1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Russia
–
Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
3.
Federal districts of Russia
–
The federal districts are groupings of the federal subjects of Russia. Plenipotentiary Representatives are appointed by the President and are employees of the Presidential Administration, source, President Vladimir Putin established seven federal districts in May 2000. On January 19,2010 the new North Caucasian Federal District split from the Southern Federal District, on March 2014, after the Russian military intervention in and annexation of Crimea, the Crimean Federal District was established. The legality of this annexation is disputed by most states as well as NATO, on July 28,2016 the Crimean Federal District was abolished and merged into the Southern Federal District in order to improve the governance
4.
Volga Federal District
–
Volga Federal District is one of the eight federal districts of Russia. It forms the part of European Russia. Its population was 29,899,699 according to the 2010 Census, Mikhail Babich was appointed the federal districts Presidential Envoy on December 15,2011. The district comprises the Volga, Volga-Vyatka and Urals economic regions and fourteen federal subjects, Sergey Kiriyenko Alexander Konovalov Grigory Rapota Mikhail Babich
5.
Economic regions of Russia
–
No federal subject can belong to more than one economic region. Economic regions are grouped into economic zones. An economic region or its parts can belong to more than one economic zone, establishment and abolition of economic regions and economic zones or any changes in their composition are decided upon by the federal government of Russia. The following is the list and composition of the economic regions, sorted by population
6.
Volga economic region
–
Volga economic region is one of 12 economic regions of Russia. People are also more likely than the average to have consumer goods, life expectancy for men and women is also just above the national average. However, reported GDP per capita is below the average. However, the likelihood of not being paid regularly is also below the national average
7.
Saratov
–
Saratov is a city and the administrative center of Saratov Oblast, Russia, and a major port on the Volga River located upstream of Volgograd. The name Saratov may be derived from the Turkic words Saryk Atov, another version of the name origin is Sary Tau, meaning yellow mountain in the Tatar language. Uvek, a city of the Golden Horde, stood near the site of the city of Saratov from the mid-13th century until its destruction by Tamerlane in 1395. While the exact date of the foundation of modern Saratov is unknown,1590, during the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who constructed several settlements along the Volga River in order to secure the southeastern boundary of his state. Town status was granted to it in 1708, by the 1800s, Saratov had grown to become an important shipping port on the Volga. The Ryazan-Ural Railroad reached Saratov in 1870, in 1896, the line crossed the Volga and continued its eastward expansion. During World War II, Saratov was a station on the North-South Volzhskaya Rokada, the city of Saratov played an important role in the history of the Volga Germans. Until 1941, the town of Pokrovsk, located just across the Volga from Saratov, the ethnic German population of the region numbered 800,000 in the early 20th century, with some people whose families had been there for generations. The Volga German community came to include industrialists, scientists, musicians and architects, others were expelled to western Europe after World War II ended in 1945. Beginning in the 1980s, a portion of the surviving members of the ethnic Germans emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany. Reminders of the prominent place of Germans in the city remain. The building was converted into the childrens cinema Pioneer during the Soviet period, a new cathedral was built in 2000 elsewhere in the city, the Cathedral of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul in Saratov. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Saratov—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Saratov is incorporated as Saratov Urban Okrug, Saratov has moderately continental climate with warm and dry summers and an abundance of sunny days. The warmest month is July with daily temperature near +23 °C. Summers are hot and dry in Saratov, daytime temperatures of +30 °C or higher are commonplace, up to +40.9 °C during a heat wave in 2010. Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season, days well above freezing and nights below −25 °C both occur in the winter. Saratov Oblast is highly industrialized, due in part to the richness in natural and industrial resources of the area, the oblast is also one of the more important and largest cultural and scientific centers in Russia
8.
Valery Radayev
–
Valery Vasilievich Radaev, is a Russian politician, who served as the speaker and chairman of the Duma of Saratov Oblast from December 2007 until April 2012. From April 5,2012 onwards he has been the acting Governor of Saratov Oblast and he replaced Governor Pavel Ipatov who resigned on March 23,2012. Radaev was born April 2,1961, in the village of Blagodatnoe that is in Khvalynsky District of Saratov Oblast, from 1980-1982 he was a conscript in the Soviet Army, and from 1983 onwards he was employed in agricultural enterprises. His first job in the sector was as a machine engineer, from 1993—1996, he headed the state owned farm named «Blagodatninsky». In 1994, he graduated from Saratov State agricultural university, from 1996 and on, he is the head of Khvalynsky District in Saratov Oblast, the birthplace of Vyacheslav Volodin, the future First Deputy of Presidential Administration of Russia. In 2005—2007, he is the head of Federal Veterinary and Phytosanitary Control in Saratov Oblast, in 2007, he is elected as a deputy to fourth convocation of Duma of Saratov Oblast. The same year he is elected speaker, chairman of Duma of Saratov Oblast, on March 23,2012, due to the resignation of Governor Pavel Ipatov he is appointed interim Governor. On April 2,2012, Dmitry Medvedev, the then President of Russia, on April 5,2012 Duma of Saratov Oblast approved Valery Radaev as acting Governor of Saratov Oblast. He is a member of United Russia party, holds PhD degree in Sociology, Radaev is seen as the creation and protégé of deputy head of the presidential staff Vyacheslav Volodin by being his fellow countryman. In November 2013 he was elected to the Supreme Council of United Russia party
9.
