1.
Kabsa
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Kabsa is a family of mixed rice dishes that originates from Saudi Arabia, where it is commonly regarded as a national dish. Though kabsa is believed to be indigenous to Saudi Arabia, it is served in countries such as Yemen, Palestine, Jordan, Qatar, Oman. The dish is popularly known as makbūs in most Arab states of the Persian Gulf. These dishes are made with rice, meat, vegetables. There are many kinds of kabsa and each kind has a uniqueness about it, pre-mixed kabsa spices are now available under several brand names. These reduce preparation time, but may have a distinct from traditional kabsa. The spices used in kabsa are largely responsible for its taste, the main ingredient that accompanies the spices is the meat. The meats used are chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish. In chicken machbūs, a chicken is used. The spices, rice and meat may be augmented with almonds, pine nuts, peanuts, onions, the dish can be garnished with ḥashū and served hot with daqqūs, which is a home-made Arabic tomato sauce. Meat for kabsa can be cooked in various ways, a popular way of preparing meat is called mandi. This is an ancient technique that originates in Yemen, whereby meat is barbecued in a hole in the ground that is covered while the meat cooks. Another way of preparing and serving meat for kabsa is mathbi, a third technique, madghūt, involves cooking the meat in a pressure cooker. Mandi Jordanian cuisine Iraqi cuisine Qatari cuisine
2.
Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
3.
Kleicha
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Kleicha may be considered the national cookie of Iraq. Kleicha come in several shapes and fillings. The most popular are the ones filled with dates, there are also sweet discs, as well as half moons filled with nuts, sugar and/or desiccated coconut. They are usually flavored with cardamom and sometimes water, and glazed with egg wash. Assyrians bake Kilecheh on Eeda Gura, Easter, and Eeda Sura, Christmas, in which they are stuffed with dates. In Turkey, This Pastry is called Klija Kurabiyesi in Turkish which is a Sweet Disc Dough and Filled with, Almonds, Hazelnuts and it is Also Flavored with Rose Water and Orange Blossom Water and glazed with egg wash. Assyrian cuisine Kulich Maamoul Iraqi cuisine Turkish cuisine
4.
Murtabak
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Murtabak or martabak, also mutabbaq, is a stuffed pancake or pan-fried bread which is commonly found in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Thailand. Depending on the location, the name and ingredients can significantly vary, the name mutabbaq in Arabic means folded. It is a street food in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. Murtabak is often described as spicy folded omelette pancake with bits of vegetables and it is the most common form of murtabak, which is egg-filled pancake, sometimes mixed with green onion and minced meat, made from pan fried crepes which being folded and cut to squares. In Indonesia, the Murtabak is one of the most popular foods and is known as martabak. There are two Indonesian versions, a savoury with egg and meat, and a sweet one, in Indonesia, the savoury beaten-egg filled martabak is called martabak telur — to differ it from martabak manis, the sweet martabak folded pancake. The dish is sold throughout the country, with variations in ingredients or cooking styles and has been adopted by Malay Muslim sellers as well. In Yemen, murtabak also usually includes mutton, the word mutabbaq in Arabic means folded. This suggested that Murtabak might be originated from Yemen, which has sizeable Indian population, another theory however, suggested that despite its Arabic-sounding name, it was invented in India instead. Murtabak was brought to Southeast Asia by Tamil Muslim trader, the dish referred to as murtabak is a multi-layered pancake that originated in the state of Kerala where the people referred to as mamaks hail from. The word mutabar is the name for the particular dish referred to in other languages. Mutabar is an amalgam of two words, muta and bar, a form of the word barota, or bratha roti. The bread base or pancake on which it is spread over is referred to in Hindi as pratha roti or pratha. There are similar versions of the bread in places such as Yemen and other regions of the Arabic world, however, the word mutabar is the original name for the egg, chilli, and onion flavoured multi-layered pancake. In countries where martabak is widely available, it is so common it has become an everyday dish, sometimes martabaki - especially sweet - go on sale in stores already in finished form. There are many varieties of Martabak, for example, in Brunei, most martabaks are usually not stuffed, instead it is only made of dough, similar to Indian Paratha. Martabak kosong consists of a dough that is kneaded and prepared similarly to a pancake or other martabak by tossing it into the air. In Singapore and Malaysia, the murtabaks are usually filled with beef, chicken or mutton and served with a curry sauce, and cucumber in ketchup
5.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
6.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
7.
Lamb and mutton
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
8.
