the end of a drought. Setting aside time to give thanks for blessings, along with holding feasts to celebrate a harvest, are both practices that long predate the European settlement of North America. The first documented thanksgiving services in territory belonging to the United States were conducted by Spaniards. Thanksgiving services were routine in what became the Commonwealth of Virginia as early as 1607, with the first permanent settlement of Jamestown, in 1619,38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred in Charles City County, Virginia. The groups London Company charter specifically required that the day of our ships arrival at the place assigned, in the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God. Americans also trace the Thanksgiving holiday to a 1621 celebration at the Plymouth Plantation, autumn or early winter feasts continued sporadically in later years, first as an impromptu religious observance, and later as a civil tradition. Squanto, a Patuxet Native American who resided with the Wampanoag tribe, taught the Pilgrims how to catch eel and grow corn, squanto had learned the English language during his enslavement in England. The Wampanoag leader Massasoit had given food to the colonists during the first winter when supplies brought from England were insufficient, the Pilgrims celebrated at Plymouth for three days after their first harvest in 1621. Seventeenth-century accounts do not identify this as a thanksgiving observance, rather it followed the harvest and it included 50 persons who were on the Mayflower and 90 Native Americans. The feast was cooked by the four adult Pilgrim women who survived their first winter in the New World, along with young daughters, two colonists gave personal accounts of the 1621 feast in Plymouth. The Pilgrims, most of whom were Separatists, are not to be confused with Puritans, both groups were strict Calvinists, but differed in their views regarding the Church of England. Puritans wished to remain in the Anglican Church and reform it, for as some were thus employed in affairs abroad, others were exercised in fishing, about cod and bass and other fish, of which they took good store, of which every family had their portion. All the summer there was no want, and now began to come in store of fowl, as winter approached, and besides waterfowl there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many, besides venison, etc. Besides, they had about a peck a meal a week to a person, or now since harvest, which made many afterwards write so largely of their plenty here to their friends in England, which were not feigned but true reports
7.
Bunker Hill Monument
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There are 294 steps to the top. An exhibit lodge built adjacent to the monument in the late 19th century houses a statue of fallen hero Dr. Joseph Warren, Bunker Hill is one of the sites along the Freedom Trail and is part of Boston National Historical Park. The monument underwent a $3.7 million renovation, completed in 2007, that included repairs, handicap accessibility improvements, the Bunker Hill Museum across the street was dedicated in June of that year and includes many exhibits about the battle. No admission charge applies to the museum or monument, the monument was one of the first in the United States. In front of the obelisk is a statue of Col. William Prescott, according to popular stories, he coined the famous Revolutionary War phrase, Dont fire until you see the whites of their eyes during the battle. However, various writers attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott or Gridley, the Monument is not on Bunker Hill, but instead on Breeds Hill, where most of the fighting in the misnamed Battle of Bunker Hill actually took place. The Monument Association, which had purchased the site, was forced to sell off all. William Ticknor, a well-known Boston lawyer and antiquarian, first suggested the memorial, an interested group of men met for breakfast at the home of Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, including William Tudor, Daniel Webster, Professor George Ticknor, Doctor John C. Warren, William Sullivan, and George Blake, on May 10,1823, the first public meeting was called. Each member subscribed five dollars, and on June 7,1823, the Bunker Hill Monument Association was established, famed nineteenth-century philanthropist Amos Lawrence contributed $10,000 to the monuments erection. In the spring of 1825 the directors had purchased about 15 acres on the slope of Breeds Hill, the first design committee consisted of Webster, noted engineer Loammi Baldwin, Jr. George Ticknor, Gilbert Stuart, and Washington Allston. One hundred dollars was offered for the best design, about 50 plans were presented in response, choice was soon narrowed to a column and an obelisk and a new committee was appointed to procure designs and estimate expenses for each. At the next meeting the majority voted that the obelisk designed by Solomon Willard be used, the directors laid the cornerstone on June 17,1825. The Marquis de Lafayette performed the ceremony, Webster delivered the oration, rev. Joseph Thaxter, who was wounded in the battle, officiated as chaplain at the ceremony, offering a prayer in thanks for the colonists victory. Blocks of granite for the monument averaged two cubic yards each and were quarried by wedging. Delivered to the site of the monument at an actual cost of $5.40 per cubic yard from an opened for the purpose far under the average contract offers for the same of $24.30. Construction was frequently halted as available funds were depleted, neighbors disgruntled with the construction eyesore were rumored to have plans to raise money to tear down the partially completed monument. Sarah Josepha Hale and the readers of her magazine supplied funds essential to the successful completion
8.
New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
9.
Dartmouth College
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Dartmouth College is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, with a total student enrollment of about 6,400, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League. Undergraduate admissions is highly competitive, with a rate of 10. 4% for the Class of 2021. Dartmouths 269-acre campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England, the university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its focus, strong Greek culture. Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I, Dartmouth is consistently included among the highest-ranked universities in the United States by several institutional rankings. According to a Forbes study, despite its small size. In a New York Times corporate study, Dartmouths graduates were shown to be among the most sought-after and valued in the world. Dartmouth has produced prominent alumni, including 170 members of the U. S. Senate. Cabinet officials,3 Nobel Prize laureates,2 U. S. Supreme Court justices, diplomats, scholars in academia, literary and media figures, professional athletes, and Olympic medalists. Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregational minister from Columbia, Connecticut, wheelocks ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became a minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747. Wheelock founded Moors Indian Charity School in 1755, the Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue schools operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches, with these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge, in seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the Province of New Hampshire. The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources, the reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable use of the Charity Schools unspent trust funds. The College granted its first degrees in 1771, given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites. An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817
10.
Autodidacticism
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Autodidacticism or self-education is the education without the guidance of masters or institutions. Generally, an autodidact is an individual who chooses the subject they will study, their studying material, an autodidact may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to it. Many notable contributions have made by autodidacts. The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education, various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia, others are self-directed learning, in the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of his or her own learning. Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern education, as a complement to education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners, before the 20th century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his report on industry dated from 1853. However, even in the US, most children were not completing high school, high school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine. For many professions or for personal knowledge, however, formal education is not so necessary today due to the availability of free information on the Internet. Whereas in the past, one of the benefits of going to college was to gain access to their superior libraries, today access to facts. Financial analyst and author Peter Schiff, for one, says that never before in history has it been so easy to be self-educated, collegiate teaching was based on the classics until the early 19th century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800, institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, prior to the 19th century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who had typically received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training, james Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being largely self-educated. Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society, academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training. Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early 20th century and this phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor
11.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
12.
Liberia
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Liberia /laɪˈbɪəriə/, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to its west, Guinea to its north and it covers an area of 111,369 square kilometres and has a population of 4,503,000 people. English is the language and over 20 indigenous languages are spoken. The countrys capital and largest city is Monrovia, forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands. The climate is equatorial, with significant rainfall during the May–October rainy season, Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. It was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century, the Republic of Liberia began as a settlement of the American Colonization Society, who believed African Americans would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States. The country declared its independence on July 26,1847, the U. S. did not recognize Liberias independence until during the American Civil War on February 5,1862. The African American settlers carried their culture with them to Liberia, Liberia maintained and kept its independence during the European colonial era. In addition, President William Tubman encouraged economic changes, internationally, Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity. Five years of rule by the Peoples Redemption Council and five years of civilian rule by the National Democratic Party of Liberia were followed by the First. These resulted in the deaths and displacement of more than half a million people, a peace agreement in 2003 led to democratic elections in 2005. Recovery proceeds but about 85% of the population live below the poverty line. The Pepper Coast, also known as the Grain Coast, has been inhabited by peoples of Africa at least as far back as the 12th century. Mende-speaking people expanded westward from the Sudan, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward toward the Atlantic Ocean, the Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest documented peoples in the area. This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375, additionally, as inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation. Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region, the ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai. People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast, arab traders entered the region from the north, and a long-established slave trade took captives to north and east Africa
13.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
14.