Federal subjects of Russia
–
Since March 18,2014, the Russian Federation constitutionally consists of 85 federal subjects, although the two most recently added subjects are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine. Three Russian cities of importance have a status of both city and separate federal subject which comprises other cities and towns within federal city keeping old structure of postal address. In 1993, there were 89 federal subjects listed, by 2008, the number of federal subjects had been decreased to 83 because of several mergers. In 2014, Sevastopol and the Republic of Crimea became the 84th and 85th federal subjects of Russia, every federal subject has its own head, a parliament, and a constitutional court. Federal subjects have their own constitution and legislation, subjects have equal rights in relations with federal government bodies. The federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council and they do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. Composition of post-Soviet Russia was formed during the history of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic within the USSR, the Federation Treaty was included in the text of the 1978 Constitution of the Russian SFSR. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the system became de jure closer to other modern federal states with a republican form of government in the world. There are several groupings of Russian regions, Federal subjects should not be confused with the eight Federal districts which are not subdivisions of Russia, are much larger and each encompass many federal subjects. Federal districts were created by Executive Order of the President of Russia specially for presidential envoys, an official government translation of the Constitution of Russia in Article 5 states,1. Another translation of the Constitution of Russia gives for article 65, each federal subject belongs to one of the following types, b. ^ According to Article 13 of the Charter of Leningrad Oblast, however, St. Petersburg is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast. ^ According to Article 24 of the Charter of Moscow Oblast, however, Moscow is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast. ^ Not recognized internationally as a part of Russia, the merging process was finished on March 1,2008. No new mergers have been planned since March 2008, Федерального конституционного закона №7-ФКЗ от30 декабря2008 г. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Опубликован, Российская газета, №237,25 декабря1993 г
10.
Time in Russia
–
There are eleven time zones in Russia, which currently observe times ranging from UTC+02,00 to UTC+12,00. Daylight saving time is not used in Russia, since 4 December 2016, the time zones are as follows, Daylight saving time in Russia was originally introduced on 30 June 1917 by a decree of the Russian Provisional Government. However, it was abandoned by a Decree of the Soviet government five months later, Daylight saving time was re-introduced in the USSR on 1 April 1981, by a decision of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The usage of daylight saving time continued after the Soviet collapse but ended in 2011, on 27 March 2011, clocks were advanced as usual, but they did not go back on 30 October 2011, effectively making Moscow Time UTC+4 permanently. In the Russian Empire, most of the observed solar time. During the late 19th century, Moscow Mean Time was introduced on 1 January 1880,2,30,17 corresponds to 37. 6166667°, the longitude of Moscow. Other parts of Russia kept solar time for several years. At this time, Russia had the Julian calendar with 12 or 13 days less date compared to Western Europe, so it is possible to say the Moscow actually had GMT-285,29,43, GMT-309,29,43 and GMT-309,28,41. Russia adopted the Gregorian calendar on Thursday,14 February 1918, after the Soviet Union was created, Moscow Time became UTC+2 and the various other time zones were introduced throughout Russia and the rest of the Soviet Union, for example Irkutsk Time GMT+7. Between 1917-1922 the time was ordered, with daylight savings time some of those years. On 21 June 1930, the Soviet Union advanced all clocks by one hour, Moscow Time was now GMT+3 and Irkutsk Time GMT+8. On 1 April 1981, daylight saving time was re-introduced, clocks were moved one hour forward on 1 April, on 1 April 1981,00,00,00, Oymyakonsky District changed its time zone from MSK+6 to MSK+8. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+9 to UTC+12, on 1 April 1982,00,00,00, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug changed its time zone from MSK+10 to MSK+9, thus eliminating Anadyr Time. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+14 to UTC+13, on 27 March 1988,02,00,00, Saratov and Volgograd oblasts changed its time zone from MSK+1 to MSK. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+5 to UTC+4, on 23 May 1993,00,00,00, Novosibirsk Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+8 to UTC+7, on 28 May 1995,00,00,00, Altai Krai and Altai Republic changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. On 30 March 1997,02,00,00, Sakhalin Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+8 to MSK+7, on 1 May 2002,03,00,00, Tomsk Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. On 1 January 2004,00,00,00, New Siberian Islands, Tomponsky District, the following time zone changes occurred on 28 March 2010, which, in particular, led to abolition of two of the eleven time zones
11.
Samara Time
–
Samara Time is the time zone 4 hours ahead of UTC and 1 hour ahead of Moscow Time. Samara Time is used in Samara Oblast, Udmurtia, Astrakhan Oblast, Ulyanovsk Oblast, until a reform on 28 March 2010, Samara time was UTC+4 in winter and Samara Summer Time was UTC+5 in summer. From that date, Samara time was abolished with the two regions effectively joining Moscow Summer Time, on 27 March 2016, Ulyanovsk Oblast and Astrakhan Oblast switched to Samara time by moving the clock 1 hour forwards from Moscow time. On 4 December 2016, Saratov Oblast also switched to Samara time by moving forward 1 hour from Moscow time
12.
