1.
Telugu language
–
Telugu is a Dravidian language native to India. It is also spoken by significant minorities in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and it is one of six languages designated a classical language of India by the Government of India. Telugu ranks third by the number of speakers in India. It is one of the scheduled languages of the Republic of India. Approximately 10,000 inscriptions exist in the Telugu language, the speakers of the language call it Telugu or Tenugu. The older forms of the name include Teluṅgu, Tenuṅgu and Teliṅga, the etymology of Telugu is not certain. Some historical scholars have suggested a derivation from Sanskrit triliṅgam, as in Trilinga Desa, tradition holds that Shiva descended as a lingam on three mountains, Kaleshwaram, Srisailam, and Bhimeswaram, which are said to have marked the boundaries of the Trilinga Desa. Atharvana Acharya in the 13th century wrote a grammar of Telugu, Appa Kavi in the 17th century explicitly wrote that Telugu was derived from Trilinga. Scholar Charles P. Brown comments that it was a strange notion as all the predecessors of Appa Kavi had no knowledge of such a derivation. George Abraham Grierson and other linguists doubt this derivation, holding rather that Telugu was the older term, another view holds that tenugu is derived from the proto-Dravidian word ten– south to mean the people who lived in the south/southern direction. The name telugu then, is a result of n -> l alternation established in Telugu, according to the natve tradition Telugu grammar has a hoary past. Sage Kanva was said to be the first grammarian of Telugu, a Rajeswara Sarma discussed the hisoricity and content of Kanvas grammar written in Sanskrit. He cited twenty grammatical aphorisms ascribed to Kanva, and concluded that Kanva wrote an ancient Telugu Grammar which was lost, according to the Russian linguist M. S. Andronov, Telugu split from the Proto-Dravidian languages between 1500 and 1000 BC. According to linguist Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Telugu, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic societies of South India. A legend gives the Lepakshi town a significant place in the Ramayana — this was where the bird Jatayu fell, when Sri Rama reached the spot, he saw the bird and said compassionately, “Le Pakshi” — ‘rise, bird’ in Telugu. This indicates the presence of Telugu Language during Ramayana period, there is a mention of Telugu people or Telugu country in ancient Tamil literature as Telunka Nadu. Telugu words were found in Hebrew literature, inscriptions with Telugu words dating back to 400 BC to 100 BC have been discovered in Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh
2.
Bharat Ratna
–
The Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted in 1954, the award is conferred in recognition of exceptional service/performance of the highest order, without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President, recipients receive a Sanad signed by the President and a peepal-leaf–shaped medallion, there is no monetary grant associated with the award. Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence, the first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari, philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and scientist C. V. Raman, since then, the award has been bestowed on 45 individuals, including 12 who were awarded posthumously. The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them, the former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously. In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40, became the youngest recipient, on 24 December 2014, the Indian government announced the award to independence activist Madan Mohan Malaviya and former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Boses award was cancelled, it is the time when the award was announced. Several bestowals of the award have met with criticism, on 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards, the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. There is no provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens. Sachin Tendulkar, at the age of 40, became the youngest person, in a special ceremony on 18 April 1958, Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. As of 2015, the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations, the award was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977 and his government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977. The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980, after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister, the awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995, following the conclusion of the litigation. The Bharat Ratna is conferred in recognition of exceptional service/performance of the highest order, without distinction of race, occupation, position, the award was originally confined to the arts, literature, science, and public services, as per the 1954 regulations. In December 2011, the rules were changed to any field of human endeavour. Although there is no nomination process, recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year. However, in 1999, four individuals were awarded the honour, the recipient receives a Sanad signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant
3.
List of Presidents of India
–
The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India. The President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces, although the president is vested such powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial role and the executive powers are de facto exercised by the Prime Minister. The post of President is known in Hindi as Rashtrapati, a Sanskrit neologism meaning lord of the realm, there have been 13 presidents of India since the introduction of the post in 1950. The post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution, apart from these thirteen, three acting presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became Acting President of India in 1969 following the death of Zakir Hussain, Giri was elected President a few months later. He remains the only person to have held both as a president and acting president. The President may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, in the case where a presidents term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the president, the vice president assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the president where this is not possible, rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms. Seven presidents have been members of a party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress, the Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became president. Two presidents, Zakir Hussain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office and their vice-presidents functioned as acting president until a new president was elected. Following Zakir Hussains death, two acting presidents held office until the new president, Varahagiri Venkata Giri, was elected, Varahagiri Venkata Giri himself, Zakir Hussains vice president, was the first acting president. When Giri resigned to take part in the elections, he was superseded by Muhammad Hidayatullah as acting president. The current President is Pranab Mukherjee elected on 25 July 2012, Mukherjee held various posts in the cabinet ministry for the Government of India such as Finance Minister, Foreign Minister, Defence Minister and Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission. He originally comes from West Bengal and is also the first Bengali to hold the post of the President, the ex- president, Pratibha Patil, who was in office till 25 July 2012, was elected as the 12th President of India in 2007. She is also the first woman to serve as President of India and this list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Muhammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, the President of India does not represent any political party. com – Presidents of India The Hindu – A presidential poll in the coalition age Zee News, Former Presidents
4.
President of India
–
The President of the Republic of India is the Head of State of India and the Commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The oath of the President is taken in the presence of the Chief Justice of India, the President resides in an estate known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan situated in Raisina Hill in New Delhi. The presidential retreats are The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam in Hyderabad, the 13th and current President is Pranab Mukherjee, who was elected on 22 July 2012, and sworn in on 25 July 2012. He is also the first Bengali to be elected as President, India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, the constitution of the Republic of India gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after Presidents assent, the president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution, the primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath. The President is the head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations and supervisory powers over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution, there is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head. The President of the Republic summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them and he can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections, the Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111, after a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, when, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the validity of any issue. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval, ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Re-promulgation of ordinances after failing to get approval within stipulated time of the houses of parliament is unconstitutional act by the President
5.
Jawaharlal Nehru
–
Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India and a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state, a sovereign, socialist, secular and he was also known as Pandit Nehru due to his roots with the Kashmiri Pandit community while many Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru. The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani, Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and took an interest in national politics, a committed nationalist since his teenage years, he became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the prominent leader of the factions of the Indian National Congress during the 1920s. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called for independence from the British Raj. Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved towards independence, but these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organisation. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now bête noire, negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947. As Prime Minister, he set out to realise his vision of India, the Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw Indias transition from a colony to a republic, while nurturing a plural, in foreign policy, he took a leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemon in South Asia. Under Nehrus leadership, the Congress emerged as a party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951,1957. He remained popular with the people of India in spite of troubles in his final years. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Childrens Day, Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru, a barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu, who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore, was Motilals second wife, Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls. The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly, the youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother. Nehru described his childhood as a sheltered and uneventful one and he grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a palatial estate called the Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by governesses and tutors
6.
