1.
Samosa
–
A samosa, or samoosa, is a fried or baked dish with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, lentils, macaroni or noodles. Pine nuts can also be added and its size and consistency may vary, but typically it is distinctly triangular or tetrahedral in shape. Indian samosas are usually vegetarian, and often accompanied by a mint chutney, due to cultural diffusion and emigration from these areas, samosas in todays world are also prepared in other regions. Samosa is generally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, in eastern India, a similar dish is called Singara, Bengali, সিঙাড়া shingara, Sylheti, সিঙারা shingara sing-ra in Assamese, Odia, ଶିଙ୍ଗଡା shingada. Thambutha in Template, Kikuyu The word samosa can be traced to the sanbosag, while they are currently referred to as sambusak in the Arabic-speaking world, Medieval Arabic recipe books sometimes spell it sambusaj. The samosa is claimed to have originated in the Middle East prior to the 10th century, abolfazl Beyhaqi, an Iranian historian, mentioned it in his history, Tarikh-e Beyhaghi. Samosas were introduced to the Indian subcontinent in the 13th or 14th century by traders from Central Asia. Amir Khusro, a scholar and the poet of the Delhi Sultanate, wrote in around 1300 that the princes and nobles enjoyed the samosa prepared from meat, ghee, onion. The Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th-century Mughal document, mentions the recipe for qutab, regions where the dish serves as a staple of local cuisine have different ways of preparing it. Samosas were brought to India by various Muslim merchants, and patronized under various Islamic dynasties in the region, Samosas from South Asia are now world renowned, and are probably the most popular type of Samosas globally. The samosa contains Wheat flour or maida flour shell stuffed with filling, generally a mixture of mashed boiled potato, onions, green peas, spices. The entire pastry is then deep-fried to a brown color. It is served hot and is eaten with fresh Indian chutney, such as mint. It can also be prepared as a form, rather than as a savoury one. Samosas are often served in chaat, along with the accompaniments of yogurt, chutney, chopped onions, coriander. The samosa is bigger compared to other Indian and foreign variants, in Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, shingaras are popular snacks. Shingaras are easy to make, but the folding is a little tricky and they are wrapped in a thin dough and fried. The coating is of white flour, not wheat flour, what distinguishes good shingaras are flaky textures, almost as if they are made with a savoury pie crust
Samosa
–
Samosas with
chutney and green chillies
Samosa
–
Preparation of wada for the Sultan Ghiyath al-Din, the Sultan of Mandu. Samosas being prepared. Small inscription 'sanbusa', samosa. Ghiyath Shahi seated on a stool in a garden is being offered a dish, possibly of samosas. A cook is frying them over a stove, while another is placing them on a round dish.
Samosa
–
Samosas being fried at a road-side restaurant in
Raipur,
India
Samosa
–
Burmese -style samusa are flat and triangular, and usually smaller than their Indian counterparts.
2.
Whisk
–
A whisk is a cooking utensil which can be used to blend ingredients smooth, or to incorporate air into a mixture, in a process known as whisking or whipping. Most whisks consist of a long, narrow handle with a series of wire loops joined at the end, the wires are usually metal, but some are plastic for use with nonstick cookware. Whisks are also made from bamboo, whisks are commonly used to whip egg whites into a firm foam to make meringue, or to whip cream into whipped cream. An 18th century Shaker recipe calls to “Cut a handful of peach twigs which are filled with sap at this season of the year, clip the ends and bruise them and beat the cake batter with them. This will impart a delicate peach flavor to the cake. ”The wire whisk was invented by the Victorians in the 19th century, however, they were not in use until Julia Child used one in her first ever televised appearance. The television broadcast was on the television show Ive been Reading to promote her new book “Mastering the Art of French Cooking. ”The most common shape is that of a wide teardrop, termed a balloon whisk. Balloon whisks are best suited to mixing in bowls, as their curved edges conform to a bowls concave sides, with longer, narrower wire loops, the French whisk has a more cylindrical profile, suiting it to deep, straight-sided pans. A flat whisk, sometimes referred to as a roux whisk, has the loops arranged in a flat successive pattern and it is useful for working in shallow vessels like skillets. A gravy whisk, sometimes referred to as a spiral whisk, the angle of the whisk head is ideal for mixing gravy, jello, batters and sauces. Similarly, a twirl whisk or a coil whisk has one single wire that is spiralled into a balloon shape, designed to remain stationary in a bowl while the user pumps the handle up and down, it circulates liquids readily throughout a bowl. It is not suitable for whisking in the sense, since dragging the whisk through a liquid or batter simply stretches out the coils. Ball whisks have no loops whatsoever, instead, a group of individual wires comes out of the handle, each tipped with a metal ball. The heavy balls are capable of reaching into the corners of a straight-sided pan, since there are no crossing wires, the ball whisk is easier to clean than traditional looped varieties. Manufacturers of ball whisks also purport that their shape allows for better aeration, a cage whisk, sometimes referred to as a ball whisk, is a balloon whisk with a small spherical cage trapped inside of it, which in turn holds a metal ball. Since the 19th century, various mechanical devices have been designed to make whisking more efficient, under the names egg beater, rotary mixer, etc
Whisk
–
French (top) and balloon whisks.
Whisk
–
A gravy whisk.
Whisk
–
A flat whisk
3.
Cooking
–
Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
Cooking
–
A chef preparing steak
Cooking
–
Historical oven cooking depicted in a painting by
Jean-François Millet
Cooking
–
Doughnuts frying in oil
Cooking
–
Water is often used to cook foods such as
noodles.
4.
Liquid
–
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
Liquid
–
The formation of a spherical
droplet of liquid water minimizes the
surface area, which is the natural result of
surface tension in liquids.
Liquid
–
Thermal image of a sink full of hot water with cold water being added, showing how the hot and the cold water flow into each other.
Liquid
–
Surface waves in
water
5.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
Food
–
Various foods
Food
–
Foods from plant sources
Food
–
Various raw
meats
Food
–
Tractor and
Chaser bin
6.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
7.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
8.