Vehicle registration plates of Russia
–
Vehicle registration plates are the mandatory number plates used to display the registration mark of a vehicle, and have existed in Russia for many decades. Most motor vehicles which are used on roads are required by law to display them. The current format uses a letter followed by 3 digits and two more letters, to improve legibility of the numbers for Russian cars abroad, only a small subset of Cyrillic characters that look like Latin characters are used. Finally, the number and letters RUS are included, as well as the national flag. There is a different format for trailers, motorcycles, mopeds and scooters plates are made of square reflective plates and its format is 4 digits at the top and two letters at the bottom. Some autonomous regions are not required to have the flag on the licence plates, vehicles used by certain organisations or categories of persons carry special plates, Special plates in the above categories never carry the Russian flag, except for trailers. There are special reserved for government officials. The license plates for government officials originally had a larger flag instead of the regional code. Rich businessmen, prominent politicians and crime lords often use para-legally acquired special licence plates to get preferential treatment from the transport police, often, this is used in conjunction with a flashing siren. The Society of Blue Buckets is a protest movement that opposes this trend, as of 2014, there are new codes for Russian plates, number 82 for the Republic of Crimea and 92 for Sevastopol. The Russian Federation then officially annexed Crimea from Ukraine and now administers it as two federal subjects, the Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol. Ukraine, backed by most of the community, refuses to accept the annexation. As per GOST provision, only 1,726,272 combinations may be issued within one administration unit, in certain regions, the amount of vehicles exceeds that number, and the combination may not be reused after a vehicle was taken off the registration. All this creates an issue of running out of numbers, a short-term solution was introducing more codes for those regions. Introduction of new license plate is being considered as a future solution. In the following years some codes were reassigned or discontinued, as the populous regions started running out of license plate combinations, new codes past code 89 were assigned to them as well. Additional triple-digit codes were created by adding a 1 or a 7 to the regional code. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs Order 282 from March 28,2002, 1Code 059 is a former code for Syria
13.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
14.
Russian Census (2010)
–
The Russian Census of 2010 is the first census of the Russian Federation population since 2002 and the second after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Preparations for the census began in 2007 and it took place between October 14 and October 25, the census was originally scheduled for October 2010, but was moved to 2013 allegedly for financial reasons, although it was also speculated that political motives were influential in the decision. However, in late 2009 Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin announced that the Government of Russia allocated 10.5 billion rubles in order to conduct the census as originally scheduled, Results showed the population to stand at 142.9 million. Since the previous 2002 census, population has decreased by 2.3 million, according to the 2010 census, urban population is 105.3 million, rural population is 37.5 million. The urbanisation rate is currently 73. 7%, the median age is 38 years. The ethnic composition is dominated by Russians, demographics of Russia Russian Census 2010 final results Results of 2010 All-Russia population census Official website of the 2010 Census
15.
European Russia
–
Russia is not proportionately populated between the smaller western portion of the country that is considered part of Europe, and the larger eastern portion that is part of Asia. European Russia contains about 77% of the population in an area comprising almost 4 million km2. This territory makes up 38% of Europe and its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and in the south, it is defined by the border with Kazakhstan. This area includes Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the two largest cities in Russia, the eastern portion of Russia, mostly Siberia, is part of Asia and makes up more than 75% of the territory with 22% of the countrys population at 2.5 persons per km2. The term “European Russia” was used in the Russian Empire to refer to traditional East Slavic territories under Russian control, including what is now Belarus, administrative districts do not exactly line up with European Russia, but they are decent approximations, depending on exactly how Europe is defined. There are two trends, one to use administrative divisions north of the terminus of the Ural River. Similarly, the imaginary line if straight, could include parts of very sparsely populated Northwestern Federal District
16.
Volgograd Oblast
–
Volgograd Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. The population was 2,610,161 in the 2010 Census, borders length,2,221.9 kilometers Volgograd Oblast borders with Saratov, Rostov, Astrakhan, and Voronezh Oblasts, as well as with the Republic of Kalmykia of Russia and with Kazakhstan. Volgograd has more than 200 rivers and streams, the major ones include, The Volga River The Don River The Medveditsa River The Khopyor River Stalingrad Oblast was established on December 5,1936 on the territory of former Stalingrad Krai. The oblast was given its present name on November 10,1961, the Charter of Volgograd Oblast provides the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Volgograd Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, according to a 2012 official survey 54. In addition, 18% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 12% is atheist, and 6. 5% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question. Governor of Volgograd Oblast is Anatoliy Brovko Both the flag and the coat of arms of Volgograd Oblast include an image of The Motherland Calls, primary branches of economics are agriculture, food production, heavy industry, gas and petroleum refining. Volga Hydroelectric Station operates on the Volga River, list of Chairmen of the Volgograd Oblast Duma Volgograd floating landing Волгоградская областная Дума. Закона №90-ОД от10 июля2015 г, «О внесении изменений в статью2 Устава Волгоградской области от24 февраля2012 г. Вступил в силу по истечении десяти дней после дня официального опубликования, Опубликован, Волгоградская правда, №35,29 февраля2012 г. Исполнительный комитет Волгоградского областного Совета депутатов трудящихся, Административно-территориальное деление на1 июля1968 года. Official website of Volgograd Oblast Central Eurasian Information Resource, Images of Volgograd Oblast - University of Washington Digital Collections
17.
Voronezh Oblast
–
Voronezh Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Voronezh and its population was 2,335,380 as of the 2010 Census. Voronezh Oblast is the birthplace of Pavel Cherenkov, co-recipient of the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics, Voronezh Oblast borders internally with Belgorod Oblast, Kursk Oblast, Lipetsk Oblast, Tambov Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Volgograd Oblast and Rostov Oblast and internationally with Ukraine. Voronezh Oblast is located in the belt of the European part of Russia, in a very advantageous strategic location. Within the radius 960 kilometers around Voronezh more than 50% of the population Russia, the area of the region -52.4 thousand km2, which is about one third of the whole area of Central Black Earth Region. The length of the region north to south -277.5 km. Much of the area is steppe, among the predominant soil fertile soil black earth, the oblast has 738 lakes and ponds in 2408, in 1343 the river flows over 10 km long. The main river is the Don,530 of its 1,870 km flows through the area, forming a drainage area of 422,000 square kilometers. Don Voronezh Bityug Khopyor The climate in the region is continental, with an average January temperatures of −4.5 °C. Average annual temperature varies from +5 °C in the north to +6.5 °C in the south, precipitation varies from 600 millimeters in the northwest to 450 millimeters in the southeast. The oblast was established on June 13,1934, the structure of Voronezh Oblast the industrial-agrarian. As part of the industry is dominated by mechanical engineering, power engineering, food industry. They account for 4/5 of the volume of industrial output. Industry specialization of the region is the industry, second place is occupied by engineering and metalworking. For the first time in the history of farming region in 2011 produced record crops, tons and sunflower -1 million. 002 thousand tons 2014 Voronezh Oblast ranked first in Russia in terms of gross harvest of potatoes, in general, the profile of agriculture - with crops of sunflowers and grain crops, dairy and beef cattle, pigs. Beet, sugar industry in Voronezh Oblast in terms of gross production of sugar beets. In 2014, sugar mills were produced 495.1 ths. tons of sugar, milk production in Voronezh Oblast in 2013 increased by 1. 8% - up to 755,700
18.