Gulzarilal Nanda
–
Gulzarilal Nanda was an Indian politician and economist who specialized in labour issues. He was the Prime Minister of India for two short periods following the deaths of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964 and Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, both his terms ended after the ruling Indian National Congresss parliamentary party elected a new prime minister. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, Indias highest civilian award, Nanda was born on 4 July 1898 in Sialkot in the Punjab Province of British India into a Punjabi Hindu family. Nanda received his education in Lahore, Amritsar, Agra, Nanda worked as a research scholar on labour problems at Allahabad University, and became a Professor of Economics at National College in Bombay in 1921. The same year, he joined the Indian Non-Cooperation Movement against the British Raj, in 1922, he became secretary of the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association where he worked until 1946. He was imprisoned for Satyagraha in 1932, and again from 1942 to 1944 and he was honored with Proud Past Alumni in the list of 42 members, from Allahabad University Alumni Association, NCR, Ghaziabad Chapter 2007-2008 registered under society act 1860 with registration no. He married Lakshmi, with whom he had two sons and a daughter, in the British Raj, Nanda was elected to the Bombay Legislative Assembly in 1937, and served as parliamentary secretary to the Government of Bombay from 1937 to 1939. As Labour Minister of the Bombay Government during 1946–50, he piloted the Labor Disputes Bill in the state assembly. He served as a Trustee of the Kasturba Memorial Trust and he served as secretary of the Hindustan Mazdoor Sevak Sangh, and Chairman of the Bombay Housing Board. He was a member of the National Planning Committee and he was largely instrumental in organising the Indian National Trade Union Congress, and later became its president. In 1947, Nanda went to Geneva, Switzerland as a government delegate to the International Labor Conference. He worked on The Freedom of Association Committee of the Conference, and visited Sweden, France, Switzerland, Belgium, in March 1950, Nanda joined the Indian Planning Commission as its vice-chairman. In September 1951, he was appointed Planning Minister in the Indian Government and he was also given charge of the portfolios of Irrigation and Power. He was elected to the Lok Sabha from Bombay in the elections of 1952, and was reappointed Minister for Planning, Irrigation. He led the Indian Delegation to the Plan Consultative Committee held in Singapore in 1955, Nanda was elected to the Lok Sabha in the 1957 elections, and was appointed Union Minister for Labour, Employment and Planning, and later, as Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission. He visited the Federal Republic of Germany, Yugoslavia, and Austria in 1959, Nanda was re-elected to the Lok Sabha in the 1962 elections from the Sabarkantha constituency in Gujarat. He initiated the Congress Forum for Socialist Action in 1962 and he was Union Minister for Labour and Employment during 1962 –1963, and Minister for Home Affairs during 1963 –1966. Gulzarilal Nanda, A Life in the Service of the People
7.
Lal Bahadur Shastri
–
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the Prime Minister of the Republic of India and a leader of the Indian National Congress party. Shastri joined the Indian independence movement in the 1920s, deeply impressed and influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, he became a loyal follower, first of Gandhi, and then of Jawaharlal Nehru. He led the country during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 and his slogan of Jai Jawan Jai Kisan became very popular during the war and is remembered even today. Shastri was born at the house of his grandparents in Mughalsarai, Varanasi in a Kayastha Hindu family. Shastris paternal ancestors had been in the service of the zamindar of Ramnagar near Varanasi, Shastri was the second child and eldest son of his parents, he had an elder sister, Kailashi Devi. In April 1906, When Shastri was hardly one year old, his father, had recently been promoted to the post of deputy tahsildar. Ramdulari Devi, then only 23 and pregnant with her third child and she gave birth to a daughter, Sundari Devi, in July 1906. Thus, Shastri and his sisters grew up in the household of his maternal grandfather, in Shastris family, as with many Kayastha families, it was the custom in that era for children to receive an education in the Urdu language and culture. This is because Urdu/Persian had been the language of government for centuries, before being replaced by English, therefore, Shastri began his education at the age of four under the tutelage of a maulvi, Budhan Mian, at the East Central Railway Inter college in Mughalsarai. He studied there until the sixth standard, in 1917, Bindeshwari Prasad was transferred to Varanasi, and the entire family moved there, including Ramdulari Devi and her three children. In Varanasi, Shastri joining the standard at Harish Chandra High School. At this time, he decided to drop his surname of Verma. In January 1921, when Shastri was in the 10 standard and three months from sitting the examinations, he attended a public meeting in Benares hosted by Gandhi. He was soon arrested and jailed, but was let off as he was still a minor. Recognising the need for the volunteers to continue their educations, Kripalani. Sharma, had founded a school centered around nationalist education to educate the young activists in their nations heritage. Among the first students of the new institution, Shastri graduated with a degree in philosophy. He was given the title Shastri, the title was a bachelors degree awarded by the Vidyapith, but it stuck as part of his name
8.
Indira Gandhi
–
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi was an Indian politician and central figure of the Indian National Congress party, and to date the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter of Indias first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, despite her surname Gandhi, she is not related to the family of nationalist leader Mahatma Gandhi. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, Gandhi served as her fathers personal assistant and hostess during his tenure as prime minister between 1947 and 1964. She was elected Congress President in 1959, upon her fathers death in 1964, Gandhi refused to enter the Congress party leadership contest and instead chose to become a cabinet minister in the government led by Lal Bahadur Shastri. As the Prime Minister of India, Gandhi was known for her political ruthlessness, Gandhi also presided over a controversial state of emergency from 1975 to 1977 during which she ruled by decree. Akin to Mahatma Gandhis fate, she was assassinated by nationalists in 1984. The assassins, Beant Singh and Satwant Singh, were both killed, in 1999, Indira was named Woman of the Millennium in a poll organised by the BBC. Indira Gandhi was born as Indira Nehru in a Kashmiri Pandit family on 19 November 1917 in Allahabad and her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a leading figure in Indias political struggle for independence from British rule, and became the first Prime Minister of the Union of India. She was the child, and grew up with her mother, Kamala Nehru, at the Anand Bhavan. She had a lonely and unhappy childhood and her father was often away, directing political activities or incarcerated, while her mother was frequently bed-ridden with illness, and later suffered an early death from tuberculosis. She had limited contact with her father, mostly through letters, Indira was mostly taught at home by tutors, and intermittently attended school until matriculation in 1934. It was during her interview that Rabindranath Tagore named her Priyadarshini, a year later, however, she had to leave university to attend to her ailing mother in Europe. While there, it was decided that Indira would continue her education at the University of Oxford, after her mother died, she briefly attended the Badminton School before enrolling at Somerville College in 1937 to study history. Indira had to take the entrance examination twice, having failed at her first attempt with a performance in Latin. At Oxford, she did well in history, political science and economics and she did, however, have an active part within the student life of the university, such as the Oxford Majlis Asian Society. During her time in Europe, Indira was plagued with ill-health and was attended by doctors. She had to make repeated trips to Switzerland to recover, disrupting her studies and she was being treated there in 1940, when the Nazi armies rapidly conquered Europe. Gandhi tried to return to England through Portugal but was stranded for nearly two months
9.