Garum
–
Garum was a fermented fish sauce used as a condiment in the cuisines of ancient Greece, Rome, and Byzantium. Liquamen was a preparation, and at times the two were synonymous. Although it enjoyed its greatest popularity in the Roman world, the sauce was used by the Greeks. Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville derive the Latin word garum from the Greek γαρός, a food named by Aristophanes, Sophocles, garos may have been a type of fish, or a fish sauce similar to garum. Pliny stated that garum was made from intestines, with salt, creating a liquor, the garum. A concentrated garum evaporated down to a paste with salt crystals was called muria, it would have been rich in protein, amino acids, minerals. Like the modern fermented soy product soy sauce, fermented garum is rich in the amino acid monosodium glutamate. It was used along with murri in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine to give a flavor to dishes. Murri may well derive from garum, garum was produced in various grades consumed by all social classes. After the liquid was ladled off of the top of the mixture, the finished product—the nobile garum of Martials epigram—was apparently mild and subtle in flavor. The best garum fetched extraordinarily high prices, and salt could be substituted for a simpler dish, garum appears in many recipes featured in the Roman cookbook Apicius. For example, Apicius gives a recipe for lamb stew, calling for the meat to be cooked with onion and coriander, pepper, lovage, cumin, liquamen, oil, and wine, then thickened with flour. In the 1st century AD, liquamen was a distinct from garum. By the 5th century or earlier, however, liquamen had come to refer to garum, in most surviving tituli picti inscribed on amphorae, where the fish ingredient is shown, the fish is mackerel. In the ruins of Pompeii, jars were found containing kosher garum. Each port had its own recipe, but by the time of Augustus, Romans considered the best to be garum from Cartagena. This product was called garum sociorum, garum of the allies, the ruins of a garum factory remain at the Baetian site of Baelo Claudia and Carteia. Garum was an export product from Hispania to Rome
Garum
–
Ruins of a garum factory in
Baelo Claudia in
Spain.
Garum
–
Garum factory in Portugal
Garum
–
Garum jugs from Pompeii
Garum
–
Mosaic depicting a "Flower of Garum" jug with a titulus reading "from the workshop of [the garum importer Aulus Umbricius] Scaurus"
9.
Fish sauce
–
Fish sauce is an amber-colored liquid extracted from the fermentation of fish with sea salt. It is used as a condiment in various cuisines, Fish sauce is a staple ingredient in numerous cultures in Southeast Asia and the coastal regions of East Asia, and features heavily in Burmese, Cambodian, Filipino, Thai, Lao and Vietnamese cuisines. It also was an ingredient in ancient European cuisine, but is no longer commonly used in those regions. In addition to being added to dishes during the cooking process and it is eaten with fish, shrimp, pork, and chicken. In parts of southern China, it is used as an ingredient for soups, Fish sauce, and its derivatives, impart an umami flavor to food due to their glutamate content. Most fish sauces are made from raw fish while some are made from dried fish, some are made from only a single species, while others from whatever is dredged up in the net, including some shellfish. Most fish sauces are made from whole fish but there are a few made from only the blood or viscera, most fish sauces contain only fish and salt, and others add a variety of herbs and spices. Fish sauce that has only briefly fermented has a pronounced fishy taste, while extended fermentation reduces this and gives the product a nuttier, richer. An anonymous article, Neuc-num, in Diderot and dAlemberts 18th-century encyclopedia, states and it is thought that a Chinese fish sauce from its southern coastal region, called kôechiap in the Min Nan Chinese language, might be the precursor of the tomato sauce called ketchup. Sauces made from fermented fish parts with other ingredients, such as meat, Southeast Asian fish sauce is often made from anchovies, salt, and water, and is usually used in moderation because it is intensely flavoured. Anchovies and salt are arranged in wooden barrels to ferment and are pressed, yielding the salty. The salt extracts the liquid via osmosis, the variety from Vietnam is called nước mắm. Two areas in Vietnam are most famous for producing fish sauce, Phú Quốc, popular brands include Red Boat,3 Crabs, Golden Boy, and Hon Phan Thiết. The quality of fish sauce is determined by many factors, some Vietnamese fish sauces are made with only two ingredients, anchovies and salt. They do not have any additives like sugar, hydrolyzed protein, another factor is the sauce should not have a particularly strong smell, and it should be transparent with a deep golden amber color. “First press” fish sauce, meaning the sauce is bottled from the first time the barrels are drained. Lastly, when measuring the level of fish sauces, most fish sauce on the market falls within the mid 20N range. Anything over 30N is considered high-grade, and 40N is optimal, nước chấm is a Vietnamese prepared fish sauce condiment dipping sauce that is savory, lightly sweet and salty tasting, and can even be sour and spicy if lime and chili peppers are added
Fish sauce
–
A fish sauce factory in
Phú Quốc, Vietnam
Fish sauce
–
Phrik nam pla ("Chilli with fish sauce") is served with nearly every Thai meal
Fish sauce
–
Thai fish sauce
Fish sauce
–
Japanese Fish sauce,
Shottsuru and Ishiru
10.
Ancient Greeks
–
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
Ancient Greeks
–
The
Parthenon, a temple dedicated to
Athena, located on the
Acropolis in
Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Greeks
–
Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period,
c. 750 BC.
Ancient Greeks
–
Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods
11.