Children's poetry
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Childrens poetry is poetry written for, or appropriate for children. This may include folk poetry, poetry written intentionally for young people, poetry written originally for adults, but appropriate for young people, and poems taken from prose works. Dr. Seuss - Wrote many Childrens poetry books including The Cat in the Hat, Green Eggs and Ham, robert Louis Stevenson - Author of such works as A Childs Garden of Verses. Shel Silverstein - Author of such works as Where the Sidewalk Ends and A Light in the Attic, Silverstein also wrote The Giving Tree. Jack Prelutsky - Author of such works as A Gopher in the Garden and Other Animal Poems, michael Rosen is a broadcaster, childrens novelist and poet and the author of 140 books. He was appointed as the fifth Childrens Laureate in June 2007, succeeding Jacqueline Wilson, roald Dahl is one of the most successful childrens writers in the world, around thirty million of his books have been sold in the UK alone. Dahls collection of poems Revolting Rhymes is a re-interpretation of six fairy tales. Dahls poems and stories are popular among Children because he writes from their point of view - in his books adults are often the villains or are just plain stupid. Brian Moses is one of Britains favourite childrens poets, for both his own poetry and the anthologies he has edited, and he has performed in two thousand schools across the UK and Europe. He is a Reading Champion for the Literacy Trust, roger Stevens is a performance poet, author, musician and artist. His poems have appeared in more than one hundred anthologies, gez Walsh is a performance poet and stand-up comedian best known as the author of the cult classic childrens poetry book The Spot on my Bum. Allan Ahlberg is one of Britains best-loved childrens writers, the author of over a hundred books. Jean Sprackland is an English poet, the author of three collections of poetry published since 1997, shepherd Thorleif Halvorsen - Author of The Bridge Across The River, a collection of poems for children. Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1964–1969, Index to Poetry for Children and Young People, 1976–1981. Frizzell Smith, Ardis Sarff O’Hoyt, and Mildred Bakke, subject Index to Poetry for Children and Young People. Chicago, American Library Association,1957, ISBN 0-8389-0242-1
15.
Louis Antoine Godey
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Louis Antoine Godey was an American editor and publisher, known as the founder of Godeys Ladys Book, the first successful American womens fashion magazine. Godey was born to French immigrant parents in New York and his family was poor and he had no formal schooling, but he was self-educated. At age 15, he took a job as a boy in New York. Several years later, he moved to Philadelphia and became an editor for the Daily Chronicle, in 1830, he published the first edition of the Ladys Book, composed of reprinted articles and illustrations from French magazines. Godey married Maria Duke in 1833 and had five children, Godey hired Sarah Josepha Hale to be editor of Godeys Ladys Book in 1837. She remained the editor until her retirement in 1877, the magazine became extremely popular, becoming Americas highest circulated magazine in the 1840s and reaching over 150,000 subscribers by 1858. Godey published two magazines, The Young People’s Book and Lady’s Musical Library with less successful results. Godey copyrighted each issue of Godeys Ladys Book starting in 1845, in the 1870s, he retired to St. Augustine, Florida, but returned to Philadelphia where he died in 1878. He and his wife are buried at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Louis Godey biography Columbia Encyclopedia entry for Louis Godey Godey in The Literary History of Philadelphia
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Godey's Lady's Book
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Godeys Ladys Book, alternatively known as Godeys Magazine and Ladys Book, was a United States womens magazine that was published in Philadelphia from 1830–1878. It was the most widely circulated magazine in the period before the Civil War and its circulation rose from 70,000 in the 1840s to 150,000 in 1860. In the 1860s Godeys considered itself the queen of monthlies, the magazine was published by Louis A. Godey from Philadelphia for 48 years. Godey intended to take advantage of the popularity of gift books, each issue contained poetry, articles, and engravings created by prominent writers and other artists of the time. Sarah Josepha Hale was its editor from 1837 until 1877 and only published original, although the magazine was read and contained work by both men and women, Hale published three special issues that only included work done by women. When Hale started at Godeys, the magazine had a circulation of ten thousand subscribers, two years later, it jumped to 40,000 and by 1860 had 150,000 subscribers. In 1845, Louis Godey began copyrighting each issue of the magazine to prevent other magazine and this move, a first in America, was criticized by editors at the Baltimore Saturday Visiter. They called it a narrowly selfish course and stated that Godey would rue it bitterly, the magazine was expensive, subscribers paid $3 per year. Even so, it was the most popular journal in its day, under Hales editorship, the list of subscribers to Godeys reached 150,000. Hale took advantage of her role and became influential as an arbiter of American taste and she used some of her influence to further several causes for women. For example, she created a section with the heading Employment for Women beginning in 1852 to discuss women in the workforce. In general, Godey disliked discussing political issues or controversial topics in his magazine, in the 1850s, he dismissed Sara Jane Lippincott as assistant editor for denouncing slavery in the National Era. Lippincott publicly denounced Godey in response and Godey later recanted, nevertheless, he forbade his journal from taking a position during the American Civil War. In fact, during the war, the magazine made no acknowledgment of it whatsoever, in the process, Godeys lost about one-third of its subscribers. Godey sold the magazine in 1877 to John Hill Seyes Haulenbeek before his death in 1878, the magazine ceased publication with the death of Haulenbeek in 1878. The magazine is best known for the hand-tinted fashion plate that appeared at the start of each issue, publisher Louis Godey boasted that in 1859, it cost $105,200 to produce the Ladys Book, with the coloring of the fashion-plates costing $8,000. Almost every issue also included an illustration and pattern with measurements for a garment to be sewn at home, a sheet of music for piano provided the latest waltz, polka or galop. Edgar Allan Poe had one of his earliest short stories The Visionary printed in Godeys in 1834 and he also published several other works in the magazine, A Tale of the Ragged Mountains, The Oblong Box, Thou Art the Man, and The Cask of Amontillado
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Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
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Lydia Sigourney
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Lydia Huntley Sigourney, née Lydia Howard Huntley, was a popular American poet during the early and mid 19th century. She was commonly known as the Sweet Singer of Hartford, most of her works were published with just her married name Mrs. Sigourney. Mrs. Sigourney was born in Norwich, Connecticut to Ezekiel Huntley and their only child, she was named after her fathers first wife, Lydia Howard, who had died soon after marrying Ezekiel. My mind was made up never to leave my parents and she was educated in Norwich and Hartford. With her friend Nancy Maria Hyde, Sigourney opened a school for ladies in Norwich in 1811 The school was forced to close when Hyde became ill and was no longer able to teach. After the close of the Norwich school, she conducted a school in Hartford in the home of Daniel Wadsworth from 1814 until 1819. When she was young, one of her neighbors, the Widow Lathrop, was friendly with her. After her friend Madam Lathrop died, Lydia was sent to visit Mrs. Jeremiah Wadsworth and this visit put her in contact with Daniel Wadsworth. Daniel helped her set up a school for girls, arranging for daughters of his friends to attend, in 1815, he also helped her publish her first work, Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse, arranging the publishing and performing the initial editing himself. Sigourney described Wadsworth as her patron and says that he took upon himself the whole responsibility of contracting publishers, gathering subscriptions. She goes on to say that He delighted in drawing a mind from obscurity into a freer atmosphere. On June 16,1819, she married Charles Sigourney, and it was not until her parents were in dire need and her husband had lost some of his former affluence that she began to write as an occupation. When she was referred to as the author of the anonymous Letters to Young Ladies, By a Lady she admitted authorship. She often wrote elegies or poems for recently deceased neighbors, friends and her work is one example of Victorian-era death literature which views death as an escape to a better place, especially for children. A contemporary critic called her work, infused with morals, more like the dew than the lightning and she enjoyed substantial popularity in her lifetime and earned several nicknames, including the American Hemans, the Sweet Singer of Hartford, and the female Milton. Her influences included the work of Hannah More, William Wordsworth, an advocate of gendered spheres of society, Sigourney followed the example of Hannah More in creating a gendered rhetorical theory. Her first, Letters to Young Ladies, was published in 1833 and was printed more than twenty-five times and this book argued that women should practice reading aloud, and also offered advice in letter writing and memorization. Sigourney promotes the importance of being agreeable throughout the book, and suggests ways to take notes, Sigourney recommends that girls should form reading societies, and says that women should use their virtue to promote its appearance in others