Zakir Hussain (politician)
–
Zakir Husain pronunciation was the 3rd President of India, from 13 May 1967 until his death on 3 May 1969. An educator and intellectual, Husain was the countrys first Muslim president and he was also the shortest serving President of India. He previously served as Governor of Bihar from 1957 to 1962, Zakir Husain was also the co-founder of Jamia Milia Islamia, serving as its Vice Chancellor from 1928. Under Husain, Jamia became closely associated with the Indian freedom movement and he was awarded the Bharat Ratna, Indias highest civilian honour, in 1963. Husain was born in Hyderabad, Telangana, into a Pashtun family of the Afridi tribe, which came to be closely associated with Kaimganj, Uttar Pradesh. After Husain was born, his family migrated from Hyderabad to Kaimganj and he was the second of seven sons, the elder brother of fellow educationists Yousuf Husain and Mahmud Hussain. He was also the uncle of academic Masud Husain and Anwar Husain eminent anchorperson and his grandson Salman Khurshid, a Congress politician, is the former Foreign Minister of India. Husains father, Fida Husain Khan, died when he was ten years old and he received his doctorate in economics from the University of Berlin in 1926. In 1915, at the age of 18, he married Shah Jahan Begum and had two daughters, Sayeeda Khan and Safia Rahman and he subsequently went to Germany to obtain a PhD from the Frederick William University of Berlin in Economics. While in Germany, Husain was instrumental in bringing out the anthology of arguably the greatest Urdu poet Mirza Assadullah Khan Ghalib and he returned to India to head the Jamia Millia Islamia which was facing closure in 1927. During this period Husain emerged as one of the most prominent educational thinkers and practitioners of modern India and his personal sacrifice and untiring efforts to keep the Jamia afloat in very adverse circumstances won him appreciation of even his arch political rivals like Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Dr. Husain, again, provided leadership during a phase of the history of the University at Aligarh from 1948–1956. Soon after completing his term as Vice Chancellor he was nominated as a member of the Upper House of Indian Parliament in 1956, a position he vacated in 1957 to become Governor of the State of Bihar. After serving as the Governor of Bihar from 1957 to 1962, in his inaugural speech, he said that the whole of India was his home and all its people were his family. During his last days, the issue of nationalization of banks was being hotly debated, the bill, in the end, received presidential consent from Mohammad Hidayatullah, on 9 August 1969. During his presidential tenure, Zakir Husain led four state visits to Hungary, Yugoslavia, USSR, Husain died on 3 May 1969, the first Indian President to die in office. He is buried along with his wife on the campus of Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi, with the main objective of providing facility for higher education in Ilayangudi, a college was started in his honour in 1970. The Engineering College of Aligarh Muslim University is named after him, minority minister, V-C read Fatiha at Dr Zakir Husain’s grave – TCN News Dr. Zakir Husain Biography
10.
Rajendra Prasad
–
Rajendra Prasad was the first President of the Republic of India. An Indian political leader, lawyer by training, Prasad joined the Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement, a supporter of Mahatma Gandhi, Prasad was imprisoned by British authorities during the Salt Satyagraha of 1931 and the Quit India movement of 1942. Prasad served one term as President of the Indian National Congress from 1934 to 1935, after the 1946 elections, Prasad served as minister of food and agriculture in the central government. Upon independence in 1947, Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly of India, when India became a Republic in 1950, Prasad was elected its first President by the Constituent Assembly. Following the general election of 1951, he was elected President by the college of the first Parliament of India. As President, Prasad established a tradition of non-partisanship and independence for the office-bearer, although a ceremonial head of state, Prasad encouraged the development of education in India and advised the Nehru government on several occasions. In 1957, Prasad was re-elected to the presidency, becoming the president to have been in the office twice. Rajendra Prasad was a Hindu and born in Zeradai, in the Siwan district of Bihar. His father Mahadev Sahai, was a scholar of both the Sanskrit and Persian languages, while his mother, Kamleshwari Devi, was a woman who would tell stories from the Ramayana to her son. When Prasad was five years old, his parents placed him under the tutelage of a Moulavi, an accomplished Muslim scholar, to learn the Persian language, Hindi and arithmetic. After the completion of elementary education, he was sent to the Chapra District School Meanwhile, in June 1896, at an early age of 12. He, along with his elder brother Mahendra Prasad, then went to study at T. K, ghoshs Academy in Patna for a period of two years. He secured first in the examination to the University of Calcutta and was awarded Rs.30 per month as a scholarship. Prasad joined the Presidency College, Calcutta in 1902, initially as a science student and he passed Intermediate level classes then called as F. A. under the University of Calcutta in March 1904 and further graduated with First Division from there itself in March 1905. Impressed by his intellect, an examiner once had commented on his answer sheet examinee is better than examiner, later he decided to focus on the study of arts and did his M. A. in Economics with first division from the University of Calcutta in December 1907. There he lived with his brother in the Eden Hindu Hostel, a devoted student as well as a public activist, he was an active member of The Dawn Society. It was due to his sense of duty towards his family, Prasad was instrumental in the formation of the Bihari Students Conference in 1906 in the hall of the Patna College. Rajendra Prasad served in various institutions as a teacher
11.
Vice President of India
–
The Vice-President of India is the second-highest constitutional office in India, after the President. Article 63 of Indian Constitution states that there shall be a Vice-President of India, the Vice-President acts as President in the absence of the President due to death, resignation, impeachment, or other situations. The Vice-President of India is also ex officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha, when a bill is introduced in Rajya Sabha, vice-president decides whether it is a financial bill or not. If he is of the opinion, a bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha is a money bill, Article 66 of the Indian Constitution states the manner of election of the Vice-President. The current Vice-President is Mohammad Hamid Ansari, since 11 August 2007 and this difference is because the Vice-President is to act as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The Vice-President is elected indirectly, by a college consisting of members of both houses of the Parliament. The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the Vice-President must be subscribed by at least 20 electors as proposers and 20 electors as seconders, every candidate has to make a security deposit of Rs.15,000 in the Reserve Bank of India. The Election Commission of India, which is an autonomous body. The election is to be no later than 60 days of the expiry of the term of office of the outgoing Vice-President. A Returning Officer is appointed for the election, usually the Secretary-General of either House of the Parliament, the Returning Officer issues a public notice of the intended election, inviting nomination of candidates. The nomination papers are scrutinized by the Returning Officer, and the names of all candidates are added to the ballot. The election is proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote by secret ballot, voters stack-rank the candidates, assigning 1 to their first preference,2 to their second preference, and so on. The number of votes required by a candidate to secure the election is calculated by dividing the number of votes by two, and adding one to the quotient by disregarding any remainder. If no candidate obtains the required number of votes, the candidate with the least number of first-preference votes is eliminated. The process is repeated until a candidate obtains the requisite number of votes, nominated members can also participate in the election. After the election has been held and the votes counted, the Returning Officer declares the result of the election to the electoral college, the Vice-President may resign his office by submitting his resignation to the President. The resignation becomes effective from the day it is accepted, all disputes arising in connection with the election of the Vice-President are petitioned to the Supreme Court of India, which inquires into the matter. The petition is heard by a bench of the Supreme Court
12.
