1.
Samosa
–
A samosa, or samoosa, is a fried or baked dish with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, lentils, macaroni or noodles. Pine nuts can also be added and its size and consistency may vary, but typically it is distinctly triangular or tetrahedral in shape. Indian samosas are usually vegetarian, and often accompanied by a mint chutney, due to cultural diffusion and emigration from these areas, samosas in todays world are also prepared in other regions. Samosa is generally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, in eastern India, a similar dish is called Singara, Bengali, সিঙাড়া shingara, Sylheti, সিঙারা shingara sing-ra in Assamese, Odia, ଶିଙ୍ଗଡା shingada. Thambutha in Template, Kikuyu The word samosa can be traced to the sanbosag, while they are currently referred to as sambusak in the Arabic-speaking world, Medieval Arabic recipe books sometimes spell it sambusaj. The samosa is claimed to have originated in the Middle East prior to the 10th century, abolfazl Beyhaqi, an Iranian historian, mentioned it in his history, Tarikh-e Beyhaghi. Samosas were introduced to the Indian subcontinent in the 13th or 14th century by traders from Central Asia. Amir Khusro, a scholar and the poet of the Delhi Sultanate, wrote in around 1300 that the princes and nobles enjoyed the samosa prepared from meat, ghee, onion. The Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th-century Mughal document, mentions the recipe for qutab, regions where the dish serves as a staple of local cuisine have different ways of preparing it. Samosas were brought to India by various Muslim merchants, and patronized under various Islamic dynasties in the region, Samosas from South Asia are now world renowned, and are probably the most popular type of Samosas globally. The samosa contains Wheat flour or maida flour shell stuffed with filling, generally a mixture of mashed boiled potato, onions, green peas, spices. The entire pastry is then deep-fried to a brown color. It is served hot and is eaten with fresh Indian chutney, such as mint. It can also be prepared as a form, rather than as a savoury one. Samosas are often served in chaat, along with the accompaniments of yogurt, chutney, chopped onions, coriander. The samosa is bigger compared to other Indian and foreign variants, in Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, shingaras are popular snacks. Shingaras are easy to make, but the folding is a little tricky and they are wrapped in a thin dough and fried. The coating is of white flour, not wheat flour, what distinguishes good shingaras are flaky textures, almost as if they are made with a savoury pie crust
2.
Cooking
–
Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
3.
Solid
–
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume, unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to other, either in a regular geometric lattice or irregularly. The branch of physics deals with solids is called solid-state physics. Materials science is concerned with the physical and chemical properties of solids. Solid-state chemistry is concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification. The atoms, molecules or ions which make up solids may be arranged in a repeating pattern. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals, in some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal. Almost all common metals, and many ceramics, are polycrystalline, in other materials, there is no long-range order in the position of the atoms. These solids are known as amorphous solids, examples include polystyrene, whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids which are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, likewise, the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed. While many common objects, such as an ice cube or a coin, are chemically identical throughout, for example, a typical rock is an aggregate of several different minerals and mineraloids, with no specific chemical composition. Wood is an organic material consisting primarily of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of organic lignin. In materials science, composites of more than one constituent material can be designed to have desired properties, the forces between the atoms in a solid can take a variety of forms. For example, a crystal of sodium chloride is made up of sodium and chlorine. In diamond or silicon, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds, in metals, electrons are shared in metallic bonding. Some solids, particularly most organic compounds, are together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding, metals typically are strong, dense, and good conductors of both electricity and heat
4.