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Caroline Lee Hentz
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She was a major literary figure in her day, and helped advance womens fiction. Caroline Hentz was born June 1,1800, Caroline Lee Whiting to Colonel John and Oprah Whiting on June 1,1800 in Lancaster, the youngest of eight children, Caroline was raised in a very patriotic family. Her father was a soldier in the Revolutionary War and three of her brothers fought in the War of 1812, as a child, she attended a private school run by Jared Sparks. By the time she was twelve, she had composed a fantasy about the Far East as well as a play. At seventeen she was teaching at a local Lancaster school, on September 30,1824, Caroline married Nicholas Marcellus Hentz. Shortly after, the moved to Chapel Hill, North Carolina with their first child. She is described as being “a northerner who traveled and worked throughout the South for nearly thirty years. ”She lived in seven different states in her lifetime, bore her husband five children, and managed to support her family financially with her writing. Being the youngest of eight, Caroline watched as “three of her brothers became officers and served in the War of 1812. ”Their letters home and “tales of patriotic adventure” were great inspiration to Caroline. As a young girl, Caroline was “popular with her companions, playing games, taking walks, and studying nature. ”On September 30,1824, Caroline married Nicholas Marcellus Hentz, “a political refugee from Metz son of a member of the French National Convention. ”The couple originally lived near Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts. In 1826, the moved to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where Nicholas became the chair of modern languages. During this period, Mrs. Hentz aided in helping an enslaved man, the couple left shortly after for Covington, Kentucky, where Nicholas later found a girls’ school in 1830. From their new home in Covington, Caroline wrote the prize-winning tragedy De Lara, or, although he offered her a $500 prize, he was unable to pay and gave Hentz back the copyright. In 1832, the opened a girls’ school in Cincinnati. While there, Caroline joined the Semi-Colon Club which is probably where her acquaintance with Harriet Beecher Stowe began, during their time in Cincinnati, Nicholas displayed an irrational jealousy that later fueled Caroline’s Byronic heroes. “According to their son, Dr. Charles A. Hentz, Colonel King of the Semi-Colon Club, sent a note to the dignified and accomplished Mrs. Hentz. ”When she attempted to respond to the note. After threatening to duel Colonel King, Nicholas swiftly closed down the school and the moved to Florence, Alabama. The couple had a total of five children, though their oldest son died when he was two years old. While in Florence, Caroline spent most of her caring for the couples’ four children. ”After living in Florence for nine years
20.
Elizabeth F. Ellet
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Elizabeth Fries Lummis Ellet was an American writer, historian and poet. She was the first writer to record the lives of women who contributed to the American Revolutionary War, born Elizabeth Fries Lummis, in New York, she published her first book, Poems, Translated and Original, in 1835. She married the chemist William Henry Ellet and the moved to South Carolina. She had published books and contributed to multiple journals. In 1845 she moved back to New York and took her place in the scene there. She was involved with a scandal involving Edgar Allan Poe and Frances Sargent Osgood and. Ellets most important work, The Women of the American Revolution, was published in 1845, the three volume book profiled the lives of patriotic women in the early history of the United States. She continued writing until her death in 1877, Elizabeth Fries Lummis was born in Sodus Point, New York, on October 18,1818. Her mother was Sarah Maxwell the daughter of American Revolutionary War captain John Maxwell, during the Revolution, John Maxwell was lieutenant of the first company raised in Sussex County, New Jersey. He was promoted to captain and attached to the Second Regiment Hunterdon County Militia and he was also a captain in Colonel Spencers regiment of the Continental Army from February 7,1777, to April 11,1778. He later joined the army of General George Washington as captain of a company of 100 volunteers known as Maxwells Company and her father was William Nixon Lummis, a prominent physician who studied medicine in Philadelphia under the famous Dr. Benjamin Rush. In the early part of 1800, Dr. Lummis left Philadelphia and purchased the Pulteney estate in Sodus Point, Wayne County, Elizabeth Lummis attended Aurora Female Seminary in Aurora, New York, where she studied, among other subjects, French, German and Italian. Her first published work, at age 16, was a translation of Silvio Pellicos Euphemio of Messina, around this time she married William Henry Ellet, a chemist from New York City. He graduated from Columbia College in New York and earned a medal for a dissertation on the compounds of cyanogen. The couple moved to Columbia, South Carolina, when he was professor of chemistry. He also discovered a new and inexpensive method of preparing guncotton, during this time Ellet published several books. In 1839 she wrote The Characters of Schiller, an essay on the writer Friedrich Schiller including her translation of many of his poems. Ellet wrote abundantly in a variety of genres
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Frances Sargent Osgood
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Frances Sargent Osgood was an American poet and one of the most popular women writers during her time. Nicknamed Fanny, she was famous for her exchange of romantic poems with Edgar Allan Poe. Frances Sargent Locke was born in Boston, Massachusetts to Joseph Locke, a wealthy merchant and her fathers first wife, Martha Ingersoll, was the sister of Mary, his second wife. Mary was also the widow of Benjamin Foster, by whom she had two children, William Vincent Foster and Anna Maria Wells, who would become a published poet. Joseph and Mary had seven children, including writer, Andrew Aitchison Locke. She grew up in Hingham, Massachusetts and as a woman she attended the prestigious Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies. Her poetry was first published when she was fourteen in a periodical of childrens poetry called Juvenile Miscellany by editor Lydia Maria Child. In 1834, while composing poems inspired by paintings, Frances met Samuel Stillman Osgood and he asked her to sit for a portrait. They were engaged before the portrait was finished and married on October 7,1835, after their marriage, the couple moved to England. On July 15,1836, their first daughter, Ellen Frances, was born, in 1838, while in England, she published her collection of poems A Wreath of Flowers from New England which included Elfrida, a dramatic poem in five acts. She then published another volume of poetry, The Casket of Fate, due to her fathers death, the Osgoods returned to Boston in 1839. After the birth of their daughter, May Vincent, on July 21,1839. Osgood became a member of the New York literary society. Many of her writings were published in the popular literary magazines of the time. She sometimes wrote under the pseudonyms Kate Carol or Violet Vane and her book, The Poetry of Flowers and the Flowers of Poetry was published in 1841. Some of her published works were The Snowdrop, a New Year Gift for Children, Rose, Sketches in Verse, Puss in Boots, The Marquis of Carabas. Although she was successful in her life, her personal life suffered. It is speculated that the Osgoods separated by 1843, in February 1845, Poe gave a lecture in New York in which he criticized American poetry, especially that of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
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Nathaniel Hawthorne
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Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist, dark romantic, and short story writer. He was born in 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, to Nathaniel Hathorne and his ancestors include John Hathorne, the only judge involved in the Salem witch trials who never repented of his actions. Nathaniel later added a w to make his name Hawthorne in order to hide this relation and he entered Bowdoin College in 1821, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1824, and graduated in 1825. Hawthorne published his first work, a novel titled Fanshawe, in 1828, he tried to suppress it. He published several stories in periodicals, which he collected in 1837 as Twice-Told Tales. The next year, he engaged to Sophia Peabody. He worked at the Boston Custom House and joined Brook Farm, the couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, later moving to Salem, the Berkshires, then to The Wayside in Concord. The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850, followed by a succession of other novels, a political appointment as consul took Hawthorne and family to Europe before their return to Concord in 1860. Hawthorne died on May 19,1864, and was survived by his wife, much of Hawthornes writing centers on New England, many works featuring moral allegories with a Puritan inspiration. His fiction works are considered part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically and his themes often center on the inherent evil and sin of humanity, and his works often have moral messages and deep psychological complexity. His published works include novels, short stories, and a biography of his college friend Franklin Pierce, Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4,1804, in Salem, Massachusetts, his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. William Hathorne, the authors great-great-great-grandfather, a Puritan, was the first of the family to emigrate from England, first settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts, before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held political positions including magistrate and judge. Williams son and the authors great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem witch trials. Hawthornes father, Nathaniel Hathorne, Sr. was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Suriname, he had been a member of the East India Marine Society. After his death, young Nathaniel, his mother, and two sisters moved in with relatives, the Mannings, in Salem, where they lived for 10 years. In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. In spite of his homesickness, for the sake of having fun, he distributed seven issues of The Spectator to his family in August, the homemade newspaper was written by hand