Rites of Zhou
–
The Rites of Zhou, originally known as Officers of Zhou is actually a work on bureaucracy and organizational theory. It was renamed by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the Book of History by the same name. To replace a lost work, it was included along with the Book of Rites and the Etiquette and Ceremonial – becoming one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. The book appeared in the middle of the 2nd century BC, when it was found and included in the collection of Old Texts in the library of Prince Liu De and its first editor was Liu Xin, who credited it to the Duke of Zhou. Tradition since at least the Song dynasty continued this attribution, with the claim that Liu Xins edition was the final one. In the 12th century, it was given recognition by being placed among the Five Classics as a substitute for the long-lost sixth work. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, following Kang Youwei, currently, a few holdouts continue to insist on a Western Zhou date while the majority follow Qian Mu and Gu Jiegang in assigning the work to about the 3rd century BC. The work consists mainly of lists of Zhou dynasty bureaucrats, stating what the function of each office is. Sometimes though the mechanical listing is broken off by pieces of philosophical exposition on how a given office contributes to social harmony, the division of chapters follows the six departments of the Zhou dynasty government. The bureaucrats within a department come in five ranks, minister, councilor, senior clerk, middle clerk, there is only one minister per department -the department head-, but the other four ranks all have multiple holders spread across various specific professions. A part of the Winter Offices, the Record of Trades, contains important information on technology, architecture, city planning, a passage records that, The master craftsman constructs the state capital. He makes a square nine li on one side, each side has three gates, within the capital are nine north-south and nine east-west streets. The north-south streets are nine tracks in width. New examinations on the composition of the Zhouguan and on the culture, nylan, Michael, The Five Confucian Classics, New Haven,2001, ISBN 0-300-08185-5, Chapter 4, The Three Rites Canon pp. 168–202. Boltz, William G. Chou li in, Early Chinese Texts, a Biliographical Guide, pp. 24–32, Berkeley, Society for the Study of Early China,1993, ISBN 1-55729-043-1. Karlgren, Bernhard, The Early History of the Chou li and Tso chuan Texts in, Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquites,3, pp. 1–59 Rites of Zhou Rites of Zhou
Rites of Zhou
–
Bronze chariot model based on a passage of the Rites of Zhou, "Make the criminal with his left foot cut off guard the gardens" (刖人使守囿)
12.
Pico de gallo
–
In Mexican cuisine, pico de gallo, also called salsa fresca, is made from chopped tomato, onion, coriander leaves, fresh serranos, salt, and key lime juice. Other ingredients, such as shrimp or avocado, are sometimes added. Pico de gallo can be used in much the way as other Mexican liquid salsas. The tomato-based variety is known as salsa picada. In Mexico it is sometimes called salsa mexicana, because the colors of the red tomato, white onion, coriander and green chili are reminiscent of the colors of the Mexican flag, it is also sometimes called salsa bandera. In many regions of Mexico the term refers to any of a variety of salads, salsa, or fillings made with tomato, tomatillo, avocado, orange, jícama, cucumber, papaya, or mild chilis. The ingredients are tossed in lime juice and either hot sauce or chamoy, salad Pebre, a similar condiment from Chile List of Mexican dishes List of tomato dishes food portal Pico de Gallo at Wikibook Cookbooks
Pico de gallo
–
Pico de gallo
Pico de gallo
–
Condiments
Pico de gallo
–
Soups and stews
Pico de gallo
13.
Chutney
–
Chutney is a sauce in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent that can vary from a tomato relish to a ground peanut garnish or a yoghurt, cucumber and mint dip. An offshoot that took root in Anglo-Indian cuisine is usually a tart fruit such as sharp apples, nowadays, some of the making of pickles and chutneys that at one time in India was done entirely in peoples homes has passed over into commercial production. Regular consumption of products can add to total sugar, consumption being increased to unhealthy levels. In south India, Thogayal or Thuvayal are preparations similar to chutney, medicinal plants that are believed to have a beneficial effect are sometimes made into chutneys, for example Pirandai Thuvayal or ridged gourd chutney. Ridged gourd can be bought in Chinese and Indian shops in towns in the west. And, when dried, becomes a bath sponge known as a luffa or loofah, bitter gourd can also serve as a base for a chutney which is like a relish or, alternatively as a dried powder. Occasionally, chutneys that contrast in taste and colour can be served together—a favourite combination being a green mint and chile chutney with a sweet brown tamarind. Chutneys may be ground with a mortar and pestle or an ammikkal, spices are added and ground, usually in a particular order, the wet paste thus made is sautéed in vegetable oil, usually gingelly or peanut oil. Electric blenders or food processors can be used as labor-saving alternatives to stone grinding, American and European-style chutneys are usually fruit, vinegar, and sugar cooked down to a reduction, with added flavourings. These may include sugar, salt, garlic, tamarind, onion or ginger, western-style chutneys originated from Anglo-Indians at the time of the British Raj recreated Indian chutneys using English orchard fruits—sour cooking apples and rhubarb, for example. They would often contain dried fruit, raisins, currants and sultanas, South Indian chutney powders are made from roasted dried lentils to be sprinkled on idlis and dosas. Peanut chutneys can be wet or as a dry powder. Spices commonly used in chutneys include fenugreek, coriander, cumin, Major Greys Chutney is a type of sweet and spicy chutney popular in the United Kingdom and the United States. The recipe was created by a 19th-century British Army officer of the same name who presumably lived in Colonial India. Its characteristic ingredients are mango, raisins, vinegar, lime juice, onion, tamarind extract, sweetening, several companies produce a Major Greys Chutney, in India, the UK and the US. The word chutney is derived from the Hindi word चटनी chaṭnī and it is written differently in North and South Indian languages. Pacchadi, as written in Telugu script, refers specifically to pickled fruits, whilst chutney refers to minced foods, in India, chutney refers to fresh and pickled preparations indiscriminately. Several Indian languages use the word for fresh preparations only, a different word achār applies to pickles that often contain oil and are rarely sweet
Chutney
–
Chutney
Chutney
–
Dakshin chutneys
Chutney
–
Chutneys
Chutney
–
Mango chutney
14.