Garum
–
Garum was a fermented fish sauce used as a condiment in the cuisines of ancient Greece, Rome, and Byzantium. Liquamen was a preparation, and at times the two were synonymous. Although it enjoyed its greatest popularity in the Roman world, the sauce was used by the Greeks. Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville derive the Latin word garum from the Greek γαρός, a food named by Aristophanes, Sophocles, garos may have been a type of fish, or a fish sauce similar to garum. Pliny stated that garum was made from intestines, with salt, creating a liquor, the garum. A concentrated garum evaporated down to a paste with salt crystals was called muria, it would have been rich in protein, amino acids, minerals. Like the modern fermented soy product soy sauce, fermented garum is rich in the amino acid monosodium glutamate. It was used along with murri in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine to give a flavor to dishes. Murri may well derive from garum, garum was produced in various grades consumed by all social classes. After the liquid was ladled off of the top of the mixture, the finished product—the nobile garum of Martials epigram—was apparently mild and subtle in flavor. The best garum fetched extraordinarily high prices, and salt could be substituted for a simpler dish, garum appears in many recipes featured in the Roman cookbook Apicius. For example, Apicius gives a recipe for lamb stew, calling for the meat to be cooked with onion and coriander, pepper, lovage, cumin, liquamen, oil, and wine, then thickened with flour. In the 1st century AD, liquamen was a distinct from garum. By the 5th century or earlier, however, liquamen had come to refer to garum, in most surviving tituli picti inscribed on amphorae, where the fish ingredient is shown, the fish is mackerel. In the ruins of Pompeii, jars were found containing kosher garum. Each port had its own recipe, but by the time of Augustus, Romans considered the best to be garum from Cartagena. This product was called garum sociorum, garum of the allies, the ruins of a garum factory remain at the Baetian site of Baelo Claudia and Carteia. Garum was an export product from Hispania to Rome
5.
Ancient Greece
–
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
6.
Mayonnaise
–
Mayonnaise is a thick, creamy dressing often used as a condiment. It is an emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and either vinegar or lemon juice, with many options for embellishment with other herbs. Proteins and lecithin in the egg yolk serve as emulsifiers in both mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce, commercial egg-free alternatives are available for vegans and others who want to avoid animal products and cholesterol, or who are allergic to eggs. Mayonnaise varies in color, but is white, cream. It may range in texture from that of light cream to a thick gel, the word mayonnaise was not used for a dressing before the start of the 19th century. The earliest reference appears to be by Alexandre Viard, who never quite gives a recipe for the dressing itself. At that point, the sauce was made with aspic or jelly, in 1815, Louis Eustache Ude wrote, No 58. —Mayonnaise. Take three spoonfuls of Allemande, six ditto of aspic, and two of oil, add a little tarragon vinegar, that has not boiled, some pepper and salt, and minced ravigotte, or merely some parsley. Then put in the members of fowl, or fillets of soles and your mayonnaise must be put to ice, neither are you to put the members into your sauce till it begins to freeze. Next dish your meat or fish, mask with the sauce before it be quite frozen, and garnish your dish with whatever you think proper, as beet root, jelly, nasturtiums, &c. In a 1820 work, Viard describes something like the more familiar emulsified version, This sauce is made to take in many ways, with raw egg yolks, with gelatine and this sauce is used for cold fish entrees, or salad of vegetables cooked in salt water. According to this version, the sauce was known as salsa mayonesa in Spanish and maonesa in Catalan. The Larousse Gastronomique suggests, Mayonnaise, in our view, is a corruption of moyeunaise, derived from the very old French word moyeu. It is highly probable that wherever olive oil existed, a preparation of oil and egg came about — particularly in the Mediterranean region. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term mayonnaise was in use in English as early as 1823 in the journal of Lady Blessington, traditional mayonnaise is a mixture of egg, vinegar, oil and spices. Mayonnaise made in this fashion typically contains 70–80% fat, despite the high oil content relative to water, mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion. This emulsion is formed by first mixing the eggs, vinegar and mustard and this results in an emulsion consisting of a closely packed foam of oil droplets. By contrast, if the oil and aqueous phases are mixed all at once the result is a water-in-oil emulsion similar in viscosity to the oil from which it is made, oil may account for 75% or more of the total volume
7.