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Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
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Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. was an American physician, poet, and polymath based in Boston. A member of the Fireside Poets, he was acclaimed by his peers as one of the best writers of the day and his most famous prose works are the Breakfast-Table series, which began with The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table. He was also an important medical reformer, in addition to his work as an author and poet, Holmes also served as a physician, professor, lecturer, and inventor, and although he never practiced it, he received formal training in law. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Holmes was educated at Phillips Academy, after graduating from Harvard in 1829, he briefly studied law before turning to the medical profession. He began writing poetry at an age, one of his most famous works. Following training at the medical schools of Paris, Holmes was granted his M. D. from Harvard Medical School in 1836. He taught at Dartmouth Medical School before returning to teach at Harvard and, for a time, Holmes retired from Harvard in 1882 and continued writing poetry, novels and essays until his death in 1894. Many of his works were published in The Atlantic Monthly, a magazine that he named, for his literary achievements and other accomplishments, he was awarded numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world. Holmess writing often commemorated his native Boston area, and much of it was meant to be humorous or conversational, some of his medical writings, notably his 1843 essay regarding the contagiousness of puerperal fever, were considered innovative for their time. He was often called upon to issue occasional poetry, or poems written specifically for an event, Holmes also popularized several terms, including Boston Brahmin and anesthesia. Holmes was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 29,1809 and his birthplace, a house just north of Harvard Yard, was said to have been the place where the Battle of Bunker Hill was planned. He was the first son of Abiel Holmes, minister of the First Congregational Church and avid historian, Sarah was the daughter of a wealthy family, and Holmes was named for his maternal grandfather, a judge. The first Wendell, Evert Jansen, left the Netherlands in 1640 and settled in Albany, also through his mother, Holmes was descended from Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet and his wife, Anne Bradstreet, the first published American poet. From a young age, Holmes was small and suffered from asthma, when he was eight, he took his five-year-old brother, John, to witness the last hanging in Cambridges Gallows Lot and was subsequently scolded by his parents. After being exposed to such as John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Oliver Goldsmith. His first recorded poem, which was copied down by his father, was written when he was 13, although a talented student, the young Holmes was often admonished by his teachers for his talkative nature and habit of reading stories during school hours. He studied under Dame Prentiss and William Bigelow before enrolling in what was called the Port School, One of his schoolmates was future critic and author Margaret Fuller, whose intellect Holmes admired. Holmess father sent him to Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, Abiel chose Phillips, which was known for its orthodox Calvinist teachings, because he hoped his oldest son would follow him into the ministry
24.
Washington Irving
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Washington Irving was an American short story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Irving served as the U. S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846. He made his debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle. After moving to England for the business in 1815, he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. He continued to publish regularly—and almost always successfully—throughout his life, and just eight months before his death, Irving was also admired by some European writers, including Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Thomas Campbell, Francis Jeffrey, and Charles Dickens. Washington Irvings parents were William Irving, Sr. originally of Quholm, Shapinsay, Orkney and they married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy. They had eleven children, eight of whom survived to adulthood and their first two sons, each named William, died in infancy, as did their fourth child, John. Their surviving children were, William, Jr. Ann, Peter, Catherine, Ebenezer, John Treat, Sarah, and Washington. At age six, with the help of a nanny, Irving met his namesake, the president blessed young Irving, an encounter Irving later commemorated in a small watercolor painting, which still hangs in his home today. The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington Irvings birth, the family later moved across the street to 128 William St. An uninterested student, Irving preferred adventure stories and drama and and it was in Tarrytown that Irving became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow, with its quaint Dutch customs and local ghost stories. Irving made several trips up the Hudson as a teenager, including an extended visit to Johnstown, New York, where he passed through the Catskill mountain region. F all the scenery of the Hudson, Irving wrote later, the 19-year-old Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802, submitting commentaries on the citys social and theater scene under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle. The name, which evoked the writers Federalist leanings, was the first of many pseudonyms Irving would employ throughout his career. The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety, concerned for his health, Irvings brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806. Irving bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the development of an upwardly mobile young man, William wrote that, though he was pleased his brothers health was improving, he did not like the choice to gallop through Italy. Leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right, instead, Irving honed the social and conversational skills that would later make him one of the worlds most in-demand guests. I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness, Irving wrote, while visiting Rome in 1805, Irving struck up a friendship with the American painter Washington Allston, and nearly allowed himself to be persuaded into following Allston into a career as a painter
25.
James Kirke Paulding
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James Kirke Paulding was an American writer and, for a time, the United States Secretary of the Navy. James Kirke Paulding was born on August 22,1778, at Pleasant Valley and he became a close friend of Washington Irving. With Irving, Paulding proposed a literary project, as he described, one day in a frolicsome mood, we broached the idea of a little periodical merely for our own amusement, and that of the town, for neither of us anticipated any further circulation. The result was Salmagundi, a satirical periodical, from which the word Gotham was first ascribed as a name for New York City. In the decade before Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper achieved popular success, thereafter, his outstanding contributions were in the novel and in a stage comedy. Among Pauldings government positions were those of secretary to the Board of Navy Commissioners in 1815–23, president Martin Van Buren appointed him Secretary of the Navy in June 1838. As Secretary, he was a figure, whose extensive knowledge of naval affairs was balanced by notable lack of enthusiasm for new technology. He opposed the introduction of steam propelled warships declaring that he would never consent to let our old ships perish, nevertheless, his tenure was marked by advances in steam engineering, wide-ranging exploration efforts, enlargement of the fleet and an expansion of the Navys apprenticeship program. Paulding left office with the change of administrations in March 1841, returned to literary pursuits and he died at his farm near Hyde Park, New York. He is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, USS James K. Paulding was named in honor of Secretary of the Navy Paulding. Pauldings story, The Politician contains a maxim that is attributed to Samuel Gompers, Reward your friends. The story appears in his collection, Tales of the Good Woman, the same basic idea, appears in Platos dialogue, the Republic, where it is subsequently rejected as inadequate. 1807–1808 – Salmagundi 1812 – The Diverting History of John Bull,1835 – Life of George Washington, in two volumes 1836 – View of Slavery in the United States 1836 – The Book of St. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, london, J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Naval History & Heritage Command and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The Knickerbockers Rescue Santa Claus – an excerpt from Kirke Pauldings The Book of Saint Nicholas
26.