Mayonnaise
–
Mayonnaise is a thick, creamy dressing often used as a condiment. It is an emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and either vinegar or lemon juice, with many options for embellishment with other herbs. Proteins and lecithin in the egg yolk serve as emulsifiers in both mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce, commercial egg-free alternatives are available for vegans and others who want to avoid animal products and cholesterol, or who are allergic to eggs. Mayonnaise varies in color, but is white, cream. It may range in texture from that of light cream to a thick gel, the word mayonnaise was not used for a dressing before the start of the 19th century. The earliest reference appears to be by Alexandre Viard, who never quite gives a recipe for the dressing itself. At that point, the sauce was made with aspic or jelly, in 1815, Louis Eustache Ude wrote, No 58. —Mayonnaise. Take three spoonfuls of Allemande, six ditto of aspic, and two of oil, add a little tarragon vinegar, that has not boiled, some pepper and salt, and minced ravigotte, or merely some parsley. Then put in the members of fowl, or fillets of soles and your mayonnaise must be put to ice, neither are you to put the members into your sauce till it begins to freeze. Next dish your meat or fish, mask with the sauce before it be quite frozen, and garnish your dish with whatever you think proper, as beet root, jelly, nasturtiums, &c. In a 1820 work, Viard describes something like the more familiar emulsified version, This sauce is made to take in many ways, with raw egg yolks, with gelatine and this sauce is used for cold fish entrees, or salad of vegetables cooked in salt water. According to this version, the sauce was known as salsa mayonesa in Spanish and maonesa in Catalan. The Larousse Gastronomique suggests, Mayonnaise, in our view, is a corruption of moyeunaise, derived from the very old French word moyeu. It is highly probable that wherever olive oil existed, a preparation of oil and egg came about — particularly in the Mediterranean region. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term mayonnaise was in use in English as early as 1823 in the journal of Lady Blessington, traditional mayonnaise is a mixture of egg, vinegar, oil and spices. Mayonnaise made in this fashion typically contains 70–80% fat, despite the high oil content relative to water, mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion. This emulsion is formed by first mixing the eggs, vinegar and mustard and this results in an emulsion consisting of a closely packed foam of oil droplets. By contrast, if the oil and aqueous phases are mixed all at once the result is a water-in-oil emulsion similar in viscosity to the oil from which it is made, oil may account for 75% or more of the total volume
Mayonnaise
–
Jar of pale-yellow mayonnaise
Mayonnaise
–
Standard ingredients and tools to make mayonnaise
Mayonnaise
–
Making mayonnaise with a
whisk
Mayonnaise
–
Mayonnaise from the
Zaan district,
North-Holland,
Netherlands and
French fries
15.
Pesto
–
Pesto or, in extenso, pesto alla genovese, is a sauce originating in Genoa, the capital city of Liguria, Italy. It traditionally consists of crushed garlic, European pine nuts, coarse salt, basil leaves, Parmigiano-Reggiano and pecorino sardo and this same Latin root, through Old French, also gave rise to the English noun pestle. Strictly speaking, pesto is a term for anything that is made by pounding. Nonetheless, pesto alla genovese remains the most popular pesto in Italy, Pesto is thought to have two predecessors in ancient times, going back as far as the Roman age. Then dissolve it with good and abundant oil, lasagne and Trofie are dressed with this mash, made more liquid by adding a little hot water without salt. This recipe for pesto alla genovese was often revised in the following years and this is the main reason why pesto recipes often differ from each other. In French Provence, the dish evolved into the modern pistou, in 1944, The New York Times mentioned an imported canned pesto paste. In 1946, Sunset magazine published a recipe by Angelo Pellegrini. Pesto did not become popular in North America until the 1980s and 1990s, Pesto is traditionally prepared in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. First, garlic and pine nuts are placed in the mortar and reduced to a cream, then the washed and dried leaves are added with coarse salt. Only then is a mix of Parmigiano-Reggiano and Pecorino added, to help incorporate the cheese a little extra-virgin olive oil is added. In a tight jar, covered by a layer of olive oil, pesto can last in the refrigerator up to a week. Pesto is commonly used on pasta, traditionally with mandilli de sæa, potatoes and string beans are also traditionally added to the dish, boiled in the same pot in which the pasta has been cooked. Pasta, mixed with pesto, has become a dish in the majority of countries today. It is sometimes used in minestrone, Pesto is sometimes served with sliced beef tomatoes and sliced boiled potatoes. Pesto comes in a variety of recipes, some traditional and some modern, a slightly different version of this sauce exists in Provence, where it is known as pistou. Pistou is used in the typical soupe au pistou, a hearty vegetable soup with pistou flavour, the sauce did not originally contain basil, however, instead, cheese and olive oil were the main constituents. Sometimes almonds are used instead of nuts, and sometimes mint leaves are mixed in with the basil leaves
Pesto
–
Basil pesto
Pesto
–
Linguine with basil pesto
Pesto
–
Pesto alla genovese is made from
basil leaves...
Pesto
–
...and
pine nuts...
16.
Bechamel
–
Béchamel sauce, also known as white sauce, is made from a white roux and milk. Even though it first appeared in Italian cooking books, it is now considered one of the mother sauces of French cuisine and it is used as the base for other sauces. Béchamel was a financier who held the honorary post of steward to King Louis XIV. The foundation of French cuisine, the Cuisinier François ran through some thirty editions in seventy-five years, the sauce originally was a veal velouté with a large amount of cream added
Bechamel
–
Béchamel sauce with milk, shallots, bay leaf, peppercorns, parsley, butter, flour, nutmeg, salt and pepper.
Bechamel
–
Mushroom béchamel sauce.
17.
Apple sauce
–
Apple sauce or applesauce is a sauce made of apples. It can be made with peeled or unpeeled apples and a variety of spices, flavorings or sweeteners such as sugar or honey are also commonly added. Apple sauce is inexpensive and is used in the United Kingdom, North America. It can be substituted for fat in baking, commercial versions of apple sauce are readily available in supermarkets. It may be packaged in several ways, including, glass jars, tins and it is also sold in serving-size small plastic cups. Apple sauce is made by cooking down apples with water or apple cider to the required level, more acidic apples will render a finer purée, the highly acidic Bramley apple is popular for creating a very fine purée. Apples may or may not be peeled, sugar, spices, apple butter is similar to apple sauce, but has a high cider to apple ratio, of 8 liters to 100 kilograms. Apple sauce was once a food prepared for winter, since it keeps well and it is often an accompaniment to a main course. In Sweden and Britain, for instance, apple sauce is usually eaten as a condiment for roast pork, in Germany it accompanies potato pancakes. In France where it is referred to as compote, it is viewed as a dessert and served at room temperature. In Portugal as well, maçã cozida is solely viewed as a dessert and it has been suggested that it can substitute for fat in baking. Since it is high in pectin, apple sauce is a remedy to combat diarrhea. Apple sauce is thus a component of the regimen devised to help children with diarrhea and stomach problems, also known as the BRAT diet, bananas, rice, apple sauce, and toast
Apple sauce
–
Commercially processed apple sauce
Apple sauce
–
A chunky German apple sauce
Apple sauce
–
Species
18.