Thiruttani
–
Thiruttani is a town in the state of Tamil Nadu, India, famous for being birthplace of Indian President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and also birthplace of Chief Minister of Madras Presidency B. As of 2011, the town had a population of 44,781, lord Murugas one of the arupadai veedu, one being tiruttani, this reason makes this town famous and a major source of income revolves around the Thiruthani Murugan Temple. Tiruttani is located at 13. 18°N79. 63°E /13.18,79.63 and it has an average elevation of 76 metres. Tiruttani has good links to the nearest cities, towns. Its bus depot contains a total of 79 buses, including 42 operating in rural areas, during the festival season, additional buses are operated in order to keep up with the increased demand. Southern Railway also operates frequent passenger services to and from Chennai, according to the 2011 census, Tiruttani had a population of 44,781 with a sex ratio of 1,003 females for every 1,000 males, well above the national average of 929. A total of 4,656 were under the age of six, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 12. 42% and 2. 4% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 75. 32%, compared to the average of 72. 99%. The town had a total of 11,122 households, the Andhra Pradesh and Madras Alteration of Boundaries Act, enacted in 1959 by the Parliament of India under the provisions of article 3 of the constitution, went into effect from 1 April 1960. Under the act, Tirutani taluk and Pallipattu sub-taluk of the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh were transferred to Madras State in exchange for territories from the Chingelput and Salem Districts
13.
Chittoor District
–
Chittoor district, is a district in Rayalaseema region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The district headquarters is located at Chittoor and it has a population of 4,170,468 according to 2011 census of India. Chittoor district has many temples including Tirupati, Kanipakam and Sri Kalahasti temples. It lies in the Poini river valley of southernmost Andhra Pradesh along the Chennai – Bangalore section Chennai-Mumbai highway and it is a major market centre for mangoes, grains, sugarcane, and peanuts. The district derived its name from its headquarters Chittoor, later in the Apri111960319 villages of chittoor district were added into the then Kanchipuram districtand Thiruvallur districts of Tamil Nadu through the demands of Ma. Chandragiri, an area of Tirupati served as fourth capital of Vijayanagar empire. Chittoor is a part of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, the district occupies an area of 15,359 square kilometres. Chittoor district lies extreme south of the Andhra Pradesh state approximately between 12°37′ - 14°8′ north latitudes and 78°3′ - 79°55′ east longitudes, thirty percent of the total land area is covered by forests in the district. Mango and tamarind groves surround the city of Chittoor, and cattle are raised in the district, the important rivers in the district are Ponnai and Swarnamukhi rivers which originate in eastern ghats. Other rivers include Kusasthali, Beema, Bahuda, Pincha, Kalyani, Araniyar, none of the rivers are perennial. This is because of the altitude of the western parts compared to the eastern parts. The summer temperatures touches 46 °C in the eastern parts whereas in the parts it ranges around 36° to 38 °C. Similarly the winter temperatures of the parts are relatively low ranging around 12 °C to 14 °C. Chittoor district receives a rainfall of 918.1 mm. The South West Monsoon and North East Monsoon are the sources of rainfall for the district. On average the district receives 438.0 mm of rainfall through the South West Monsoon and 396.0 mm from North East Monsoon, the rainfall received by the district in the years 2002 and 2003 are 984.2 mm and 934 mm respectively. According to the 2011 census Chittoor district has a population of 4,170,468 and this gives it a ranking of 47th in India and 6th in its state. The district has a density of 275 inhabitants per square kilometre
14.
Madras Presidency
–
The Madras Presidency, or the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India. The city of Madras was the capital of the Presidency and Ootacamund or Ooty. The island of Ceylon was a part of Madras Presidency from 1793 to 1798 when it was created a Crown colony, the agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655. In 1684, it was re-elevated to a Presidency and Elihu Yale was appointed as president, in 1785, under the provisions of Pitts India Act, Madras became one of three provinces established by the East India Company. Thereafter, the head of the area was styled Governor rather than President and became subordinate to the Governor-General in Calcutta, a title that would persist until 1947. Judicial, legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861,1909,1919 and 1935, regular elections were conducted in Madras up to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. Following the Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, Madras was the first province of British India to implement a system of dyarchy, in the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras. With the advent of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, the Presidency became the Madras Province. Madras was later admitted as Madras State, a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, the discovery of dolmens from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the Stone Age. The first prominent rulers of the part of the future Presidency were the Tamil pandya dynasty. Following the decline of the pandyas of Tamil Nadu and the Cholas in Tamil Nadu, the country recovered under the subsequent Pallava dynasty and its civilisation attained a peak under the later where the telugu period when telugu kings started accquiring vast places in Tamil Nadu. Following the conquest of Madurai by Malik Kafur in 1311, there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate, the Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire, founded in 1336. Following the empires demise, the country was split amongst numerous sultans, polygars, between 1685 and 1947, a number of kings ruled the areas that became part of the Madras Presidency. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a company which became known as the East India Company. The first of these were built at Surat on the west coast, Masulipatam is thus the oldest English trading post on Indias east coast, dating back to 1611. In 1625, another factory was established at Armagon, a few miles to the south, the English authorities decided to relocate these factories farther south, due to a shortage of cotton cloth, the main trade item of the east coast at the time. The problem was compounded when the Sultan of Golconda started harassing the local officers, an agency was created to govern the new settlement, and the factor Andrew Cogan of Masulipatnam was appointed as its first Agent. All the agencies along Indias east coast were subordinated to the East India Company presidency of Bantam in Java, by 1641, Fort St George became the Companys headquarters on the Coromandel Coast
15.
British India
–
Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
16.
Madras
–
Chennai /ˈtʃɛnnaɪ/, formerly known as Madras /məˈdrɑːs/ or /-ˈdræs/) is the capital of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is one of the biggest cultural, economic, according to the 2011 Indian census, it is the sixth-largest city and fourth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city together with the adjoining regions constitute the Chennai Metropolitan Area, Chennai is among the most visited Indian cities by foreign tourists. It was ranked 43rd most visited city in the world for year 2015, the Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as the safest city in India. Chennai attracts 45 percent of tourists visiting India, and 30 to 40 percent of domestic health tourists. As such, it is termed Indias health capital, as a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Chennai confronts substantial pollution and other logistical and socio-economic problems. Chennai has the third-largest expatriate population in India at 35,000 in 2009,82,790 in 2011, tourism guide publisher Lonely Planet named Chennai as one of the top ten cities in the world to visit in 2015. Chennai is ranked as a city in the Global Cities Index and was ranked the best city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey. In 2015 Chennai was named the hottest city by the BBC, National Geographic ranked Chennais food as second best in the world, it was the only Indian city to feature in the list. Chennai was also named the ninth-best cosmopolitan city in the world by Lonely Planet, the Chennai Metropolitan Area is one of the largest city economies of India. Chennai is nicknamed The Detroit of India, with more than one-third of Indias automobile industry being based in the city, in January 2015, it was ranked third in terms of per capita GDP. Chennai has been selected as one of the 100 Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The name Madras originated even before the British presence was established in India, the name Madras is said to have originated from a Portuguese phrase mae de Deus which means mother of god, due to Portuguese influence on the port city. According to some sources, Madras was derived from Madraspattinam, a north of Fort St George. However, it is whether the name was in use before the arrival of Europeans. The British military mapmakers believed Madras was originally Mundir-raj or Mundiraj, Madras might have also been derived from the word Madhuras meaning juice of honey or sugarcane in Sanskrit. The nativity of name Chennai, being of Telugu origin is clearly proved by the historians. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a deed, dated 8 August 1639
17.