William Gilmore Simms
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William Gilmore Simms was a poet, novelist and historian from the American South. His writings achieved great prominence during the 19th century, with Edgar Allan Poe pronouncing him the best novelist America had ever produced and he is still known among literary scholars as a major force in antebellum Southern literature. He is also remembered for his support of slavery and for his opposition to Uncle Toms Cabin, in response to which he wrote reviews. Simms was born on April 17,1806, in Charleston, South Carolina, in his teen years, Simms worked as a clerk in a drugstore, he began to study law at the age of eighteen. He married Anna Malcolm Giles in 1826, after her death, he married Chevillette Eliza Roach. The bar of Charleston admitted him to practice in 1827, however, Simms first wrote poetry at the age of eight. In his 19th year, he produced a monody on General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, two years later, in 1827, he published Lyrical and Other Poems and Early Lays. In 1828 he became a journalist as well as editor and part owner of the City Gazette, atalantis established his fame as an author. His novel Martin Faber, the Story of a Criminal, a version of an earlier short story called The Confessions of a Murderer, was published in 1833. This gained Simms a national audience, Simms wrote a number of popular books between 1830 and 1860, sometimes focusing on the pre-colonial and colonial periods of Southern history. These included such titles as The Yemassee, The Lily and the Totem, or, The Huguenots in Florida, Vasconselos, many critics believe The Cassique of Kiawah to be Simmss finest novel. At first, Southern readers, especially those in his town of Charleston. Eventually, however, he was referred to as the Southern version of James Fenimore Cooper, Simms also wrote eight novels set in South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War, beginning with The Partisan, which was perhaps Simmss most-read novel, and Katharine Walton. Other titles included Mellichampe, The Kinsmen, Woodcraft, The Forayers, Eutaw, finally, Simms wrote ten novels dealing with the expansion into the frontier territory from Georgia to Louisiana, such as Richard Hurdis, or, the Avenger of Blood. A Tale of Alabama and Border Beagles, A Tale of Mississippi, in 1852, Simms published As Good as A Comedy, Or, The Tennessean’s Story. Simms was one of the most respected historians of his day and his History of South Carolina served for several generations as the standard school textbook on the states history. He also wrote highly popular biographies of Revolutionary War heroes Francis Marion, Nathanael Greene, and John Laurens, as well as John Smith, additionally, Simms was a popular lecturer on American history, he accumulated one of the largest collections of Revolutionary War manuscripts in the country. Most of this collection was lost when stragglers from Shermans army burned his plantation home Woodlands near the Georgia border, together they published numerous articles calling for moral reform of the South, including a stewardship role of masters in relation to slavery
27.
Nathaniel Parker Willis
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Nathaniel Parker Willis, also known as N. P. Willis, was an American author, poet and editor who worked with several notable American writers including Edgar Allan Poe and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. He became the highest-paid magazine writer of his day, for a time, he was the employer of former slave and future writer Harriet Jacobs. His brother was the composer Richard Storrs Willis and his sister Sara wrote under the name Fanny Fern, born in Portland, Maine, Willis came from a family of publishers. His grandfather Nathaniel Willis owned newspapers in Massachusetts and Virginia, and his father Nathaniel Willis was the founder of Youths Companion, Willis developed an interest in literature while attending Yale College and began publishing poetry. After graduation, he worked as a correspondent for the New York Mirror. He eventually moved to New York and began to build his literary reputation, working with multiple publications, he was earning about $100 per article and between $5,000 and $10,000 per year. In 1846, he started his own publication, the Home Journal, shortly after, Willis moved to a home on the Hudson River where he lived a semi-retired life until his death in 1867. Willis embedded his own personality into his writing and addressed his readers personally, specifically in his travel writings, critics, including his sister in her novel Ruth Hall, occasionally described him as being effeminate and Europeanized. Willis also published poems, tales, and a play. Despite his intense popularity for a time, at his death Willis was nearly forgotten, Nathaniel Parker Willis was born on January 20,1806, in Portland, Maine. His father Nathaniel Willis was a newspaper proprietor there and his grandfather owned newspapers in Boston, Massachusetts and his mother was Hannah Willis from Holliston, Massachusetts and it was her husbands offer to edit the Eastern Argus in Maine that caused their move to Portland. Williss younger sister was Sara Willis Parton, who would become a writer under the pseudonym Fanny Fern. His brother, Richard Storrs Willis, became a musician and music journalist known for writing the melody for It Came Upon the Midnight Clear and his other siblings were Lucy Douglas, Louisa Harris, Julia Dean, Mary Perry, Edward Payson, and Ellen Holmes. In 1816, the moved to Boston, where Williss father established the Boston Recorder and, nine years later, the Youths Companion. The elder Williss emphasis on religious themes earned him the nickname Deacon Willis, after attending a Boston grammar school and Phillips Academy at Andover, Nathaniel Parker Willis entered Yale College in October 1823 where he roomed with Horace Bushnell. Willis credited Bushnell with teaching him the technique for sharpening a razor by drawing it from heel to point both ways. The two cross frictions correct each other, at Yale, he further developed an interest in literature, often neglecting his other studies. He graduated in 1827 and spent time touring parts of the United States, in Montreal, he met Chester Harding, with whom he would become a lifelong friend
28.
Gift book
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Gift books, literary annuals or a keepsake were 19th-century books, often lavishly decorated, which collected essays, short fiction, and poetry. They were primarily published in the autumn, in time for the season and were intended to be given away rather than read by the purchaser. They were often printed with the date of the new year. Gift books first appeared in England in the 1820s, the first known example is Rudolph Ackermanns Forget Me Not, subtitled a Christmas and New Year’s Present for 1823, published in November 1822. It was decoratively bound and came in a slipcase and it was successful, and by 1832 there were sixty-three different annual gift books being published in England. In 1826, The Atlantic Souvenir was the first American annual published, many gift books were among the first periodicals to pay contributors and editors regularly. This was a draw to many writers, many of whom tailored their work to suit the readers of these types of publications, some of the more important annuals of the time were the Opal, Talisman, the Magnolia, the Gift, the Liberty Bell and the Token. The era of the book did not outlast the 19th century. The American Book of Beauty had contributed to the death of the annual and they published this book several times, sometimes with the etchings in different orders or including additional William Henry Mote etchings. Almost all contained steel engravings, a new technology around 1820 which allowed mass production, watercolor became popular in the 1830s, and the black-and-white etchings allowed people of ordinary skill to color in and display these book plates, which gave more legs to the fad. In 1844 there was an article referring to it as imbecilic mania, the new cheaper illustration techniques of the 1860s could not produce the same illustrations. The annual The Token, which began in 1828 and lasted fifteen years, was edited by Samuel Griswold Goodrich, because of the prevalence and popularity of gift books, he referred to the time period as the Age of Annuals. A notable feature of books was their decorative aspect. They featured increasingly lavish bindings, ranging from glazed paper to embossed silk or embossed and their size increased over time as well as their interior decoration. Pages often featured flowery borders, and the books were illustrated with engravings or colored plates. An inscription plate was often included for the giver to inscribe to the recipient. The material included was usually original but sometimes in the cheaper volumes may have been reprinted, usually the books included the year in the title but in some cases, this was omitted, and the publisher would sell the volumes remainders the next year. In some cases an old annual would be reprinted with a new name, or with just the lead article and some illustration plates changed, or even renamed using a more popular name from a rival publisher
29.
The Opal (annual)
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The Opal, A Pure Gift for the Holy Days, was an annual gift book, founded by Rufus Wilmot Griswold and published in New York by John C. Content included short stories, illustrations and poems, Griswold began soliciting contributions for the annual in 1843, initially intending to call it The Christian Offering. It was first edited by Nathaniel Parker Willis, John Keese and it was in the 1844 issue that Edgar Allan Poe first published Morning on the Wissahiccon. Other contributors included Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Elizabeth F. Ellet, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, Poes Literary Executor. New York, Morris, Willis and Co
30.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
31.