Pesto
–
Pesto or, in extenso, pesto alla genovese, is a sauce originating in Genoa, the capital city of Liguria, Italy. It traditionally consists of crushed garlic, European pine nuts, coarse salt, basil leaves, Parmigiano-Reggiano and pecorino sardo and this same Latin root, through Old French, also gave rise to the English noun pestle. Strictly speaking, pesto is a term for anything that is made by pounding. Nonetheless, pesto alla genovese remains the most popular pesto in Italy, Pesto is thought to have two predecessors in ancient times, going back as far as the Roman age. Then dissolve it with good and abundant oil, lasagne and Trofie are dressed with this mash, made more liquid by adding a little hot water without salt. This recipe for pesto alla genovese was often revised in the following years and this is the main reason why pesto recipes often differ from each other. In French Provence, the dish evolved into the modern pistou, in 1944, The New York Times mentioned an imported canned pesto paste. In 1946, Sunset magazine published a recipe by Angelo Pellegrini. Pesto did not become popular in North America until the 1980s and 1990s, Pesto is traditionally prepared in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. First, garlic and pine nuts are placed in the mortar and reduced to a cream, then the washed and dried leaves are added with coarse salt. Only then is a mix of Parmigiano-Reggiano and Pecorino added, to help incorporate the cheese a little extra-virgin olive oil is added. In a tight jar, covered by a layer of olive oil, pesto can last in the refrigerator up to a week. Pesto is commonly used on pasta, traditionally with mandilli de sæa, potatoes and string beans are also traditionally added to the dish, boiled in the same pot in which the pasta has been cooked. Pasta, mixed with pesto, has become a dish in the majority of countries today. It is sometimes used in minestrone, Pesto is sometimes served with sliced beef tomatoes and sliced boiled potatoes. Pesto comes in a variety of recipes, some traditional and some modern, a slightly different version of this sauce exists in Provence, where it is known as pistou. Pistou is used in the typical soupe au pistou, a hearty vegetable soup with pistou flavour, the sauce did not originally contain basil, however, instead, cheese and olive oil were the main constituents. Sometimes almonds are used instead of nuts, and sometimes mint leaves are mixed in with the basil leaves
8.
Soy sauce
–
Soy sauce is a condiment made from a fermented paste of boiled soybeans, roasted grain, brine, and Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus sojae molds. Soy sauce in its current form seems to have begun in the 2nd century AD in China and spread throughout East and Southeast Asia where it is used in cooking, Soy sauce originated in China sometime between the 3rd and 5th century from a meat-based fermented sauce named jiang. Its use later spread to East and Southeast Asia, like many salty condiments, soy sauce was originally a way to stretch salt, historically an expensive commodity. In ancient China, fermented fish with salt was used as a condiment in which soybeans were included during the fermentation process, eventually, this was replaced and the recipe for soy sauce, using soybeans as the principal ingredient, with fermented fish-based sauces developing separately into fish sauce. Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands. In the 18th century, diplomat and scholar Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce, although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, his was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. By the mid-19th century, Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not understand the function of Aspergillus oryzae, the fungus used in its brewing. Soy sauce made from such as Portobello mushrooms were disseminated in European cookbooks during the late 18th century. A Swedish recipe for Soija was published in the 1770 edition of Cajsa Wargs Hjelpreda i Hushållningen för Unga Fruentimber and was flavored with allspice and mace, Soy sauce is made either by fermentation or by hydrolysis. Some commercial sauces have both fermented and chemical sauces, flavor, color, and aroma developments during production are attributed to non-enzymatic Maillard browning. Variation is usually achieved as the result of different methods and durations of fermentation, different ratios of water, salt, traditional soy sauces are made by mixing soybeans and grain with mold cultures such as Aspergillus oryzae and other related microorganisms and yeasts. Historically, the mixture was fermented naturally in large urns and under the sun, today, the mixture is placed in a temperature and humidity controlled incubation chamber. Traditional soy sauces take months to make, Soaking and cooking, The soybeans are soaked in water, koji culturing, An equal amount of boiled soybeans and roasted wheat are mixed to form a grain mixture. A culture of Aspergillus spore is added to the grain mixture, the cultures include, Aspergillus, a genus of fungus that is used for fermenting various ingredients. Three species are used for brewing soy sauce, A. oryzae, a. sojae, This fungus also has a high proteolytic capacity. A. tamari, This fungus is used for brewing tamari and this organism is likely to grow soy sauce ingredients, bring to generate odors and ammonia. Lactobacillus species, This organism makes a lactic acid that increases the acidity in the feed, brewing, The cultured grain mixture is mixed into a specific amount of salt brine for wet fermentation or with coarse salt for dry fermentation and left to brew. Over time, the Aspergillus mold on the soy and wheat break down the proteins into free amino acid and protein fragments
9.