Tamil Nadu
–
Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
18.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
19.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
20.
University of Madras
–
The University of Madras is a public state university in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Established in 1857, it is one of the oldest and premier universities in India, the university was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Council of India. It is a research university and has six campuses in the city viz. Chepauk, Marina, Guindy, Taramani, Maduravoyal. This public petition, which was presented by the Advocate General Mr. George Norton on 11 November 1839, pursuant to this, Lord Elphinstone evolved a plan for the establishment of a central collegiate institution or a ‘university. The University Board was constituted in January 1840 with Mr. George Norton as its President and this was the precursor of the present Presidency College, Chennai. As a result, the University of Madras, organized on the model of the University of London, was incorporated on 5 September 1857 by an Act of the Legislative Council of India. Medical University, Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Periyar University, in 1912 endowments were made to the university to establish departments of Indian History, Archaeology, Comparative Philology and Indian Economics. In that year the university had 17 departments,30 teachers, between 1926 and 1939, the university published the comprehensive Tamil Lexicon dictionary, which is the first among the dictionaries published in any Indian language. The motto scroll is edged red, with black lettering, the English translation of the motto of the University of Madras is, Learning promotes natural talent. The university is spread over six campuses, viz. Chepauk, Marina, Guindy, Taramani, Chetput, the Chepauk campus of the university houses the VCs secretariat, central library, centenary auditorium and the historic Senate House. The oriental and Indian languages departments are located in the Marina Campus, the Guindy campus incorporates the natural sciences departments while the campus at Taramani houses the school of basic medical sciences. The sports union and the garden are based in Chetpet. The University of Madras has a historical monument – Senate House – which is one of the landmarks of the city of Chennai, the university renovated the Senate House in 2006. University of Madras has an alumni network with its alumni taking over many prestigious positions across the world. Abdul Kalam, politicians Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, C Subramaniam, CN Annadurai and V. K. Krishna Menon, civil servants T. N. Seshan, Benegal Rama Rau and Y. Venugopal Reddy, pioneers Verghese Kurien, Raj Reddy, Rangaswamy Srinivasan and M. S. Swaminathan, economist C. K. Prahalad, K. N. Raj, Raja Chelliah, rangarajan, business persons Indra Nooyi, Ram Shriram and Prathap C. Reddy, cinema actors and directors M. G, ramachandran, Gemini Ganesan and Mani Ratnam, sports stars Viswanathan Anand, Vijay Amritraj, Sureshkumar Devarajulu and Ramanathan Krishnan among others. Madras University has been listed among top ranked universities for its academics
21.
Philosopher
–
A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek φιλόσοφος meaning lover of wisdom, the coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Typically, these brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers. The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC, thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition. While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato, in his Symposium, he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom, if he attains wisdom, therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed and these disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition, as the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world. Philosophy is a discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe. The second is the change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life, philosophy was then the servant to theology. The third is the sociological need with the development of the university, the modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty, therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life. In the fourth century, the word began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake the distractions of life for a life of philosophy. Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus, many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, with the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent
22.
Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
23.
University of Calcutta
–
The University of Calcutta is a public state university located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India established on 24 January 1857. It was the first institution in Asia to be established as a multidisciplinary, within India it is recognized as a Five-Star University and a Centre with Potential for Excellence by the University Grants Commission and the National Assessment and Accreditation Council. There are seven Nobel laureates associated with this university including Ronald Ross, Rabindranath Tagore, C. V. Raman, the University of Calcutta was ranked 601-650 in the QS World University Rankings of 2011 and 43 in the QS University Rankings for Asia in 2012. In India, it was ranked second by India Today in its list of Top India Universities of 2012,2013 and 2014 and it is 16th Best University in All over India by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. The Calcutta University Act came into force on 24 January 1857, the land for the establishment of this university was given by Maharaja Maheshwar Singh Bahadur, who was a Maharaja of Darbhanga. When the university was first established it had a catchment area covering the area from Lahore to Rangoon, and Ceylon, the first Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor of the Calcutta University were Governor General Lord Canning and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Sir James William Colvile, respectively. In 1858, Joddu Nath Bose and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay became the first graduates of the university, on 30 January 1858, the Syndicate of the Calcutta University started functioning. Following its inauguration, many institutions came under its jurisdiction. Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu became the first female graduates of the country in 1882, the Honourable Justice Gooroodas Banerjee became the first Indian Vice-Chancellor of University of Calcutta in the year 1890. Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee was the Vice-Chancellor for four consecutive two-year terms, four Nobel laureates were associated with this university, Ronald Ross. Rabindra Nath Tagore, C. V. Raman and Amartya Sen, the current university seal is the modified version of the sixth seal. The motto Advancement of Learning has remained the same through the seals transitions, the university has a total of 14 campuses spread over the city of Kolkata and its suburbs. The major campuses are the Central Campus in College Street, Rashbehari Shiksha Prangan in Rajabazar, Taraknath Palit Shiksha Prangan in Ballygunge, other campuses include the Hazra Road Campus, the University Press and Book Depot, the B. T. Road Campus, the Viharilal College of Home Science Campus, the University Health Service, the Haringhata Campus, the Dhakuria Lakes, asutosh Siksha Prangan is the main campus of the university, where the administrative work is done. Located on College Street, is spread over an area of 2.7 acres. Sahid Khudiram Siksha Prangan at Alipore houses the department of History, Archeology, Business Management, Political Science, Sociology and others. The university is building a campus which is known as Technology Campus or Tech Campus, to bring together the Three engineering and technical departments, in Sector 3, JD Block, Salt Lake. As of December 2016, most of these departments have moved to this campus
24.
University of Oxford
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
25.
Advaita Vedanta
–
Advaita Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice, and one of the classic Indian paths to spiritual realization. The term Advaita refers to its idea that the soul is the same as the highest metaphysical Reality, Advaita Vedanta traces its roots in the oldest Upanishads. It relies on three textual sources called the Prasthanatrayi and it gives a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta, which is one of the six orthodox Hindu philosophies, though its roots trace back to the 1st millennium BCE, the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedanta is considered by the tradition to be 8th century scholar Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jivanmukti, the idea that moksha is achievable in this life in contrast to Indian philosophies that emphasize Videhamukti, Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most influential schools of classical Indian thought. Many scholars describe it as a form of monism, others describe the Advaita philosophy as non-dualistic, beyond Hinduism, Advaita Vedanta interacted and developed with the other traditions of India such as Jainism and Buddhism. Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism, in modern times, its views appear in various Neo-Vedanta movements. It has been termed as the example of Hindu spirituality. The Advaita Vedanta school has referred to historically by various names, such as Advaita-vada, Abheda-darshana, Dvaita-vada-pratisedha. According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, traditional Advaita Vedanta centers on the study of the sruti especially the Principal Upanishads, along with the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Within the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism are many sub-schools, of which Advaita is one, unlike Buddhism, but like Jainism, all Vedanta schools consider the existence of Atman as self evident. The Vedanta tradition also posits the concept of Brahman as the eternal, the sub-schools of Vedanta disagree on the relation between Atman and Brahman. The Advaita darsana considers them to be identical, Advaita Vedanta believes that the knowledge of ones true self or Atman is liberating. Correct knowledge, which destroys avidya, psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman, is obtained through three stages of practice, sravana, manana and nididhyasana, the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism rejects the dualism of Samkhya. Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman is both the efficient and the cause, that from which the origination, subsistence. What created all existence is also present in and reflected in all beings and inert matter and this Brahman it postulates is sat-cit-ananda. Second, how did cit Brahman create material world, third, if ananda Brahman is pure bliss, why did the empirical world of sufferings arise. These are the questions that Advaita Vedanta thinkers have historically attempted to answer, Advaita establishes its truths, in part, from the oldest Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and numerous other Hindu texts
26.