Phonograph
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The phonograph is a device invented in 1877 for the mechanical recording and reproduction of sound. In its later forms it is called a gramophone. To recreate the sound, the surface is rotated while a playback stylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it. In later electric phonographs, the motions of the stylus are converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. The phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, while other inventors had produced devices that could record sounds, Edisons phonograph was the first to be able to reproduce the recorded sound. His phonograph originally recorded sound onto a sheet wrapped around a rotating cylinder. A stylus responding to sound vibrations produced an up and down or hill-and-dale groove in the foil, in the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its system, the stylus or needle. The disc phonograph record was the dominant audio recording format throughout most of the 20th century, from the mid-1980s on, phonograph use on a standard record player declined sharply because of the rise of the cassette tape, compact disc and other digital recording formats. Records are still a favorite format for some audiophiles and DJs, vinyl records are still used by some DJs and musicians in their concert performances. Musicians continue to release their recordings on vinyl records, the original recordings of musicians are sometimes re-issued on vinyl. Usage of terminology is not uniform across the English-speaking world, in more modern usage, the playback device is often called a turntable, record player, or record changer. When used in conjunction with a mixer as part of a DJ setup, the term phonograph was derived from the Greek words φωνή and γραφή. The similar related terms gramophone and graphophone have similar root meanings, the roots were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as photograph, telegraph, and telephone. In British English, gramophone may refer to any sound-reproducing machine using disc records, the term phonograph was usually restricted to machines that used cylinder records. Gramophone generally referred to a wind-up machine, after the introduction of the softer vinyl records, 33 1⁄3-rpm LPs and 45-rpm single or two-song records, and EPs, the common name became record player or turntable. Often the home record player was part of a system that included a radio and, later, from about 1960, such a system began to be described as a hi-fi or a stereo. In American English, phonograph, properly specific to machines made by Edison, was used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others
32.
Laurel Hill Cemetery
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Laurel Hill Cemetery is a cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that was the second major garden or rural cemetery in the United States. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1998, one of only a few cemeteries to receive the distinction, located in Philadelphias East Falls section, the 74-acre cemetery overlooks the Schuylkill River. Laurel Hill contains more than 33,000 monuments and more than 11,000 family lots and its thousands of 19th- and 20th-century marble and granite funerary monuments include obelisks and elaborately sculpted hillside tombs and mausoleums. The property was acquired from businessman Joseph Sims, designed by Scottish-American architect John Notman, Laurel Hill introduced new landscape ideas and burial concepts and became a model for the rural cemetery movement. The cemetery was developed and completed between 1836 and 1839. S, during and after the American Civil War, Laurel Hill became the final resting place of hundreds of military figures, including 42 Civil War-era generals. The city later grew past Laurel Hill, but the cemetery retained its rural character, from its inception, Laurel Hill was intended as a civic institution designed for public use. In an era before public parks and museums, it was a cultural attraction where the general public could experience the art. Classical Revival, Gothic Revival, Egyptian Revival and other styles are rendered in a wide palette of materials, including marble, granite, cast-iron. Notable artists and architects, including Notman, Alexander Milne Calder, Laurel Hill became an immensely popular destination in its early years and required tickets for admission. Writer Andrew Jackson Downing reported “nearly 30,000 persons…entered the gates between April and December,1848. ”In 1978, the Friends of Laurel Hill Cemetery, a 501 non-profit organization, was founded to support the cemetery. The mission of the Friends is to assist the Laurel Hill Cemetery Company in preserving and promoting the character of Laurel Hill. Today, Laurel Hill Cemetery stands as a repository of both art and historical artifacts. Its monuments embody the design, craftsmanship and iconography of 19th and 20th century American funerary art. Burials in the include, Robert Adams, Jr. U. S. Congressman from Pennsylvania Robert H. Foerderer, U. S, Congressman from Pennsylvania Adam Forepaugh, an entrepreneur, businessman, and circus owner Samuel Gibbs French, Confederate General has a cenotaph in his familys plot in Laurel Hill. Frank Furness, Medal of Honor recipient, architect Henry D. Gilpin, Congressman Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler, first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey Joseph Hemphill, U. S. Congressman Alexander Henry, Civil War mayor of Philadelphia Henry Wilson Hodge, engineer Isaac Hull, Commodore, USN, captained Constitution to victory over HMS Guerriere Owen Jones, U. S. Congressman Harry Kalas, Philadelphia Phillies Hall of Fame broadcaster Elisha Kane, explorer William D. Kelley, Congressman William J. Kirkpatrick, composer Henry Charles Lea, historian Michael Leib, U. S
33.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
34.
Play (activity)
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In psychology and ethology, play is a range of voluntary, intrinsically motivated activities normally associated with recreational pleasure and enjoyment. Play is commonly associated with children and juvenile-level activities, but play occurs at any life stage, Play is often interpreted as frivolous, yet the player can be intently focused on their objective, particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a game. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited and spontaneous through frivolous to planned or even compulsive. Play is not just an activity, it has the potential to serve as an important tool in numerous aspects of daily life for adolescents, adults. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it and it proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the formation of social groupings that tend to themselves with secrecy. This definition of play as constituting a separate and independent sphere of activity is sometimes referred to as the magic circle notion of play. Jean Piaget stated, the theories of play expounded in the past are clear proof that the phenomenon is difficult to understand. Play can take the form of improvisation or pretence, interactive, performance, mimicry, games, sports, and thrill-seeking, such as extreme or dangerous sports. Philosopher Roger Caillois wrote about play in his 1961 book Man, Play and Games and Stephen Nachmanovitch expanded on concepts in his 1990 book Free Play, Improvisation in Life. Without play, learning and evolution are impossible, Play is the taproot from which original art springs, it is the raw stuff that the artist channels and organizes with all his learning and technique. Structured play has clearly defined goals and rules and such play is called a game, other play is unstructured or open-ended. Both types of play promote adaptive behaviors and mental states of happiness, while appropriate within the sports play space, these same behaviors might be inappropriate or even illegal outside the playfield. Other designed play spaces can be playgrounds with dedicated equipment and structures to promote active, some play spaces go even farther in specialization to bring the play indoors and will often charge admission as seen at Childrens Museums, Science Centers, or Family Entertainment Centers. The California-based National Institute for Play describes seven play patterns, Attunement play, body play, in which an infant explores the ways in which his or her body works and interacts with the world, such as making funny sounds or discovering what happens in a fall. Object play, such as playing with toys, banging pots and pans, social play, play which involves others in activities such as tumbling, making faces, and building connections with another child or group of children. Imaginative or pretend play, in which a child invents scenarios from his or her imagination and acts within them as a form of play, such as princess or pirate play. Storytelling play, the play of learning and language that develops intellect, such as a parent reading aloud to a child, Creative play, by which one plays with imagination to transcend what is known in the current state, to create a higher state
35.
Physical education
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Physical education, also known as Phys Ed. PE, Gym or Gym class, and known in many Commonwealth countries as physical training or PT, is a course related of maintaining the human body through physical exercises. It is taken during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to promote health, pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played, in more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the fitness of the pupils. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests, students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or as fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In Malaysia, pupils from schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, netball, basketball, pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In the Philippines, PE is mandatory for all years, unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum, in Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Starting from Junior High School, several games such as basketball, volleyball, cricket, tennis, badminton, kho kho, kabaddi. Several drills and physical training are taught, in Australia, physical education was first made an important part of the curriculum in Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legislative Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, in British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes, the curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, students must be able to describe benefits of exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active. Ontario, Canada has a procedure in place. On October 6,2005 in Ontario, Canada the Ontario Ministry of Education implemented a Daily Physical Activity policy in Elementary Schools, Grades 1-8
36.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
37.