Worcestershire sauce
–
The ingredients are allowed to mature for 18 months before being blended and bottled in Worcester, where the exact recipe is kept a secret. Lea and Perrins devised the recipe in the 1830s, however it wasnt to their liking and was set aside and it was not until the barrels were rediscovered many months later that the taste had mellowed into what is now known as Worcestershire sauce. A high court decided on July 26,1876 that Lea & Perrins did not have the rights to the term Worcestershire sauce, Lea & Perrins claims to be The Original Worcestershire sauce and may be the leading global brand of Worcestershire sauce, but other brands offer similar recipes. Some may be vegetarian or vegan, and may add other spices, Worcestershire sauce is complex and unique in its flavour and aroma, and frequently used to enhance some food and drink recipes. For example, it is often an ingredient in Welsh rarebit, Caesar salad, Oysters Kirkpatrick, deviled eggs, the sauce is also used to flavour cocktails such as the Bloody Mary or Caesar. The use of similar fermented anchovy sauces in Europe can be traced back to the 17th century, the Lea & Perrins brand was commercialised in 1837 and has continued to be the leading global brand of Worcestershire sauce. The origin of the Lea & Perrins recipe is unclear, the packaging originally stated that the sauce came from the recipe of a nobleman in the county. The barony in the Sandys family /ˈsændz/ had been revived in 1802 for the second mother, Mary Sandys Hill, so at the date of the legend, in the 1830s. No identifiable reference to her could possibly appear on a commercially bottled sauce without a breach of decorum. A version of the story was published by Thomas Smith in 1885, We quote the following history of the well-known Worcester sauce, the label shows it is prepared from the recipe of a nobleman in the county. The nobleman may be Lord Sandys, many years ago, Mrs. Grey that she had in her desk an excellent recipe, which her uncle, Sir Charles, Chief Justice of India, had brought thence, and given her. Lady Sandys said that there were some clever chemists in Worcester, Lea and Perrins looked at the recipe, doubted if they could procure all the ingredients, but said they would do their best, and in due time forwarded a packet of the powder. Subsequently the happy thought struck someone in the business that the powder might, in solution, the profits now amount to thousands of pounds a year. According to historian and Herald for Wales, Major Francis Jones, Edwardes, originally of Rhyd-y-gors, Carmarthenshire, was a veteran of the Napoleonic wars and held the position of Deputy-Lieutenant of Carmarthenshire. He is believed to have brought the home after travels in India. The article does not say how the recipe found its way to Messrs Lea, looking to make space in the storage area a few years later, the chemists decided to try it again, and discovered that the sauce had fermented and mellowed and was now palatable. In 1838 the first bottles of Lea & Perrins Worcestershire sauce were released to the general public, on 16 October 1897, Lea & Perrins relocated manufacturing of the sauce from their pharmacy to a factory in the city of Worcester on Midland Road, where it is still manufactured. The factory produces ready-mixed bottles for domestic distribution and a concentrate for bottling abroad, in 1930, the Lea & Perrins operation was purchased by HP Foods, which was in turn acquired by the Imperial Tobacco Company in 1967
Worcestershire sauce
–
A bottle of Worcestershire sauce as sold in Europe
Worcestershire sauce
–
Label from Lionel Brand (Australia) Worcestershire sauce
Worcestershire sauce
–
Thai Worcestershire sauce (2010)
Worcestershire sauce
–
Japanese-style Worcestershire sauce from left, "Worcester", "Tonkatsu" and "Medium thick".
19.
HP Sauce
–
HP Sauce is a brown sauce originally produced by HP Foods in the United Kingdom, now produced by the H. J. Heinz Company in the Netherlands. It was named after the Houses of Parliament, since its first appearance on British dinner tables, HP Sauce has become an icon of British culture. It was the brand of brown sauce in the UK in 2005. HP Sauce has a base, blended with malt vinegar and spirit vinegar, sugars, dates, cornflour, rye flour, salt, spices. It is used as a condiment with hot and cold savoury food and it is also popular in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The original recipe for HP Sauce was invented and developed by Frederick Gibson Garton, Garton called the sauce HP because he had heard that a restaurant in the Houses of Parliament had begun serving it. For many years the bottle labels have carried a picture of the Houses of Parliament, Garton sold the recipe and HP brand to Edwin Samson Moore for the sum of £150 and the settlement of some unpaid bills. Moore, the founder of the Midlands Vinegar Company, subsequently launched HP Sauce in 1903, for many years the description on the label was in both English and French. The factory in Aston, Birmingham, was bisected by the A38 motorway and had a pipeline, carrying vinegar over the motorway. The Top Yard site was closed, and vinegar was not brewed on the Aston site during the last few years of production there. HP Sauce became known as Wilsons gravy in the 1960s and 1970s after Harold Wilson, the Labour Prime Minister. The name arose after Wilsons wife, Mary, gave an interview to The Sunday Times in which she claimed If Harold has a fault, it is that he will drown everything with HP Sauce. HP Sauce is available in a range of formats and sizes, including the iconic 9oz or 255g glass bottle, squeezy plastic bottle, in 2007 for example the varieties from Mexico and Canada were less concentrated and more light. In addition, a number of other products exist under the HP brand, HP Faunaste is a milder version of the Original brown sauce, using a blend of fruits including oranges and mango to give a milder, tangier taste. This variety has been renamed HP Chicken & Rib in Canada, HP Beef is a spicier variant in Canada. HP BBQ Sauce is a range of sauces, and is the UKs best selling barbecue sauce product. In March 2008, HP also announced the launch of HP Steak Sauce, HP Guinness is a steak sauce which includes the famous Irish stout. In the summer of 2008 a version with less salt and sugar than the original HP Taste was released, since 2011 HP sauce has been manufactured with a new reduced sodium recipe 0.8 g per 100 ml
HP Sauce
–
Signage from the defunct factory in Aston, exhibited at Birmingham's
mac gallery in June 2010.
HP Sauce
–
HP Sauce
HP Sauce
–
The HP Sauce factory in 2006.
HP Sauce
–
HP Sauce accompanying lobster and steak in a
Prince Edward Island restaurant
20.