Tambov Oblast
–
Tambov Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Tambov, as of the 2010 Census, its population was 1,091,994. Tambov Oblast is situated in forest steppe and it borders on the Ryazan, Penza, Saratov, Voronezh and Lipetsk Oblasts. The oldest known population of the Tambov region, the Mordovians-Moksha, the first Russian settlers arrived in the pre-Mongol period, but the final settlement occurred in the 17th century. To protect the borders of Russia from the raids of the Tatars and the further development of the Black Soil region. The cities protected the main path of nomad raids on Russian land, kozlovsky Uyezd originally existed in the Tambov area. In the course of the reforms of Peter the Great in 1708 and 1719. New administrative divisions established the Tambov Viceroyalty in 1779 and from 1796 Tambov Governorate, with almost no change to its boundaries, the Governorate remained in existence until 1928. An attempt to establish Soviet control over the Tambov area led to the defeat, during the Russian Civil War an anti-Bolshevik uprising, the Tambov Rebellion, broke out in Tambov Governorate in 1920–1921. Tambov Oblast was finally created from the Voronezh and Samara Oblasts on September 27,1937, the oblast attained its present form after the separation of Penza Oblast on February 4,1939. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, southeastern Railway passes through Michurinsk and connects the central regions with the southern regions. Breeding cattle, sheep, pig, and chicken is a product of animal husbandry, list of Chairmen of the Tambov Oblast Duma Тамбовская областная Дума. Закон №27-З от24 мая2002 г, «О гимне Тамбовской области», в ред. Закона №378-З от10 февраля2014 г, «О внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Тамбовской области по вопросам использования официальных символов Тамбовской области». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Опубликован, Тамбовская жизнь, №115,15 июня2002 г. Постановление №84 от30 ноября1994 г, «Устав Тамбовской области Российской Федерации», в ред. Закона №591-З от7 декабря2015 г, «О внесении поправок к Уставу Тамбовской области Российской Федерации». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования в областной газете Тамбовская жизнь, Опубликован, Тамбовская жизнь, №233,6 декабря1994 г
19.
Penza Oblast
–
Penza Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Penza, as of the 2010 Census, its population was 1,386,186. Penza Oblast has over 3000 rivers, the length is 15,458 km. The biggest rivers are, Sura, Moksha, Khopyor, Penza River gave its name to the city of Penza. There are 316 species of vertebrates within the region, including, about 10 species of amphibians, about 200 species of birds, about 8 species of reptiles, about 68 species of mammals. Seven existing species of mammals were already acclimatized on land, the American mink, muskrat, raccoon dog, wild boar, Siberian roe deer, red deer, in parallel, work has been carried out to reintroduce the Forest-steppe marmot, the Eurasian beaver and the Russian desman. In the waters of Penza Oblast, there are about 50 species of fish, the largest body of water - the Sursko reservoir - is home to around 30 species. Commercial species include bream, silver bream, pikeperch, ide, in the rivers and smalls pond dwell roach, perch, carp, and pike. The most valuable fish to be found in the waters is the sterlet. The regional center of Penza was built in 1663 as a Russian fortress on the border of the Wild Fields, Penza Province was established within Kazan Governorate in 1718. It became a separate Penza Governorate on September 15,1780, which existed until March 5,1797, Penza Governorate was re-established on September 9,1801 and existed until 1928. Between 1928 and 1937, the territory of the former governorate underwent a number of administrative transformations, on February 4,1939, modern Penza Oblast was established by splitting it out of Tambov Oblast. In March 1939, the Penza Oblast Committee of the CPSU was formed, Penza Oblast is part of the Volga economic region. The oblast is one of Russias leading producers of wheat, rye, oats, millet, buckwheat, cereal and forage crops, vegetables, potatoes, mustard, and meat. Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, the Charter of Penza Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Penza Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, births,7,962 Deaths,13,608 According to a 2012 official survey,62. In addition, 15% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 9% is atheist, troitse-Scanov Convent State Lermontov Museum and Reserve of Tarkhany Aristarkh Lentulov – Russian avant-garde artist of Cubist orientation who also worked on set designs for the theatre
20.