Chicken
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The chicken is a type of domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the red junglefowl. It is one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, humans keep chickens primarily as a source of food, consuming both their meat and their eggs. From India, the chicken was imported to Lydia in western Asia Minor. In the UK and Ireland adult male chickens over the age of one year are known as cocks, whereas in America, Australia. Males less than a year old are cockerels, females over a year old are known as hens and younger females as pullets although in the egg-laying industry, a pullet becomes a hen when she begins to lay eggs at 16 to 20 weeks of age. In Australia and New Zealand, there is a generic term chook /ˈtʃʊk/ to describe all ages, the young are called chicks and the meat is called chicken. Chicken originally referred to domestic fowl. The species as a whole was then called domestic fowl, or just fowl. This use of chicken survives in the phrase Hen and Chickens, sometimes used as a British public house or theatre name, the word chicken is sometimes erroneously construed to mean females exclusively, despite the term hen for females being in wide circulation. In the Deep South of the United States chickens are also referred to by the slang term yardbird, in the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes or young mice. Chickens may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed, the worlds oldest chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 according to Guinness World Records. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the males legs. Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, a muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chickens face, giving the appearance of a beard. Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although birds are generally capable of flying for short distances. Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger, Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have an approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing an order, with dominant individuals having priority for food access
9.
Yogurt
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Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as yogurt cultures, fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cows milk is available worldwide, and, as such, is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, milk used may be homogenized or not, both types may be used, with substantially different results. In North America, yogurt is plain, sweetened, or sweetened and flavoured with fruit, vanilla, coffee. Yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp, in addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. To produce yogurt, milk is first heated, usually to about 85 °C, after heating, the milk is allowed to cool to about 45 °C. The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a temperature of 45 °C is maintained for four to twelve hours to allow fermentation. The word is derived from Turkish, yoğurt, and is related to the verb yoğurmak, to knead, or to be curdled or coagulated. It may be related to yoğun, meaning thick or dense, the sound ğ was traditionally rendered as gh in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615-1625. In English, there are variations of the spelling of the word, including yogurt. Yogurt is common only in the United States, and Yoghurt mostly used elsewhere, yogourt is often used in Canada, as the spelling is the same in English and French. Analysis of the L. delbrueckii subsp, bulgaricus genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, the origins of yogurt are unknown, but it is thought to have been invented in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. In ancient Indian records, the combination of yogurt and honey is called the food of the gods, Persian traditions hold that Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt. The cuisine of ancient Greece included a product known as oxygala which is believed to have been a form of yogurt. Galen mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today, the oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain barbarous nations knew how to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity. The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Diwan Lughat al-Turk by Mahmud Kashgari, both texts mention the word yogurt in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks
10.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
11.
Harees
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Harees or Jareesh is a Middle Eastern dish of boiled, cracked, or coarsely-ground wheat, mixed with meat. Its consistency varies between a porridge and a dumpling, Harees is a popular dish known in the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, especially in the month of Ramadan. Harees is derived from the verb means to mash or to squash. Harees is also the origin of Haleem which was thought to have been enjoyed by the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, the wheat is soaked overnight, then simmered in water along with meat and butter or sheep tail fat. Any remaining liquid is strained and the mixture is beaten and seasoned, Harees may be garnished with cinnamon, sugar, and clarified butter. There is a different traditional way of preparing Harees in each of the Arab countries in the Persian Gulf area, but there is a difference very simple that is optional in some countries. For example, in Saudi Arabia, cardamom pods are added, also it is decorated with parsley. Harees was only made by the wealthy during Ramadan and Eid and it was, however, customary for the Harees dishes to be shared with poorer neighbours on such occasions. Harees is a dish in Arab cuisine, from the Levant to the Persian Gulf. It is often served during Ramadan, festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr, in Lebanese villages, it is often cooked on religious occasions in a communal pot. Formerly found only in homes, it is now served in restaurants as well, arizah is traditionally served on Easter day, and is considered the national dish of Armenia. Harees is an part of Kashmiri cuisine. Harees is a typical Kashmiri winter cuisine made from mutton & rice flour, Kashmiri migrants also made this dish very popular in Punjab. This dish is one of the dishes eaten in Pakistani part of Punjab as well. Harees is a popular dish among the Mappila of Kerala calls Hareesa or Areesa and it is also known as Haleem. Hyderabad City being famous for Hyderabadi Haleem List of porridges
12.
Haneeth
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Haneeth is the traditional dish of Yemen. It is now popular in the rest of the Arabian Peninsula and in many other Saudi cities such as Bareg. Haneeth is usually made from rice, meat, and a mixture of spices. The meat used is usually a young and small-sized lamb to enhance the taste further, the main thing which differentiates it from Mandi is that the meat is cooked under airtight pressure whereas Mandi is cooked in the tandoor, which is a special kind of oven. The tandoor is usually a hole dug in the ground and covered inside by clay, to cook Haneeth, dry wood is placed in the tandoor and burned to generate a lot of heat turning into charcoal. Then the meat is suspended inside the tandoor without touching the charcoal, after that, the whole tandoor is closed airtightly without letting any of the smoke out so that the Meat becomes tender. Haneeth is considered as the dish served at special events such as weddings. Margh is a kind of plant that is put under the meat to give it a special taste
13.