Order of Merit
–
The Order of Merit is an order of merit recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. While all members are awarded the right to use the post-nominal letters OM and a medallion for life, however, Sir Frederic Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, advised against the new order, primarily because of its selection process. From its inception, the order has been open to women, Florence Nightingale being the first woman to receive the honour, several individuals have refused admission into the Order of Merit, such as Rudyard Kipling, A. E. Housman, and George Bernard Shaw. To date, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, remains the youngest person inducted into the Order of Merit, having been admitted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1968. All citizens of the Commonwealth realms are eligible for appointment to the Order of Merit, since 1991, it has been required that the insignia be returned upon the recipients death. However, it has been claimed by Stanley Martin, in his book The Order of Merit 1902–2002, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, that the Order of Merit is the pinnacle of the British honours system. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Martin, Stanley, The Order of Merit, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, New York City, I. B
27.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
28.
Chittoor district
–
Chittoor district, is a district in Rayalaseema region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The district headquarters is located at Chittoor and it has a population of 4,170,468 according to 2011 census of India. Chittoor district has many temples including Tirupati, Kanipakam and Sri Kalahasti temples. It lies in the Poini river valley of southernmost Andhra Pradesh along the Chennai – Bangalore section Chennai-Mumbai highway and it is a major market centre for mangoes, grains, sugarcane, and peanuts. The district derived its name from its headquarters Chittoor, later in the Apri111960319 villages of chittoor district were added into the then Kanchipuram districtand Thiruvallur districts of Tamil Nadu through the demands of Ma. Chandragiri, an area of Tirupati served as fourth capital of Vijayanagar empire. Chittoor is a part of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, the district occupies an area of 15,359 square kilometres. Chittoor district lies extreme south of the Andhra Pradesh state approximately between 12°37′ - 14°8′ north latitudes and 78°3′ - 79°55′ east longitudes, thirty percent of the total land area is covered by forests in the district. Mango and tamarind groves surround the city of Chittoor, and cattle are raised in the district, the important rivers in the district are Ponnai and Swarnamukhi rivers which originate in eastern ghats. Other rivers include Kusasthali, Beema, Bahuda, Pincha, Kalyani, Araniyar, none of the rivers are perennial. This is because of the altitude of the western parts compared to the eastern parts. The summer temperatures touches 46 °C in the eastern parts whereas in the parts it ranges around 36° to 38 °C. Similarly the winter temperatures of the parts are relatively low ranging around 12 °C to 14 °C. Chittoor district receives a rainfall of 918.1 mm. The South West Monsoon and North East Monsoon are the sources of rainfall for the district. On average the district receives 438.0 mm of rainfall through the South West Monsoon and 396.0 mm from North East Monsoon, the rainfall received by the district in the years 2002 and 2003 are 984.2 mm and 934 mm respectively. According to the 2011 census Chittoor district has a population of 4,170,468 and this gives it a ranking of 47th in India and 6th in its state. The district has a density of 275 inhabitants per square kilometre
29.
Andhra Pradesh
–
Andhra Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of 162,968 km2, as per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants. On 2 June 2014, the portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. In accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act,2014, Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of not exceeding 10 years. The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA, the Gross State Domestic Product of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at ₹6,800.3 billion. The state has a coastline of 974 km with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat. It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Chhattisgarh in the north, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of 30 km2 of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions, Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state. These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the worlds most visited religious sites, a tribe named Andhra has been mentioned in the Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana. According to Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India, archaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a centre for the Mauryan rule. After the death of emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jatiya and Andhra-bhrtya in the Puranic literature, Dharanikota along with Amaravathi was the capital of the later Satavahanas. Amaravathi became a trade and pilgrimage centre during the Satavahana rule. According to the Buddhist tradition, Nagarjuna lived here, possibly in second, Andhra Ikshvakus were one of the earliest recorded ruling dynasties of the Guntur-Krishna regions of Andhra Pradesh. They ruled the eastern Andhra country along the Krishna river during the half of the second century CE. Puranas called Andhra Ikshvakus Shri Parvatiya Andhras, archaeological evidence has suggested that the Andhra Ikshvakus immediately succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna river valley
30.
Nellore
–
Nellore is a city in Nellore district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located on the banks of the Penna River in Nellore mandal of Nellore revenue division and it is a municipal corporation and the headquarters of Nellore district. The city is the fourth most populous settlement of the well known for its agriculture and aquaculture. A mythological story from Sthala Purana depicts, a lingam in the form of a stone under belli tree, the place gradually became Nelli-ooru and then to present day Nellore. Nellore existed from the times of the Cholas ruled by Rajendra Chola I under Tanjavur Mauryan empire and was ruled by Ashoka in the 3rd century B. C. Nellore was conquered by the Rulers of the Pallava Dynasty and it was under their till the 6th century AD, the Telugu Cholas met their decline in the 13th Century. In the 18th century, Nellore was taken over by the British from the Arcot Nawabs and was part of the Madras Presidency of British India, the city had an important role in the emergence of the Telugu language and the formation of the state of Andhra Pradesh. Potti Sriramulu, who fasted until death for the formation of Andhra Pradesh, Nellore is located at 14. 44°N79. 98°E /14.44,79.98. It has an elevation of 18 metres. The climate of Nellore city is a tropical maritime climate, with hot, humid summers. April and May are the hottest months and the hot conditions generally last until the end of the June, December, January and February are the coolest months. As the Bay of Bengal is at a distance of 24 kilometres from the city, humidity level in the city is high due to its proximity to the coast. Nellore does not receive the south-west monsoon, rainfall in Nellore occurs between the months of October and December due to the north-east monsoon. This period gives about 60 percent of the annual rainfall. Cyclones are common in the city during this period, causing floods, the maximum temperature is 36 to 46 °C during summer and the minimum temperature is 23 to 25 °C during winter. The rainfall ranges from 700 to 1,000 mm through South West, Nellore is subject both to droughts and to floods based on the seasons. It is also one of the hottest cities in India with at least 35 super hot days in a year, as of 2011 census, Nellore city had a population of 499,575. The average literacy rate stands at 83. 59% with 387,192 literates, the expanded city population post merger of 15 gram panchayats into Nellore Municipal Corporation stands at 600,869
31.