Samara Oblast
–
Samara Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Samara, as of the 2010 Census, the population of the oblast was 3,215,532. It was suppressed by an expedition of Cossacks and gendarmes led by the vice-governor of the gubernia. Middle Volga Oblast was established on May 14,1928, on October 20,1929, it was transformed into Middle Volga Krai, which was renamed Kuybyshev Krai on January 27,1935. On December 5,1936, Kuybyshev Krai was transformed into Kuybyshev Oblast upon the adoption of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, on January 25,1991, the oblast was renamed Samara Oblast. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Samara Oblast is the law of the oblast. The Legislative Assembly of Samara Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. In addition, 30% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 13% is atheist, győr-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary Самарская Губернская Дума. Закон №22-ГД от13 октября1998 г, «О государственных символах Самарской области», в ред. Закона №146-ГД от31 декабря2014 г, «О внесении изменения в статью2 Закона Самарской области О государственных символах Самарской области». Вступил в силу с момента опубликования, Опубликован, Волжская коммуна, №186,17 октября1998 г. Закона №6-ГД от11 января2016 г, «О внесении изменений в Устав Самарской области». Вступил в силу1 января2007 г, Опубликован, Волжская коммуна, №237,20 декабря2006 г. Указ №526-1 от25 января1991 г, «О переименовании города Куйбышева в город Самару и Куйбышевской области в Самарскую область». Media related to Samara Oblast at Wikimedia Commons Official website of Samara Oblast Central Eurasian Information Resource, Images of Samara Oblast, University of Washington Digital Collection
21.
Ulyanovsk Oblast
–
Ulyanovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. It is located in the Volga Federal District and its administrative center is the city of Ulyanovsk. Ulyanovsk Oblast borders with the Chuvash Republic, the Republic of Tatarstan, Samara Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Penza Oblast, and it is located on the northern edge of Central Steppes. A quarter of its territory is covered with forests, the rest is covered with steppes. The oblast is divided in half by the Volga River, hilly areas to the west of the Volga are known as Volga Upland. Eastern part of the oblast is mostly flat, the water table occupies about 6% of territory. Ulyanovsk Oblast has moderately continental, highly volatile climate, temperature averages at +19 °C in July, and −11 °C in January. As weather systems move in and out of the area, average daily temperatures often change more than +25 °C in the matter of days, fixed snow cover is typically present from November to the beginning of April. Overnight frosts occur until late May, restricting agriculture to cold-resistant plants such as rye, annual precipitation drops out 400 mm a year. Ulyanovsk Oblast is located in the zones of wooded plain and broad-leaved scaffolding, in the northwest — large massifs of oak forest with the participation of linden, maple, in the Transvolga region — meadow steppes, separate pine borons. The area is inhabited by moose, marten, squirrel, hare as well as numerous planktonic, Kuybyshev Reservoir is home to fish such as bream, pike-perch, carp and others. Ulyanovsk Oblast also has a concentrated wasp population, the first settlements of Middle Volga people were established in this area of Volga according to archaeological science more than 100,000 years ago. The presence of groups in the Ulyanovsk Volga region in the Paleolithic show separate parking and location of stone tools. Cheremshan Tunguz on the peninsula, on the shores of the Volga in the region of Undory resort, in the 8th and 9th centuries Ulyanovsk Volga region became a part of the early Volga Bulgaria, as a union of nomadic Turkic and sedentary Finno-Ugric tribes. In the late 14th and early 15th century, the devastating Central Asian ruler Tamerlane began desolation territory of the Volga Ulyanovsk, since the late 1430s the region was a part of the Kazan Khanate. After the pacification of the territory of the future of his governorship Simbirsk gradually settled by Ruthenians, in the late 1640s, under the leadership of Bogdan Hitrovo, construction of the Karsunsky-Simbirsk defense line began. Twenty-two years after its founding, the city of Simbirsk had to withstand a siege of the Cossacks, Simbirsk began to lose its status of strategic military importance, but remained the provincial center. The Bolsheviks took power in Simbirsk one and a month after the October Revolution—December 10,1917
22.
Kazakhstan
–
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in northern Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is the worlds largest landlocked country, and the ninth largest in the world, Kazakhstan is the dominant nation of Central Asia economically, generating 60% of the regions GDP, primarily through its oil/gas industry. It also has vast mineral resources, Kazakhstan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, the terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. Kazakhstan has an estimated 18 million people as of 2014, Given its large area, its population density is among the lowest. The capital is Astana, where it was moved in 1997 from Almaty, the territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country as part of the Mongolian Empire, following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakh emerged as a distinct group, the Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century, they nominally ruled all of Kazakhstan as part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times, in 1936, it was made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, part of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan has worked to develop its economy, especially its dominant hydrocarbon industry. Kazakhstans 131 ethnicities include Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Germans, Tatars, the Kazakh language is the state language, and Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes. The name Kazakh comes from the ancient Turkic word qaz, to wander, the name Cossack is of the same origin. The Persian suffix -stan means land or place of, so Kazakhstan can be translated as land of the wanderers. Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age, the regions climate, archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the regions vast steppes. Central Asia was originally inhabited by the Scythians, the Cuman entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. Under the Mongol Empire, the largest in history, administrative districts were established. These eventually came under the rule of the emergent Kazakh Khanate, throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south, at its height the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania
23.
Chernozem
–
Chernozem is a black-coloured soil containing a high percentage of humus, and high percentages of phosphoric acids, phosphorus and ammonia. Chernozem is very fertile and produces a high agricultural yield, similar soil types occur in Texas and Hungary. Chernozem layer thickness may vary widely, from several inches up to 60 inches in Ukraine, the terrain can also be found in small quantities elsewhere. It also exists in Northeast China, near Harbin, the only true chernozem in Australia is located around Nimmitabel producing some of the richest soils in the nation. The sale of land has been illegal in Ukraine since 1992. Chernozemic soils are a type in the Canadian system of soil classification
24.