Soy sauce
–
Soy sauce is a condiment made from a fermented paste of boiled soybeans, roasted grain, brine, and Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus sojae molds. Soy sauce in its current form seems to have begun in the 2nd century AD in China and spread throughout East and Southeast Asia where it is used in cooking, Soy sauce originated in China sometime between the 3rd and 5th century from a meat-based fermented sauce named jiang. Its use later spread to East and Southeast Asia, like many salty condiments, soy sauce was originally a way to stretch salt, historically an expensive commodity. In ancient China, fermented fish with salt was used as a condiment in which soybeans were included during the fermentation process, eventually, this was replaced and the recipe for soy sauce, using soybeans as the principal ingredient, with fermented fish-based sauces developing separately into fish sauce. Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands. In the 18th century, diplomat and scholar Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce, although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, his was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. By the mid-19th century, Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not understand the function of Aspergillus oryzae, the fungus used in its brewing. Soy sauce made from such as Portobello mushrooms were disseminated in European cookbooks during the late 18th century. A Swedish recipe for Soija was published in the 1770 edition of Cajsa Wargs Hjelpreda i Hushållningen för Unga Fruentimber and was flavored with allspice and mace, Soy sauce is made either by fermentation or by hydrolysis. Some commercial sauces have both fermented and chemical sauces, flavor, color, and aroma developments during production are attributed to non-enzymatic Maillard browning. Variation is usually achieved as the result of different methods and durations of fermentation, different ratios of water, salt, traditional soy sauces are made by mixing soybeans and grain with mold cultures such as Aspergillus oryzae and other related microorganisms and yeasts. Historically, the mixture was fermented naturally in large urns and under the sun, today, the mixture is placed in a temperature and humidity controlled incubation chamber. Traditional soy sauces take months to make, Soaking and cooking, The soybeans are soaked in water, koji culturing, An equal amount of boiled soybeans and roasted wheat are mixed to form a grain mixture. A culture of Aspergillus spore is added to the grain mixture, the cultures include, Aspergillus, a genus of fungus that is used for fermenting various ingredients. Three species are used for brewing soy sauce, A. oryzae, a. sojae, This fungus also has a high proteolytic capacity. A. tamari, This fungus is used for brewing tamari and this organism is likely to grow soy sauce ingredients, bring to generate odors and ammonia. Lactobacillus species, This organism makes a lactic acid that increases the acidity in the feed, brewing, The cultured grain mixture is mixed into a specific amount of salt brine for wet fermentation or with coarse salt for dry fermentation and left to brew. Over time, the Aspergillus mold on the soy and wheat break down the proteins into free amino acid and protein fragments
Soy sauce
–
A bowl of soy sauce with floating
wasabi paste.
Soy sauce
–
Soy sauce is made from
soybeans
Soy sauce
–
Soy and wheat with Aspergillus sojae cultures to brew soy sauce
Soy sauce
–
A bottle of commercially made light soy sauce
21.
Ketchup
–
Traditionally, recipes featured ketchups made from egg whites, mushrooms, oysters, mussels, walnuts, or other foods, but in modern times the unmodified term usually refers to tomato ketchup. Tomato sauce is the common term in Australia, New Zealand, and India. Ketchup is a sweet and tangy sauce, typically made from tomatoes, sweetener, vinegar, seasonings vary by recipe, but commonly include onions, allspice, coriander, cloves, cumin, garlic, mustard and sometimes celery, cinnamon or ginger. The market leader in United States and United Kingdom is Heinz, tomato ketchup is often used as a condiment to various dishes that are usually served hot, French fries, hamburgers, hot sandwiches, hot dogs, cooked eggs, and grilled or fried meat. Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or an ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, in the 17th century, the Chinese mixed a concoction of pickled fish and spices and called it kôe-chiap or kê-chiap meaning the brine of pickled fish or shellfish. By the early 18th century, the sauce had made it to the Malay states. The Indonesian-Malay word for the sauce was kecap and that word evolved into the English word ketchup. English settlers then took ketchup with them to the American colonies, the term Ketchup was used in 1690 in the Dictionary of the Canting Crew which was well acclaimed in North America. The spelling catchup may have also used in the past. In the United Kingdom, preparations of ketchup were historically and originally prepared with mushrooms as a primary ingredient, Ketchup recipes began to appear in British and then American cookbooks in the 18th century. In a 1742 London cookbook, the sauce had already taken on a very British flavor, with the addition of shallots. The mushrooms soon became an ingredient, and from 1750 to 1850 the word ketchup began to mean any number of thin dark sauces made of mushrooms or even walnuts. In the United States, mushroom ketchup dates back to at least 1770, in contemporary times, mushroom ketchup is available in the UK, although it is not a commonly used condiment. Many variations of ketchup were created, but the version did not appear until about a century later after other types. One version of the recipe was created by Sandy Addison and published in an American cookbook, The Sugar House Book. Get quite ripe on a dry day, squeeze them with your hands till reduced to a pulp, then put half a pound of salt to one hundred tomatoes. While hot press them through a sieve, with a silver spoon till nought but the skin remains, then add a little mace,3 nutmegs, allspice, cloves, cinnamon, ginger. Boil over a slow fire till quite thick, stir all the time, One hundred tomatoes will make four or five bottles and keep good for two or three years
Ketchup
–
Homemade tomato ketchup
Ketchup
–
Homemade
mushroom ketchup in a plastic tub
Ketchup
–
Tomato ketchup, accompanied with additional
condiments
Ketchup
–
Ketchup, a Tomato-based Brand product also called as Catsup
22.