Vassar College
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Vassar College is a private, coeducational, liberal arts college in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, in the United States. Founded in 1861 by Matthew Vassar, it was the first degree-granting institution of education for women in the United States. It became coeducational in 1969, and now has a ratio at the national average. The college offers B. A. degrees in more than 50 majors, Vassar also offers many extracurricular organizations including student theater, a cappella groups, club sports, volunteer and service groups, and a circus troupe. Vassar Colleges varsity sports teams, known as the Brewers, play in the NCAAs Division III as members of the Liberty League. Vassar tied for the 12th best liberal arts college in the nation in the 2017 annual ranking of U. S. News & World Report, for the freshman class entering fall 2016, the college had an acceptance rate of 26. 9%. The total number of attending the college is around 2,450. The Vassar campus comprises over 1,000 acres and more than 100 buildings, a designated arboretum, the campus features more than 200 species of trees, a native plant preserve, and a 400-acre ecological preserve. Vassar was founded as a school under the name Vassar Female College in 1861. The college became coeducational in 1969, Vassar was the second of the Seven Sisters colleges, higher education schools that were formerly strictly for women, and historically sister institutions to the Ivy League. It was chartered by its namesake, brewer Matthew Vassar, in 1861 in the Hudson Valley, the first person appointed to the Vassar faculty was the astronomer Maria Mitchell, in 1865. However, immediately following World War II, Vassar accepted a small number of male students on the G. I. Because Vassars charter prohibited male matriculants, the graduates were given diplomas via the University of the State of New York and these were reissued under the Vassar title after the school formally became co-educational. In its early years, Vassar was associated with the elite of the Protestant establishment. E. Digby Baltzell writes that upper-class WASP families educated their children at such as Harvard, Princeton, Yale. A select and elite few of Vassars students were allowed entry into the secret society Delta Sigma Rho. Before becoming President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a Trustee, roughly 2,450 students attend Vassar, and 98% live on campus. About 60% come from high schools, and 40% come from private schools
38.
Catharine Beecher
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Beecher was born September 6,1800, in East Hampton, New York, the daughter of outspoken religious leader Lyman Beecher and Roxanna Beecher. Beecher was educated at home until she was ten years old, when she was sent to a school in Litchfield, Connecticut. The experience left her longing for additional opportunities for education and she taught herself subjects not commonly offered to women, including math, Latin, and philosophy. She took over the duties of her household at the age of 16. Beecher became a teacher in 1821 at a school in New Haven, catharine was engaged to marry Professor Alexander M. Fisher of Yale University, but he died at sea before the wedding took place. To provide such opportunities for others, in 1823 Beecher opened the Hartford Female Seminary. The private girls school in Hartford, Connecticut, had many alumni, including Catharine’s sister Harriet. The last was never published, although printed and used as a college textbook, ten of her pupils invited her to dine with them at a restaurant. She accepted the invitation, and the excellent dinner changed her views, thereafter they were served with more palatable food. In 1829 and 1830, Beecher led a movement to protest the Indian Removal Bill of President Andrew Jackson. This was the first national campaign on the part of women in the United States, in the bill, Jackson requested Congress approve the use of federal money to resettle southeastern American Indians, including the Cherokee, to land west of the Mississippi River. In response, Beecher published a “Circular Addressed to the Benevolent Ladies of the U. States, ” dated December 25,1829, calling on women to send petitions to Congress protesting the removal. ”Congress passed the bill, in 1832, Beecher moved with her father to Cincinnati to campaign for more schools and teachers in the frontier. There she opened a seminary, which, on account of her failing health, was discontinued after two years. She then devoted herself to the development of a plan for the physical, social, intellectual. Her object, as described by herself, was “to unite American women in an effort to provide a Christian education for 2,000,000 children in our country. ”She made her field of labor especially in the west and south, and sought the aid of educated women throughout the United States. In 1837, Beecher retired from administrative work, after returning East she started The Ladies Society for Promoting Education in the West. In 1847 she co-founded the Board of National Popular Education with William Slade, in 1852 she founded the American Womens Educational Association
39.
Emma Willard
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Emma Hart Willard was an American womens rights activist who dedicated her life to education. She worked in schools and founded the first school for womens higher education. With the success of her school, Willard was able to travel across the country and abroad, the Troy Female Seminary was renamed the Emma Willard School in 1895 in her honor. Emma Willard was born on February 23,1787, in Berlin and she was the sixteenth of seventeen children from her father, Samuel Hart, and his second wife Lydia Hinsdale Hart. Her father was a farmer who encouraged his children to read, at a young age, Willards father recognized her passion for learning. At that time women were only provided basic education, however, Willard was included in family discussions such as politics, philosophy, world politics and mathematics that were primarily male subjects. At age 15, Willard was enrolled in her first school in 1802 in her hometown of Berlin and she progressed so quickly that just two years later at the age of 17 she was teaching there. Willard eventually took charge of the academy for a term in 1806, in 1807, Willard left Berlin and briefly worked in Westfield, Massachusetts, before accepting a job offer at a female academy in Middlebury, Vermont. She held the position of principal at the Middlebury Female Seminary from 1807 to 1809, however, she was unimpressed by the material taught there and opened a boarding school for women in 1814, in her own home. She was inspired by the subjects her nephew, John Willard, was learning at Middlebury College, Willard believed that women could master topics like mathematics and philosophy rather than just subjects taught at finishing schools. This passion for education led her to fight for the first womens school for higher education. Her success inspired her to share her ideas on education and to write A Plan for Improving Female Education in 1819 and her plan included a proposal for a womens seminary to be publicly funded just as mens schools were. Willard did not receive a response from the legislators, who believed womens education to be contrary to Gods will, Willard finally received support from New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, who invited her to open a school there. The Troy Female Seminary opened in September 1821, for boarding and this was the first school in the United States to offer higher education for women. The curriculum consisted of the subjects she had longed to include in womens education, mathematics, philosophy, geography, history, Willard led the school to success, and in 1831, the school had enrolled over 300 students. The school attracted students from families or families of high position. Although most of the students would end up as housewives, Willard never hindered her students pursuit towards womens education. Despite her reputation today in history, Willard was not a supporter of the womens suffrage movement during the mid-19th century
40.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
41.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
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Presidents of the United States
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The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War
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Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
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Millard Fillmore
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Millard Fillmore was the 13th President of the United States, the last to be a member of the Whig Party while in the White House. A former congressman from New York, Fillmore was elected the nations 12th Vice President in 1848 and he was instrumental in getting the Compromise of 1850 passed, a bargain that led to a brief truce in the battle over slavery. He failed to win the Whig nomination for president in 1852, he gained the endorsement of the nativist Know Nothing Party four years later, Fillmore was born into poverty in the Finger Lakes area of New York state, his parents were tenant farmers during his formative years. He rose from poverty through study, and became a lawyer though he had formal schooling. He became prominent in the Buffalo area as an attorney and politician, was elected to the New York Assembly in 1828, and to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1832. Fillmore was a candidate for Speaker of the House when the Whigs took control of the chamber in 1841. Fillmore received the Whig vice presidential nomination in 1848 as Taylors running mate, and he was largely ignored by Taylor, including the dispensing of patronage in New York, on which Taylor consulted Weed and Seward. As vice president, Fillmore presided over debates in the Senate as Congress decided whether to allow slavery in the Mexican Cession. Fillmore supported Henry Clays Omnibus Bill though Taylor did not, after President Taylor died in July 1850, Fillmore dismissed the cabinet and changed the administrations policy. The new president exerted pressure to gain the passage of the Compromise, in foreign policy, Fillmore supported U. S. Navy expeditions to open trade in Japan, opposed French designs on Hawaii, and was embarrassed by Narciso Lópezs filibuster expeditions to Cuba. He sought election to a term in 1852, but was passed over by the Whigs in favor of Winfield Scott. As the Whig Party broke up after Fillmores presidency, many of Fillmores conservative wing joined the Know Nothings, in his 1856 candidacy as that partys nominee, Fillmore had little to say about immigration, instead focusing on the preservation of the Union, and won only Maryland. In his retirement, Fillmore was active in civic endeavors. He helped to found the University of Buffalo, serving as its first chancellor, during the American Civil War, Fillmore denounced secession and agreed that the Union must be maintained by force if necessary, but was critical of the war policies of Abraham Lincoln. After peace was restored, he supported the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson, obscure today, Fillmore has been praised by some for his foreign policy, but he is criticized by others for his enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act and for his association with the Know Nothings. Millard Fillmore was born in a log cabin, on a farm in what is now Moravia, Cayuga County, in the Finger Lakes region of New York state and his parents were Phoebe and Nathaniel Fillmore. He was the second of eight children and the oldest son, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. was a member of the Green Mountain Boys, and served as an ensign and first lieutenant during the American Revolution. In 1767, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. married Hepzibah Wood, the mother of Nathaniel Fillmore and grandmother of Millard Fillmore