Ketchup
–
Traditionally, recipes featured ketchups made from egg whites, mushrooms, oysters, mussels, walnuts, or other foods, but in modern times the unmodified term usually refers to tomato ketchup. Tomato sauce is the common term in Australia, New Zealand, and India. Ketchup is a sweet and tangy sauce, typically made from tomatoes, sweetener, vinegar, seasonings vary by recipe, but commonly include onions, allspice, coriander, cloves, cumin, garlic, mustard and sometimes celery, cinnamon or ginger. The market leader in United States and United Kingdom is Heinz, tomato ketchup is often used as a condiment to various dishes that are usually served hot, French fries, hamburgers, hot sandwiches, hot dogs, cooked eggs, and grilled or fried meat. Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or an ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, in the 17th century, the Chinese mixed a concoction of pickled fish and spices and called it kôe-chiap or kê-chiap meaning the brine of pickled fish or shellfish. By the early 18th century, the sauce had made it to the Malay states. The Indonesian-Malay word for the sauce was kecap and that word evolved into the English word ketchup. English settlers then took ketchup with them to the American colonies, the term Ketchup was used in 1690 in the Dictionary of the Canting Crew which was well acclaimed in North America. The spelling catchup may have also used in the past. In the United Kingdom, preparations of ketchup were historically and originally prepared with mushrooms as a primary ingredient, Ketchup recipes began to appear in British and then American cookbooks in the 18th century. In a 1742 London cookbook, the sauce had already taken on a very British flavor, with the addition of shallots. The mushrooms soon became an ingredient, and from 1750 to 1850 the word ketchup began to mean any number of thin dark sauces made of mushrooms or even walnuts. In the United States, mushroom ketchup dates back to at least 1770, in contemporary times, mushroom ketchup is available in the UK, although it is not a commonly used condiment. Many variations of ketchup were created, but the version did not appear until about a century later after other types. One version of the recipe was created by Sandy Addison and published in an American cookbook, The Sugar House Book. Get quite ripe on a dry day, squeeze them with your hands till reduced to a pulp, then put half a pound of salt to one hundred tomatoes. While hot press them through a sieve, with a silver spoon till nought but the skin remains, then add a little mace,3 nutmegs, allspice, cloves, cinnamon, ginger. Boil over a slow fire till quite thick, stir all the time, One hundred tomatoes will make four or five bottles and keep good for two or three years
10.
Salad
–
A salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, which may be mixed with a sauce or salad dressing. They are typically served cold, although some, such as south German potato salad, are served warm, salads may contain vegetables, fruits, cheese, cooked meat, eggs, grains and nuts. Garden salads use a base of leafy greens like lettuce, arugula, kale or spinach, other types include bean salad, tuna salad, fattoush, Greek salad, and Japanese sōmen salad. The sauce used to flavor a salad is commonly called a salad dressing, well-known types include ranch, Thousand Island, vinaigrette comes in many varieties, one version is a mixture of olive oil, balsamic vinegar, herbs, and seasonings. Salads may be served at any point during a meal, such as, Appetizer salads, light, side salads, to accompany the main course as a side dish. Main course salads, usually containing a portion of heartier fare, such as chicken breast, dessert salads, sweet versions containing fruit, gelatin, sweeteners or whipped cream, or just fruit, which is called a fruit salad. The word salad comes from the French salade of the meaning, from the Latin salata. In English, the word first appears as salad or sallet in the 14th century, salt is associated with salad because vegetables were seasoned with brine or salty oil-and-vinegar dressings during Roman times. The Romans and ancient Greeks ate mixed greens with dressing, in his 1699 book, Acetaria, A Discourse on Sallets, John Evelyn attempted with little success to encourage his fellow Britons to eat fresh salad greens. Mary, Queen of Scots, ate boiled celery root over greens covered with creamy mustard dressing, truffles, chervil, oil used on salads can be found in the 17th century colony of New Netherland. Curaçao Papers page 234 In a 1653 inventory in New Netherland dressing can be found, council Minutes Volume V, page 78 The United States popularized mixed greens salads in the late 19th century. Salads including layered and dressed salads were popular in Europe since Greek imperial, several other regions of the world adopted salads throughout the second half of the 20th century. From Europe and the Americas to China, Japan, and Australia, salads are sold in supermarkets, at restaurants, in the US market, restaurants will often have a Salad Bar laid out with salad-making ingredients, which the customers will use to put together their salad. Salad restaurants were earning more than $300 million in 2014, a green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket. The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together and they are often adorned with garnishes such as nuts or croutons. A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce halved or quartered, vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, spring onions, red onions, carrots, celery, a bound salad can be composed or tossed. They are assembled with thick sauces such as mayonnaise, one portion of a true bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with an ice-cream scoop
.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