Salad
–
A salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, which may be mixed with a sauce or salad dressing. They are typically served cold, although some, such as south German potato salad, are served warm, salads may contain vegetables, fruits, cheese, cooked meat, eggs, grains and nuts. Garden salads use a base of leafy greens like lettuce, arugula, kale or spinach, other types include bean salad, tuna salad, fattoush, Greek salad, and Japanese sōmen salad. The sauce used to flavor a salad is commonly called a salad dressing, well-known types include ranch, Thousand Island, vinaigrette comes in many varieties, one version is a mixture of olive oil, balsamic vinegar, herbs, and seasonings. Salads may be served at any point during a meal, such as, Appetizer salads, light, side salads, to accompany the main course as a side dish. Main course salads, usually containing a portion of heartier fare, such as chicken breast, dessert salads, sweet versions containing fruit, gelatin, sweeteners or whipped cream, or just fruit, which is called a fruit salad. The word salad comes from the French salade of the meaning, from the Latin salata. In English, the word first appears as salad or sallet in the 14th century, salt is associated with salad because vegetables were seasoned with brine or salty oil-and-vinegar dressings during Roman times. The Romans and ancient Greeks ate mixed greens with dressing, in his 1699 book, Acetaria, A Discourse on Sallets, John Evelyn attempted with little success to encourage his fellow Britons to eat fresh salad greens. Mary, Queen of Scots, ate boiled celery root over greens covered with creamy mustard dressing, truffles, chervil, oil used on salads can be found in the 17th century colony of New Netherland. Curaçao Papers page 234 In a 1653 inventory in New Netherland dressing can be found, council Minutes Volume V, page 78 The United States popularized mixed greens salads in the late 19th century. Salads including layered and dressed salads were popular in Europe since Greek imperial, several other regions of the world adopted salads throughout the second half of the 20th century. From Europe and the Americas to China, Japan, and Australia, salads are sold in supermarkets, at restaurants, in the US market, restaurants will often have a Salad Bar laid out with salad-making ingredients, which the customers will use to put together their salad. Salad restaurants were earning more than $300 million in 2014, a green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket. The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together and they are often adorned with garnishes such as nuts or croutons. A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce halved or quartered, vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, spring onions, red onions, carrots, celery, a bound salad can be composed or tossed. They are assembled with thick sauces such as mayonnaise, one portion of a true bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with an ice-cream scoop
Salad
–
A garden salad consisting of
lettuce,
cucumber,
scallions,
cherry tomatoes,
olives,
sun-dried tomatoes, and
cheese
Salad
–
A
spinach salad with various ingredients
Salad
–
A wedge salad
Salad
–
Green leaf salad with salmon and bread
23.
Deglazing (cooking)
–
Deglazing is a cooking technique for removing and dissolving browned food residue from a pan to flavor sauces, soups, and gravies. The French culinary term for these deposits is sucs, pronounced, ), the meat is removed and the majority of the fat is poured off, leaving a small amount with the dried and browned meat juices. The pan is returned to the heat, and a such as vegetable or meat stock. Dairy, however, is not recommended for deglazing, as it may curdle when added to high heat. The solvent allows the cook to scrape the dark spots from the bottom of the pan and dissolve them, the culinary term fond, French for base or foundation, refers to this sauce, although it is also sometimes used to describe the browned food bits instead. Burned pieces should not be confused with fond, which is dark brown, the flavour is determined chiefly by the meat, the liquid used for deglazing, and any flavouring or finishing ingredients added, such as aromatics, herbs, or butter. This method is the cornerstone of many well-known sauces and gravies, the resulting liquid can be seasoned and served on its own, or with the addition of aromatic vegetables, such as onions or shallots, carrots, and celery, or used as the base for a soup. Deglazing can also be used while cooking vegetables, especially ones which have left sugars at the bottom of a pan and it is commonly used in caramelizing onions. Because vegetables do not produce as much fat, they do not need to be removed from the pan to pour off excess grease. Instead, the liquid can be added directly to the pan and stirred, allowing the fond to meld with the vegetables, deglazing, It works like magic, Leslie Brenner - Los Angeles Times
Deglazing (cooking)
–
Pork sirloin chop with cider pan sauce
Deglazing (cooking)
–
Sucs left in a white enamel pot after browning pork
Deglazing (cooking)
–
A chicken-based
bouillon in the process of preparation
24.
Saucier
–
A saucier or sauté chef is a position in the classical brigade style kitchen. It can be translated into English as sauce cook, in addition to preparing sauces, the saucier prepares stews, hot hors dœuvres, and sautés food to order. Although it is considered the highest position of the station cooks. In Georges Auguste Escoffiers system of the kitchen brigade, outlined in his Guide Culinaire. Frederic Forrests character Jay Chef Hicks in the 1979 film Apocalypse Now remarks to protagonist Capt. Benjamin Willard, who is from New Orleans, that he was raised to be a saucier. In Tropic Thunder, the character Kirk Lazarus is playing in the movie within the claims to have been a saucier in San Antonio before the war broke out
Saucier
–
Sauciers-in-training
25.
Satay
–
Satay, or sate in Indonesian and Malaysian spelling, is a dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. These are grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire, Satay can be served in various sauces, however most often they are served in a combination of soy and peanut sauce. Hence, peanut sauce are called as satay sauce. Satay originated in the Indonesian island of Java and it is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become a national dish. Satay is a popular delicacy in Indonesia, the countrys diverse ethnic groups culinary arts have produced a wide variety of satays. In Malaysia, satay is a popular dish—especially during celebrations—and can be throughout the country. In Southern Philippines it is known as satti, close analogues are yakitori from Japan, chuanr from China, shish kebab from Turkey and the Middle East, shashlik from the Caucasus and sosatie from South Africa. It is listed at number 14 on Worlds 50 most delicious foods readers poll compiled by CNN Go in 2011, although both Thailand and Malaysia claim it as their own, its Southeast Asian origin was in Java, Indonesia. There satay was developed from the Indian kebab brought by the Muslim traders, even India cannot claim its origin, for there it was a legacy of Middle Eastern influence. A dish with widespread popularity, the origins of satay are unclear, the word satay itself is thought to have been derived from Indonesian, sate and Malay, saté or satai, both perhaps of Tamil origin. Satay was supposedly invented by Javanese street vendors as an adaptation of Indian kebabs and this theory is based on the fact that satay has become popular in Java after the influx of Muslim Indian and Arabs immigrants to Dutch East Indies in the early 19th century. The satay meats used by Indonesians and Malaysians — mutton and beef — are also favoured by Arabs and are not as popular in China as are pork, during the same period, other goat-based food such as tongseng and gulai kambing spicy goat soup were also appeared in Java. Another theory states that the word satay is derived from the Southern Min words sa tae bak and this theory is discounted, however, as traditional satay often consists of four pieces of meat and the fact that four is considered to be an inauspicious number in Chinese culture. From Java, satay spread through the Malay Archipelago and, as a consequence, numerous variations of the dish have been developed, by the late 19th century, satay has crossed the Strait of Malacca into neighbouring Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. In the 19th century, the migrated, presumably with Malay immigrants from the Dutch East Indies, to South Africa. The Dutch also brought this dish as well as many other Indonesian specialties to the Netherlands, turmeric is a necessary ingredient used to marinate satay, which gives the dish its characteristic yellow color. Meat commonly used includes beef, lamb, goat, mutton, pork, venison, fish, shrimp, squid, chicken, rabbit, some have also used more exotic varieties of meat, such as turtle, crocodile, horse, lizard and snake meat. Mutton satay is served with kecap manis instead of peanut sauce
Satay
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Sate Ponorogo, grilled marinated chicken satay served in peanut sauce, a speciality of
Ponorogo, a town in
East Java,
Indonesia.