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Franklin Pierce
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Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States. Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to the unity of the nation. Historians and other scholars generally rank Pierce as among the worst of US Presidents, born in New Hampshire, Pierce served in the U. S. House of Representatives and the Senate until he resigned from the latter in 1842. His private law practice in his state was a success. Pierce took part in the Mexican–American War as a general in the Army. In the 1852 presidential election, Pierce and his running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham. While Pierce was popular and outgoing, his life was a grim affair, with his wife Jane suffering from illness. All of their children died young, their last son being killed in a train accident while the family was traveling shortly before Pierces inauguration. Pierce was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and his popularity in the Northern states declined sharply after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West, Pierces administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto, calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. Although Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, he was abandoned by his party and his reputation in the North suffered further during the Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. Pierce, who had been a heavy drinker for much of his life, Franklin Pierce was born on November 23,1804, in a log cabin in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was a descendant of Thomas Pierce, who had moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Norwich, Norfolk, England. Pierces father Benjamin, a Revolutionary War lieutenant, moved from Chelmsford, Massachusetts to Hillsborough after the war, Pierce was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin and his second wife, Anna Kendrick. Benjamin was by then a prominent Democratic-Republican state legislator, farmer, Pierces father, who sought to ensure that his sons were educated, placed Pierce in a school at Hillsborough Center in childhood and sent him to the town school at Hancock at the age of 12. The boy was not fond of schooling, growing homesick at Hancock, he walked 12 miles back to his home one Sunday. His father fed him dinner and drove him part of the back to school before kicking him out of the carriage. Pierce later cited this moment as the turning-point in my life, later that year he transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college
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James Buchanan
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James Buchanan, Jr. was the 15th President of the United States, serving immediately prior to the American Civil War. He is the president from Pennsylvania, the only president to remain a lifelong bachelor. Beginning in the 1820s, he represented Pennsylvania in the United States House of Representatives and later the Senate, Buchanan was nominated by the Democratic Party in the 1856 presidential election, on a ticket with former Kentucky Representative John C. He defeated both the incumbent President Pierce and Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas to win the nomination and his subsequent election victory took place in a three-man race against Republican John C. Shortly after taking office, Buchanan lobbied the Supreme Court to issue a ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford. He allied with the South in attempting to gain the admission of Kansas to the Union as a state under the Lecompton Constitution. In the process, he alienated both Republican abolitionists and Northern Democrats, most of whom supported the principle of sovereignty in determining a new states slaveholding status. He was often called a doughface, a Northerner with Southern sympathies, and he fought with Douglas, in the midst of the growing sectional crisis, the Panic of 1857 struck the nation. Buchanan indicated in his 1857 inaugural address that he would not seek a second term, he kept his word, Breckinridge in the 1860 presidential election. In response, seven Southern states declared their secession from the Union, Buchanans view was that secession was illegal, but that going to war to stop it was also illegal, and so didnt confront the new polity militarily. Buchanan, an attorney, was noted for his mantra, I acknowledge no master, Buchanan supported the United States during the Civil War, and publicly defended himself against charges that he was responsible for the Civil War. Shortly after the Union victory, he published his memoirs, Mr. Buchanans Administration on the Eve of Rebellion and he died in 1868 at age 77. Buchanan aspired to be a president who would rank in history with George Washington, historians who participated in a 2006 survey voted his failure to deal with secession the worst presidential mistake ever made. His parents were both of Ulster Scots descent, the father having emigrated from Milford, County Donegal, Ireland, one of eleven siblings, Buchanan was the oldest child in the family to survive infancy. Shortly after Buchanans birth the family moved to a farm near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, Buchanans father became the wealthiest person in town, becoming a prosperous merchant and investing in real estate. The family home in Mercersburg was later turned into the James Buchanan Hotel, Buchanan attended the village academy and, starting in 1807, Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Though he was expelled at one point for poor behavior, he pleaded for a second chance. Later that year, he moved to Lancaster, which, at the time, was the capital of Pennsylvania, James Hopkins, the most prominent lawyer in Lancaster, accepted Buchanan as a student, and in 1812 Buchanan was admitted to the bar after an oral exam
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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Washington's Birthday
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It can occur on the 15th through the 21st of February inclusive. Colloquially, the day is now widely known as Presidents Day and is often an occasion to honor all persons who have served as president. The day is a holiday in most states, with official names including Washingtons Birthday, Presidents Day, Presidents Day. Depending upon the law, the state holiday might officially celebrate Washington alone, Washington and Abraham Lincoln. However, Presidents Day is not always a term and might refer to only a selection of presidents. Several states honor presidents with official state holidays that do not fall on the third Monday of February, in Massachusetts, the state officially celebrates Washingtons Birthday on the same day as the Federal holiday. In New Mexico, Presidents Day, at least as a state-government paid holiday, is observed on the Friday following Thanksgiving, George Washington was officially born on February 11,1731. Consequently, by the 1730s, the Julian calendar used by Britain, furthermore, the British civil year began on 25 March rather than 1 January, so that dates in February belonged to the preceding year. Since, during the 1700s, February 11 under the Julian calendar would fall as February 22 on the Gregorian, the federal holiday honoring Washington was originally implemented by an Act of Congress in 1879 for government offices in Washington and expanded in 1885 to include all federal offices. As the first federal holiday to honor an American president, the holiday was celebrated on Washingtons actual birthday, on January 1,1971, the federal holiday was shifted to the third Monday in February by the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. This date places it between February 15 and 21, which makes the name Washingtons Birthday in some sense a misnomer, since it never occurs on Washingtons actual birthday, the purpose was not to honor any particular President but to honor the office of the Presidency. It was first thought that March 4, the inauguration day. However, the bill recognizing the March 4 date was stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee and that committee felt that, because of its proximity to Lincolns and Washingtons Birthdays, three holidays so close together would be unduly burdensome. During this time, however, the Governors of a majority of the states issued proclamations declaring March 4 to be Presidents Day in their respective jurisdictions. By the mid-1980s, with a push from advertisers, the term Presidents Day began its public appearance, in Washingtons adopted hometown of Alexandria, Virginia, celebrations are held throughout the month of February. Until the late 1980s, corporate businesses generally closed on this day, some public transit systems have also gone to regular schedules on the day. Many colleges and universities hold regular classes and operations on Presidents Day, consequently, some schools, which used to close for a single day for both Lincolns and Washingtons birthday, now often close for the entire week as a mid-winter recess. For example, the New York City school district began doing so in the 1990s, today, the February holiday has become well known for being a day in which many stores, especially car dealers, hold sales
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Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