Tirupati (city)
–
Tirupati is a city in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a corporation and the headquarters of Tirupati mandal. As of 2011 census, it had a population of 374,260 and it is the seventh most urban agglomerated city in the state, with a population of 459,985. Tirupati is also home to educational institutions and universities. For the year 2012-13, Indias Ministry of Tourism named Tirupati as the Best Heritage City, Tirupati has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Smart Cities Mission by Government of India. As per the book Symposium written by Dr. Jagannatha Rao, tri is a Sanskrit word referring to Lord of Tripathy of the sacred hill. In Dravidian translation, Tiru means sacred and also referred to as Goddess Lakshmi, Tirumala According to Varaha Purana, during Treta Yugam, Lord Sri Rama resided here along with Sita Devi and Lakshmana on his return from Lankapuri. The town was a centre of Vaishnavism around the 5th century A. D. during which it was praised by Alvars. The temple rites were formalised by the Vaishnavite saint Ramanujacharya in the 11th century AD, Tirupati survived the Muslim and British invasions. During the early 1300s Muslim invasion of South India, the deity of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, the temple was built and upgraded in parts by various kingdoms. During the 15th century, Sri Tallapaka Annamacharya sung many songs in praise of the town in Telugu. He compared it to be divine, including the rocks, streams, trees, animals, with the growing importance of Upper Tirupati, a village formed at the present day Kapilatheertham Road area and was named kotturu. It was later shifted to the vicinity of Govindarajaswamy Temple which was consecrated around the year 1130 CE, later the village grew into its present-day form around Govindaraja Swamy Temple which is now the heart of the city. It has now gained a lot of popularity as a tourism place, in 1932, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple was handed over to Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams by the TTD Act of 1932. The fourth World Telugu Conference, a conference for furtherance of Telugu language, was conducted at Tirupati during December,2012 for three days. Tirupati is located at 13. 65°N79. 42°E /13.65,79.42 in the Chittoor District of South Indian State of Andhra Pradesh and it lies at the foot of Seshachalam Hills of Eastern Ghats which were formed during Precambrian era. One of its suburbsTirumala, which is the home to Sri Venkateswara Temple, is located within the hills. Tirupati Urban agglomeration includes Tirupati and its suburbs Tirumala, Tiruchanur, Chandragiri, Tirupati is surrounded by Srikalahasti towards the East, Puttur towards the South, Poothalapattu towards the west and the Seshachalam hills towards the North
32.
Vellore
–
Vellore is a city and the administrative headquarters of Vellore District in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Vellore has four zones which covers an area of 87.915 km2 and has a population of 423,425 based on 2001 census and it is located about 145 kilometres west of the state capital Chennai and about 211 kilometres east of Karnataka capital Bengaluru. Vellore is administered by a Vellore Municipal Corporation under a mayor, Vellore is part of Vellore and Vellore. Vellore is the base of two of Indias top ten institutions, Christian Medical College & Hospital and VIT University. It is also a centre for medical tourism in India. Vellore region is the top exporter of finished goods in the country. Vellore leather accounts for more than 37% of the export of leather. The Government of India has released next round of smart cities project list, the Tamil Nadu state district Vellore also got the place into the list of 27 cities in the prestigious project. In Tamil, the word vel means spear that is seen as the weapon of Hindu god Murugan, as per Hindu legend, Murugan is seen as a tribal hunter who appeared in a lotus pond with his weapon to attack the enemies. Thus Vellore is seen as the place where Murugan appeared, as per another legend, the region was surrounded by Velan trees, resulting in the place to be called Vellore. The recorded history of Vellore dates back to the ninth century, further inscriptions made before ninth century indicate the rule of Pallava kings, whose capital was Kanchipuram. The Chola Kings ruled over the region from 850 to 1280, after the rule of Cholas, it came under the Rashtrakutas, the later Cholas, Reddys and Vijayanagar kings. The Vellore Fort was built during the time of Chinna Bommi reddy, during the 17th century, Vellore came under the dominion of the Nawab of the Carnatic. As the Mughal empire came to an end, the Nawab lost control of the town, with confusion, subsequently, there were periods of Hindu and Muslim stewardship of the region. The poligars were opposing British rule but were subdued, during the first half of the 19th century, the town came under British rule. Vellore is at 12. 92°N79. 13°E /12.92,79.13, the city has a semi-arid climate with high temperatures throughout the year and relatively low rainfall. It is in Vellore district of the South Indian state, Tamil Nadu,135 km west of the state capital Chennai, Vellore lies in the Eastern Ghats region and Palar river basin. The topography is almost plain with slopes from west to east, there are no notable mineral resources
33.
Madras Christian College
–
The Madras Christian College is a liberal arts and sciences college in Madras, India. Founded in 1837, MCC is one of Asias oldest extant colleges, the college is affiliated to the University of Madras but functions as an autonomous institution from its campus in Tambaram, Chennai. From its origins as a missionary endeavor by the Church of Scotland, it passed into administration by the Church of South India in 1947, following Indian independence from British rule. MCC has, among its professors and alumni, several servants, administrators, educators, business people and political leaders. At their request, the Church of Scotland sent a missionary to India to govern it, Missionary Rev. John Anderson, set up the institution as the General Assemblys School, conducting classes in a rented house on the east side of Armenian Street in Georgetown, Madras. The headmaster and 59 boys from St. Andrews School moved to this institution, the rapid expansion of the college and the paucity of the space necessitated moving the campus to a more spacious location. Accordingly, the college under the leadership of Rev. William Skinner initiated the Tambaram Project in 1919, Rev. Gordon Matthew as the town planning secretary negotiated with the government, which set aside 390 acres of the former Selaiyur forest land in Tambaram. While Mrs. and Prof. Edward Barnes meticulously planted rare trees and worked out the physical landscape, after 100 years in the heart of the city, the college moved to the sprawling, green campus in Tambaram on the outskirts of Madras in 1937. On 30 January 1937, the governor of Madras, Lord John Erskine declared open the first campus buildings, the hostel gave way to three halls of residence — Selaiyur, Thomas and Heber — active today as semi-autonomous student communities. Women students were admitted on a basis from 1939. This too evolved into a hall of residence for women, Martin Hall, named after Agnes Martin, in 1968, Margaret Hall in 2008. In 1938 MCC hosted the Tambaram Conference, the third World Missionary Conference which eventually created the World Council of Churches, the same buildings were used again in 1988 to commemorate this landmark event which focused contemporary thought into ecumenism, Christianitys engagement with world religions and traditions. In the words of Bishop Stephen Neill, this event was the most international gathering held up to point in the entire history of the Christian Church. Lesslie Newbigin, the missionary and theologian who attended the 1938 conference. MCCs leadership in governance and education has evolved its familial culture. The Rev. Dr. A. J. Boyd led the college for 18 years, General Krishnaswamy Sundarjis autobiography reveals that Boyd knew each student personally. Alfred Boyd, Prof MacPhail became principal, who was succeeded by the first Indian principal of the college. A man of Gandhian principles, Devanesen involved the faculty and students in working with the community in Tambaram
34.
Vedanta
–
Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It represents the divergent philosophical views of more than 10 schools—all developed on the basis of a textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The Prasthanatrayi is a term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras. Vedanta does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine, over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from other orthodox schools like Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been shaped and influenced by the doctrines of different schools of Vedanta. The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads, Vedanta was concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic knowledge part called the Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the philosophical traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses and these mark the culmination of Vedic thought. These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya stage, Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, the latter enquiry or higher enquiry, and is contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or rituals part in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, the Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna, considered the Sruti foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana, considered the foundation of Vedanta. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna, considered the Smriti foundation of Vedanta, the Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings and this was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, the Upanishads do not present a rigorous philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis, varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras, led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time of which three, four, five or six are prominent. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a rather than a school of Vedanta
35.