Kastanozems
–
Kastanozems is one of the 30 soil groups in the classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization. These soils are brighter than Chernozems, and are related to the Mollisols in the USDA soil taxonomy and they are rich in humus, and originally covered with early maturing native grasslands vegetation, which produces a characteristic brown surface layer in the first meter in depth. They have a high level of available calcium ions bound to soil particles. No diagnostic horizons other than an albic, argic, cambic or vertic horizon, kastanozems are found in relatively dry zones with 200 to 450 mm of rainfall a year. The name is derived from the Russian term каштановые почвы, where каштановые is a shade of brown derived from the word каштан, chestnut, world reference base for soil resources
25.
Volga River
–
The Volga is the longest river in Europe. It is also Europes largest river in terms of discharge and watershed, the river flows through central Russia and into the Caspian Sea, and is widely regarded as the national river of Russia. Eleven of the twenty largest cities of Russia, including the capital, some of the largest reservoirs in the world can be found along the Volga. The river has a meaning in Russian culture and is often referred to as Волга-матушка Volga-Matushka in Russian literature and folklore. The Slavic name is a translation of earlier Scythian Rā Volga, literally wetness, cognate with Avestan Raŋhā mythical stream and Sanskrit rasā́- dew, liquid, juice. The Scythian name survives in modern Mordvin Rav Volga, the Turkic peoples living along the river formerly referred to it as Itil or Atil big river. In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as İdel in Tatar, Атăл in Chuvash, Idhel in Bashkir, Edil in Kazakh, the Turkic peoples associated the Itils origin with the Kama. Thus, a tributary to the Kama was named the Aq Itil White Itil which unites with the Kara Itil Black Itil at the modern city of Ufa. The name Indyl is used in Adyge language, among Asians, the river was known by its other Turkic name Sarı-su yellow water, but the Oirats also used their own name, Ijil mörön or adaptation river. Presently the Mari, another Uralic group, call the river Jul, formerly, they called the river Volgydo, a borrowing from Old Russian. The Volga is the longest river in Europe and it belongs to the closed basin of the Caspian Sea, being the longest river to flow into a closed basin. From there it turns south, flows past Ulyanovsk, Tolyatti, Samara, Saratov and Volgograd, at its most strategic point, it bends toward the Don. Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, is located there, the Volga has many tributaries, most importantly the rivers Kama, the Oka, the Vetluga, and the Sura. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which flows through an area of about 1,350,000 square kilometres in the most heavily populated part of Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres and includes as many as 500 channels, the largest estuary in Europe, it is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingos, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three each year. The Volga drains most of Western Russia and its many large reservoirs provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, and the Volga–Baltic Waterway form navigable waterways connecting Moscow to the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, high levels of chemical pollution have adversely affected the river and its habitats
26.
Temperate climate
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
27.
Landslide
–
A landslide, also known as a landslip, is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Landslides can occur underwater, called a submarine landslide, coastal, although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the prone to failure. Landslides occur when the changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes. Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure, muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, an effect may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to 2,000 kg/m3, for a small basin in the Italian Alps affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of 750 m3/s for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge, was 19 m3/s. Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h. Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are slow moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from within. They are different from fluid flows which are more rapid, clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much content is in the flow itself, if there is more water content in the flow. This thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a slow, as these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process causes the flow to thicken, the bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than their rapid counterparts. They develop a sag at their heads and are derived from the slumping at the source. Earthflows occur much more during periods of precipitation, which saturates the ground
28.
Karst
–
Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves and it has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes, the English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century. The German word came into use before the 19th century, according to the prevalent interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for the Karst region, a limestone plateau above the city of Trieste in the northern Adriatic. Scholars disagree, however, on whether the German word was borrowed from Slovene, the Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. The Slovene words arose through metathesis from the reconstructed form *korsъ, ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin, believed to derive from some Romanized Illyrian base. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- rock, the name may also be connected to the oronym Karsádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius. The development of karst occurs whenever acidic water starts to break down the surface of bedrock near its cracks, as the bedrock continues to degrade, its cracks tend to get bigger. As time goes on, these fractures will become wider, if this underground drainage system does form, it will speed up the development of karst formations there because more water will be able to flow through the region, giving it more erosive power. The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide, once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen -rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is, This reaction chain forms gypsum, the karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes, runnels, limestone pavement, medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes, vertical shafts, foibe, disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys, mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground systems and extensive caves. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailands Phangnga Bay, calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time, in caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals
29.
Earthquake
–
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
30.
Flood
–
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. The European Union Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water, in the sense of flowing water, the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the flood plains of rivers. Some floods develop slowly, while others such as floods, can develop in just a few minutes. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, the word flood comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages. Deluge myths are stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution. Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when water is supplied by rainfall or snowmelt more rapidly than it can infiltrate or run off. The excess accumulates in place, sometimes to hazardous depths, surface soil can become saturated, which effectively stops infiltration, where the water table is shallow, such as a floodplain, or from intense rain from one or a series of storms. Infiltration also is slow to negligible through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paving, areal flooding begins in flat areas like floodplains and in local depressions not connected to a stream channel, because the velocity of overland flow depends on the surface slope. Endorheic basins may experience flooding during periods when precipitation exceeds evaporation. Floods occur in all types of river and stream channels, from the smallest ephemeral streams in humid zones to normally-dry channels in arid climates to the worlds largest rivers. When overland flow occurs on tilled fields, it can result in a flood where sediments are picked up by run off. Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, debris, slow-rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, the cause may be localized convective precipitation or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. In one instance, a flood killed eight people enjoying the water on a Sunday afternoon at a popular waterfall in a narrow canyon. Without any observed rainfall, the rate increased from about 50 to 1,500 cubic feet per second in just one minute. Two larger floods occurred at the site within a week
31.