Satay
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Sate
Ponorogo being grilled in a foodstall in
Surabaya,
East Java,
Indonesia
Satay
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Satay seller in Java, c. 1870.
Satay
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A raw satay
26.
Sabah
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Sabah, nicknamed Malay, Negeri Di Bawah Bayu, is one of the two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Sabah has a level of autonomy in administration, immigration. It is situated in northern Borneo, bordering the state of Sarawak to the southwest, Kalimantan of Indonesia to the south, Sabah shares maritime borders with Vietnam in the west and the Philippines to the north and east. Kota Kinabalu is the city, the economic centre of the state. Other major towns in Sabah include Sandakan and Tawau, as of the 2015 census in Malaysia, the states population is 3,543,500. Sabah has a climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal. The state has long mountain ranges on the west side which form part of the Crocker Range National Park, Kinabatangan River, second longest river in Malaysia runs through Sabah and Mount Kinabalu is the highest point of Sabah as well of Malaysia. The earliest human settlement in Sabah can be traced back to 20, the state had a trading relationship with China from the 14th century AD. Sabah came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 15th century, the state was subsequently acquired by the North Borneo Chartered Company in the 19th century. During World War II, Sabah was occupied by the Japanese for three years and it became a British Crown Colony in 1946. On 31 August 1963, Sabah was granted self-government by the British, following this, Sabah became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia alongside Sarawak, Singapore, and the Federation of Malaya. Sabah exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture and language, the head of state is the Governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is the Chief Minister. The government system is modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and has one of the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia. Sabah is divided into divisions and districts. Malay is the language of the state, and Islam is the official religion. Sabah is known for its musical instrument, the sompoton. Sabah is the state in Malaysia to celebrate the Kaamatan festival. Sabah has abundant natural resources, and its economy is strongly export-oriented, the primary exports include oil, gas, timber and palm oil
Sabah
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(Left) The first concession treaty was signed by
Brunei Sultan,
Abdul Momin on 29 December 1877. (Right) Sultan Jamalalulazam of
Sulu signed the second concession treaty on 22 January 1878.
Sabah
Sabah
–
An aerial view of the
Sandakan POW Camp, once an experimental farm for the British North Borneo Company but later turned into a
prisoner-of-war camp by the
Japanese.
Sabah
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Tun Fuad Stephens (left) declaring the forming of the Federation of Malaysia at Padang Merdeka, Jesselton on 16 September 1963. Together with him is the
Deputy Minister of Malaya Tun Abdul Razak (right) and
Tun Mustapha (second right).
27.
Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
Borneo
–
A large log being placed on a railroad car at Batottan, British North Borneo in 1926
Borneo
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Topography of Borneo
Borneo
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True-colour satellite image of the island of Borneo on 14 May 2012, as taken by the
Terra satellite
Borneo
–
A peat forest in
Kalimantan
28.
Malaysia
–
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
Malaysia
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"Malaysia" used as a label for the
Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas
Malaysia
–
Flag
Malaysia
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The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the
Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of
Malacca.
Malaysia
–
Statue of
Francis Light in the
Fort Cornwallis of Penang, marking the first step of
British expansion in the 18th century over the Malay Archipelago.
29.
Japanese cuisine
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Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of social and economic changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes, side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth. Seafood is common, often grilled, but also served raw as sashimi or in sushi, seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, as tempura. Apart from rice, staples include noodles, such as soba, Japan also has many simmered dishes such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga. Foreign food—in particular Chinese food like ramen, fried dumplings, and gyōza—as well as foods like curry, historically, the Japanese shunned meat, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu became common. Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi, has become popular throughout the world, as of 2011, Japan overtook France in number of Michelin-starred restaurants and has maintained the title since. Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed rice or gohan, with one or several okazu or main dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and tsukemono, the phrase ichijū-sansai refers to the makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūsoku cuisine. The term is used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays. Rice is served in its own small bowl, and each item is placed on its own small plate or bowl for each individual portion. This is done even at home and it contrasts with the Western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large serving dishes of food presented at the middle of the dining table. Placing okazu on top of rice and soiling it is frowned upon by old-fashioned etiquette. The small rice bowl or chawan doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies, thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the purpose of distinction. In the olden days, among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins called zen, which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be used in zashiki, i. e. tatami-mat rooms. Teishoku means a meal of fixed menu, a dinner à prix fixe served at shokudō or ryōriten, which is somewhat vague, defines it as fare served at teishoku dining hall, etc. Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun, and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months, seasonality means taking advantage of the fruit of the mountains as well as the fruit of the sea as they come into season. Thus the first catch of skipjack tunas that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized, if something becomes available rather earlier than usual, the first crop or early catch is called hashiri
Japanese cuisine
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A Japanese teishoku meal including
tempura,
sashimi, and
miso soup
Japanese cuisine
–
Breakfast at a
ryokan (Japanese inn), featuring grilled
mackerel, Kansai style dashimaki egg, tofu in kaminabe (paper pot)
Japanese cuisine
–
Kaiseki appetizers on a legged tray
Japanese cuisine
–
Yakiniku
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