Swami Vivekananda
–
Swami Vivekananda Bengali, Shāmi Bibekānondo,12 January 1863 –4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, a chief disciple of the 19th-century Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a force in the revival of Hinduism in India. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission and he is perhaps best known for his speech which began, Sisters and brothers of America. In which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the Worlds Religions in Chicago in 1893, born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta, Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality. He was influenced by his Guru, Ramakrishna Deva, from whom he learnt that all living beings were an embodiment of the self, therefore. After Ramakrishnas death, Vivekananda toured the Indian subcontinent extensively and acquired knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. He later travelled to the United States, representing India at the 1893 Parliament of the World Religions, Vivekananda conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in the United States, England and Europe. In India, Vivekananda is regarded as a saint and his birthday is celebrated there as National Youth Day. Vivekananda was born Narendranath Datta at his home at 3 Gourmohan Mukherjee Street in Calcutta. He belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family and was one of nine siblings and his father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court. Durgacharan Datta, Narendras grandfather was a Sanskrit and Persian scholar who left his family and his mother, Bhubaneswari Devi, was a devout housewife. The progressive, rational attitude of Narendras father and the temperament of his mother helped shape his thinking. Narendranath was interested spiritually from an age, and used to meditate before the images of deities such as Shiva, Rama, Sita. He was fascinated by wandering ascetics and monks, naren was naughty and restless as a child, and his parents often had difficulty controlling him. His mother said, I prayed to Shiva for a son, in 1871, at the age of eight, Narendranath enrolled at Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagars Metropolitan Institution, where he went to school until his family moved to Raipur in 1877. In 1879, after his familys return to Calcutta, he was the student to receive first-division marks in the Presidency College entrance examination. He was a reader in a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, religion, history, social science, art. He was also interested in Hindu scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Narendra was trained in Indian classical music, and regularly participated in physical exercise, sports and organised activities
36.
Timeline of Christian missions
–
This timeline of Christian missions chronicles the global expansion of Christianity through a listing of the most significant missionary outreach events. 34 - In Gaza, Philip baptizes a convert, an Ethiopian who was already a Jewish proselyte,34 - Saul of Tarsus is converted, and becomes Paul. 39 - Peter preaches to a Gentile audience in the house of Cornelius in Caesarea Maritima,42 - Mark goes to Alexandria in Egypt 47 - Paul begins his first missionary journey to Western Anatolia, part of modern-day Turkey via Cyprus. It was said that when Gregory became bishop there were only 17 Christians in Pontus while at his death thirty years there were only 17 non-Christians. They are taken as slaves to the Ethiopian capital of Axum to serve in the royal court and she married a Danish missionary, William Rasmussen, whom she met during the voyage. 1892 - Redcliffe College, Centre for Mission Training founded in Chelsea, London 1892 - Open Air Campaigners was founded in Sydney, for seven years she will work as an American Board missionary in Elazığ in the Ottoman Empire. Her letters home will be published in a book titled Great Need over the Water, the work of Canadian Baptists led to the guarantee of freedom of religion in Bolivia in 1905. P. Today it is known as European Christian Mission International,1905 - Gunnerius Tollefsen is converted at a Salvation Army meeting under the preaching of Samuel Logan Brengle. Later he would become a missionary to the Belgian Congo and then first mission secretary of the Norwegian Pentecostal movement,1905 - Sadhu Sundar Singh, an Indian missionary, former adherent of Sikhism, begins his ministry as sadhu preaching in Northern India and Tibet. From 1918-1922, he travels to preach throughout the world,1906 - The Evangelical Alliance Mission opens work in Venezuela with T. J. T. T. Studd reports a movement in the Congo 1914 Paul Olaf Bodding completes his translation of the Bible into the Santali language. 1915 - Founded in 1913 in Nanjing, China as a womens Christian college, Ginling College officially opens with eight students and it was supported by four missions, the Northern Baptists, the Christian Church, the Methodists, and the Presbyterians. 1916 - Rhenish missionaries are forced to leave Ondjiva in southern Angola under pressure from the Portuguese authorities, by then, four congregations existed with a confessing membership of 800. 1949 - Southern Baptist Mission board opens work in Venezuela, Mary Tripp sent out by CEF Child Evangelism Fellowship to the Netherlands. S, missionaries Jim Elliot, Pete Fleming, Edward McCully, Nate Saint, and Roger Youderian are killed by Huaorani Indians in eastern Ecuador. Though severely wounded in both legs, missionary pilot Kevin Donaldson landed the plane on the Amazon River. Zakaria Botros begins his television and internet mission to Muslims in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and western countries, resulting in thousands of conversions. 2004 - Four Southern Baptist missionaries are killed by gunman in Iraq 2006 - Abdul Rahman, missionary Vijay Kumar is publicly stoned by Hindu extremists for Christian preaching. Biographical dictionary of Christian missions, Simon & Schuster Macmillan,1998 Bainbridge, around the World Tour of Christian Missions, A Universal Survey 583 pages, full text online Barrett, David, ed
37.
Indian philosophy
–
Indian philosophy comprises the ancient philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta. However, there are methods of classification, Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised chiefly between 1000 BCE to the centuries of the Common Era. Competition and integration between the schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Advaita Vedanta survived, ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on Ontology, reliable means of knowledge, value system and other topics. They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation and their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures. These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons, Nyaya-Vaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The Vedanta school is divided into six sub-schools, Advaita, also includes the concept of Ajativada, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Suddhadvaita. This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit, Cārvāka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and, is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Several Śramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, notable philosophies that arose from Śramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Cārvāka, Ajñana and Ājīvika. Jainism, like Buddhism, is a religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism and ahimsa as a means of spiritual liberation, Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, or awakened one. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared concepts, states Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify. The influence of 3rd-century CE Buddhist Tathagatagarbha Sutras on the Advaita Vedanta Hindu scholar Gaudapada – a major school of thought within Hinduism, is clear, Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of Brahman and Atman at the foundation of Hindu philosophies. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a soul in favour of anatta. The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement, Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle
38.
Indian religions
–
These religions are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE, had an early urbanised culture which predates the Vedic religion. The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the practices of the early Indo-Iranians. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, the Reform or Shramanic Period between 800–200 BCE marks a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions. This period also saw the writing of the Upanishads and the rise of Vedanta, the early Islamic period also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak, the vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region. With the colonial dominance of the British a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, james Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to, another periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, although this periodization has also received criticism. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the century, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, smart and Michaels seem to follow Mills periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods periodisation. Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances, neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Marshalls interpretations have been debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades. One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as a form of the Hindu god Shiva, who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga, regarded as a lord of animals. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati, while Marshalls work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Despite the criticisms of Marshalls association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation
Bharat Ratna (in 1954)
listen (help·info) (5 September 1888 – 17 April 1975) was an Indian philosopher and statesman[1] who was the first Vice President of India (1952–1962) and the second President of India from 1962 to 1967.[web 1].jpg)