Balakovo
–
Balakovo is a city in Saratov Oblast, Russia, located on the left bank of the Volga River about 131 kilometers northeast of Saratov, the administrative center of the oblast. It was founded in 1762 by the Old Believers who returned from Poland and was granted town status in 1913, within the framework of administrative divisions, Balakovo serves as the administrative center of Balakovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Balakovo—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Balakovo is incorporated within Balakovsky Municipal District as Balakovo Urban Settlement, Balakovo is the location of the Saratov Hydroelectric Station on the Volga River and the Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant. It is served by the Balakovo Airport which currently does not work, Balakovo has rail connection to Moscow, and is an end destination for some train routes. Balakovo has a continental climate with long cold winters and warm. The warmest month is July with daily temperature near +23 °C. Balakovo has distinct cold and warm seasons, like cold winters, the temperatures at night are cooler than during daytime. Winter has prolonged freezing periods, with the coldest month most often being December, august is on average the month with most sunshine. Rainfall and other precipitation has no distinct peak month, but December is slightly the wettest, there is a speedway team called SK Turbina. Закон №46-ЗСО от2 июня2005 г, Закона №54-ЗСО от28 апреля2015 г. «О внесении изменений в Устав Саратовской области», Вступил в силу после официального опубликования. Опубликован, Неделя области, Спецвыпуск, №38,4 июня2005 г, Решение №14 от12 декабря2005 г. «Устав муниципального образования город Балаково», в ред, Решения №324 от25 ноября2011 г. №14». Вступил в силу с момента официального опубликования, за исключением положений, Закон №21-ЗСО от3 апреля2000 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Саратовской области», в ред, Закона №15-ЗСО от4 февраля2014 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Саратовской области Об административно-территориальном устройстве Саратовской области», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован, Саратовские вести по понедельникам, №12,10 апреля2000 г, Закон №79-ЗСО от23 декабря2004 г «О городских округах»
32.
Nitrogen oxide
–
In addition, there are several anions of nitrogen oxides. The most stable of these is the anion, Nitrate, trioxonitrate ion but other nitrogen oxoanions include hyponitrite, nitrite, peroxonitrite, trioxodinitrate. In atmospheric chemistry, air pollution, and related fields, nitrogen oxides refers specifically to NOx, only the first three of these compounds can be isolated at room temperature. N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5 all decompose rapidly at room temperature, nO3, N4O, and N3 are very reactive. N2O is stable and rather unreactive at room temperature, while NO and NO2 are quite reactive, NOx refers to NO and NO2. They are produced during combustion, especially at high temperature and these two chemicals are important trace species in Earths atmosphere. CH3O2 is just one example of many partly oxidised organic molecules that can react with NO to form NO2 and these reactions are rather fast, so NO and NO2 tend to cycle, but the sum of their concentration tends to remain fairly constant. Because of this cycling, it is convenient to think of the two chemicals as a group, hence the term NOx, in addition to acting as a main precursor for tropospheric ozone, NOx is also harmful to human health in its own right. NOx may react with water to make nitric acid, which may end up in the soil, where it makes nitrate, nitrogen oxide sensor Sulfur nitrides, which are valence isoelectronic with nitrogen oxides
33.
Hydrocarbon
–
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
34.
Aldehyde
–
The group—without R—is the aldehyde group, also known as the formyl group. Aldehydes are common in organic chemistry, Aldehydes feature an sp2-hybridized, planar carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen. The C–H bond is not ordinarily acidic, because of resonance stabilization of the conjugate base, an α-hydrogen in an aldehyde is far more acidic, with a pKa near 15, compared to the acidity of a typical alkane. This acidification is attributed to the quality of the formyl center and the fact that the conjugate base. Related to, the group is somewhat polar. Aldehydes can exist in either the keto or the enol tautomer, keto-enol tautomerism is catalyzed by either acid or base. Usually the enol is the minority tautomer, but it is more reactive, the common names for aldehydes do not strictly follow official guidelines, such as those recommended by IUPAC, but these rules are useful. IUPAC prescribes the following nomenclature for aldehydes, Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes are named as derivatives of the longest carbon chain containing the aldehyde group, thus, HCHO is named as a derivative of methane, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named as a derivative of butane. The name is formed by changing the suffix -e of the parent alkane to -al, so that HCHO is named methanal, in other cases, such as when a -CHO group is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde may be used. Thus, C6H11CHO is known as cyclohexanecarbaldehyde, if the presence of another functional group demands the use of a suffix, the aldehyde group is named with the prefix formyl-. This prefix is preferred to methanoyl-, the word aldehyde was coined by Justus von Liebig as a contraction of the Latin alcohol dehydrogenatus. In the past, aldehydes were sometimes named after the corresponding alcohols, for example, the term formyl group is derived from the Latin word formica ant. This word can be recognized in the simplest aldehyde, formaldehyde, Aldehydes have properties that are diverse and that depend on the remainder of the molecule. Smaller aldehydes are more soluble in water, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde completely so, the volatile aldehydes have pungent odors. Aldehydes degrade in air via the process of autoxidation, the two aldehydes of greatest importance in industry, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, have complicated behavior because of their tendency to oligomerize or polymerize. They also tend to hydrate, forming the geminal diol, the oligomers/polymers and the hydrates exist in equilibrium with the parent aldehyde. Aldehydes are readily identified by spectroscopic methods, using IR spectroscopy, they display a strong νCO band near 1700 cm−1. In their 1H NMR spectra, the formyl hydrogen center absorbs near δH =9 and this signal shows the characteristic coupling to any protons on the alpha carbon
35.
Dust
–
Dust is fine particles of matter. It generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from sources such as soil, dust lifted by weather, volcanic eruptions. House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live, positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead skin cells. They and their feces and other allergens they produce are major constituents of house dust and they are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed. It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air, Dust mites are a nesting species that prefers a dark, warm, and humid climate. They flourish in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture, and carpets and their feces include enzymes that are released upon contact with a moist surface, which can happen when a person inhales, and these enzymes can kill cells within the human body. House dust mites did not become a problem until humans began to use textiles, such as western style blankets and clothing. Atmospheric or wind-borne dust, also known as aeolian dust, comes from arid and dry regions where high velocity winds are able to remove mostly silt-sized material, Dust in the atmosphere is produced by saltation and sandblasting of sand-sized grains, and it is transported through the troposphere. This airborne dust is considered an aerosol and once in the atmosphere, saharan dust in particular can be transported and deposited as far as the Caribbean and the Amazon basin, and may affect air temperatures, cause ocean cooling, and alter rainfall amounts. Dust in the Middle East has been a historic phenomenon, recently, because of climate change and the escalating process of desertification, the problem has worsened dramatically. As a multi-factor phenomenon, there is not yet a consensus on the sources or potential solutions to the problem. In Iran, the dust is already affecting more than 5 million people directly, in the province of Khuzestan it has led to the severe reduction of air quality. The amount of pollutants in the air has surpassed more than 50 times the normal level several times in a year, recently, initiatives such as Project-Dust have been established to directly study the Middle Eastern dust. Dust kicked up by vehicles traveling on roads may make up 33% of air pollution, road dust consists of deposits of vehicle exhausts and industrial exhausts, particles from tire and brake wear, dust from paved roads or potholes, and dust from construction sites. Road dust is a significant source contributing to the generation and release of particulate matter into the atmosphere. Control of road dust is a significant challenge in urban areas, road dust may be suppressed by mechanical methods like street sweeper vehicles equipped with vacuum cleaners, vegetable oil sprays, or with water sprayers. Improvements in automotive engineering have reduced the amount of PM10s produced by road traffic, coal dust is responsible for the lung disease known as pneumoconiosis, including black lung disease that occurs among coal miners
36.
Paleolithic
–
It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BP. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date of the Paleolithic–Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years. During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, the Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers, however, due to their nature, surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths. About 50,000 years ago, there was a increase in the diversity of artifacts. For the first time in Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record, the first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. Humankind gradually evolved from members of the genus Homo—such as Homo habilis. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures, by c. 50,000 – c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61°N latitude in Europe, by c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia, the term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek, παλαιός, palaios, old, and λίθος, lithos, stone, human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of anatomically modern humans as a distinct species. The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time and this epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africas collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean, climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic. Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch, the global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas
37.
Chalcolithic
–
The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the worlds oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BCE, the multiple names result from multiple recognitions of the period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the hard substance for the manufacture of tools. In 1881, John Evans, recognizing that the use of copper often preceded the use of bronze and he did not include the transitional period in the tripartite system of Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age but placed it at the beginning outside of it. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age, in 1884, Gaetano Chierici, perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as the Eneo-litica, or Bronze-stone transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze, moreover, litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evanss Copper Age or the term Eneolithic, around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. It was then that the misunderstanding began among those who did not know Italian, the -lithic was seen as a new -lithic age, a part of the Stone Age in which copper was used, which may appear paradoxical. Today Copper Age, Eneolithic and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evanss original definition of Copper Age, there was an independent invention of copper and bronze smelting first by Andean civilizations in South America extended later by sea commerce to the Mesoamerican civilization in West Mexico. The literature of European archaeology, in general, avoids the use of Chalcolithic, the Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus began in the late 5th millennium BCE and lasted for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. The transition from the European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about the same time, an archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of coppermaking from 7,500 years ago. In Serbia, an axe was found at Prokuplje, which indicates that humans were using metals in Europe by 7,500 years ago. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself, the European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with imitation mold marks carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991, examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have copper and bronze technologies in Europe. The term Chalcolithic is not generally used by British prehistorians, who disagree whether it applies in the British context, in Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found
38.
Khvalynsk
–
Khvalynsk is a river port town in Saratov Oblast, Russia, located by the Volga River. Its name is derived from the name Khwalis for the inhabitants of Khwarezm, the Khvalynsk culture is named after the town. It was founded in 1556 as a Russian outpost on the Sosnovy Island on the Volga, in 1606, the whole settlement was relocated to the spot of todays Khvalynsk and came to be known as Sosnovy Ostrov. In 1780, the settlement was granted town status and renamed Khvalynsk. In the 18th–19th centuries, Khvalynsk was known as a center for trading bread. It was also one of the centers of the Old Believers, some scholars believe that Khvalynsk was used by Nikolai Gogol as a setting for his play The Government Inspector. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Khvalynsk serves as the center of Khvalynsky District. Khvalynsk is the birthplace of the artist Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, whose museum was established in the town in 1995, Закон №46-ЗСО от2 июня2005 г. Закона №54-ЗСО от28 апреля2015 г, «О внесении изменений в Устав Саратовской области». Вступил в силу после официального опубликования, Опубликован, Неделя области, Спецвыпуск, №38,4 июня2005 г. Закон №79-ЗСО от23 декабря2004 г «О городских округах», Вступил в силу с1 января2005 г. Опубликован, Саратов — столица Поволжья, №264,24 декабря2004 г, Закон №112-ЗСО от29 декабря2004 г «О муниципальных образованиях, входящих в состав Хвалынского муниципального района», в ред. Закона №46-ЗСО от25 марта2013 г, Вступил в силу с1 января2005 г. Опубликован, Саратов — столица Поволжья, №11–12,21 января2005 г
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