Mandi (food)
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Mandi is a traditional dish from Yemen. It is also eaten in Saudi Arabia and some gulf nations and it is now very popular in other areas of the Arabian Peninsula, and it is also common in Egypt and Levant and Turkey. It is also popular among the Hadhrami people in the Malabar region of Kerala, Bhatkal or Al Nawayah City of Karnataka, as well as Barkas and areas around Hyderabad, India. The word mandi comes from the Arabic word nada, meaning dew, Mandi is usually made from rice, meat, and a mixture of spices. The meat used is usually a young and small sized lamb to enhance the taste further, the main thing which differentiates Mandi from other meat dishes is that the meat is cooked in the tandoor, which is a special kind of oven. The tandoor is usually a hole dug in the ground and covered inside by clay, to cook mandi, dry wood is placed in the tandoor and burned to generate a lot of heat turning into charcoal. The meat is suspended inside the tandoor without touching the charcoal. After that, the whole tandoor is closed but an airvent is given to remove excess smoke, raisins, pine nuts, or peanuts can be added to the rice as per ones taste. Mandi is considered the main dish served during special events, such as Eid, weddings, in Turkey, this Dish is Called Kuzu Mandi Pilavi which contains Lamb, Rice, Almonds, Parsley. Biryani Kabsa Mansaf Haneeth Quzi Maqluba Pilaf Nasi kebuli List of rice dishes How to Make Chicken Mandi with Step-By-Step photos
14.
Ka'ak
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Kaak or Kahqa is the Arabic word for cake, and can refer to several different types of baked goods produced throughout the Arab world and the Near East. Kaak can refer to a commonly consumed throughout the Near East that is made in a large ring-shape and is covered with sesame seeds. Fermented chickpeas are used as a leavening agent, widely sold by street vendors, it is usually eaten as a snack or for breakfast with zaatar. In East Jerusalem, its sometimes served alongside oven-baked eggs and falafel, in Lebanon, kaak bread rings are made of sweet dough rolled into ropes and formed into rings and topped with sesame seeds. Instead of zaatar, after baking, it is glazed with milk and sugar, tunisian Jews also make a slightly sweet-and-salty version of the pastry, but dont use a yeast-based dough. In Egypt, usually at wedding parties, a made with almonds. A thirteenth-century Middle Eastern culinary text, Kitab al Wusla il al Habib, Arab Christians, primary among them Palestinian Christians and Lebanese Christians, make these sweets to celebrate Easter. The pastries are often shaped as wreaths and symbolize the crown of thorns that Christians believe Jesus Christ was wearing on the day of his crucifixion, for the Muslim feasts during Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, kaak bi mamoul is a traditional dessert as well. The kaak sweets are also made year round among the entire Palestinian population, kaak al-asfar is a cake of bread that is made by Muslims in the Levant to honour the souls of the departed. A bread stamp that was used to imprint designs on these cakes was discovered in Palestine and it is round, with a round handle and geometric designs, and measures 19 centimeters in diameter. Kaak sweets made by Iraqis are generally doughnut-shaped and covered in seeds, such as kaak ab sumsum and kaak eem tzmukin. Kaak beharat oo tefach shares the shape and many of the ingredients as kaak eem tzmukin
15.
Markook
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Markook, also known as Shrak is a type of unleavened flatbread common in the countries of the Levant. It is baked on a domed or convex metal griddle, known as saj and it is usually large, about 2 feet in diameter, and thin, almost translucent. Similar to the procedures for making some other flatbreads, the dough of markook is flattened and it is usually folded and put in bags before being sold. It is commonly compared to pita bread, which is known in Mediterranean cuisine, yufka is a type of Turkish bread. It is a thin, round, and unleavened flat bread similar to lavash, about 18 inches in diameter made from wheat flour, water. After kneading, the dough is allowed to rest for 30 min, dough pieces are rounded and rolled into a circular sheet. The sheets of dough are baked on a heated iron plate called a sac in Turkish. Baking time is approximately 2–3 minutes, during baking, the bread is turned over once to brown the other side. After baking, yufka bread has a low moisture content, and depending on how low the moisture is, before consumption, dry yufka bread is sprayed with warm water. The moistened bread is covered with a cloth and is rested for 10 to 12 minutes before serving
16.
Harissa
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It is most closely associated with Tunisia, Libya, Algeria and Morocco. As with the European cuisine, chili peppers were imported into Maghrebian cuisine via the Columbian Exchange, recipes for harissa vary according to the household and region. Variations can include the addition of cumin, red peppers, garlic, coriander, in Saharan regions, harissa can have a smoky flavor. Prepared harissa is also sold in jars, cans, bottles, tubes, plastic bags, harissa is sometimes described as Tunisias main condiment, even the national condiment of Tunisia, or at least as the hallmark of Tunisias fish and meat dishes. In Tunisia, harissa is used as an ingredient in a meat or fish stew with vegetables and it is also used for lablabi, a chickpea soup usually eaten for breakfast. In Algeria, harissa is commonly added to soups, stews, harissa paste can also be used as a rub for meat or eggplants. In Israel, harissa is a topping for sabich and shawarma. Tunisia is the biggest exporter of pre-made harissa, in 2006, the Tunisian production of harissa was 22,000 tonnes, incorporating about 40,000 tonnes of peppers. Tunisian harissa is made with chilis grown around Nabeul and Gabès. Another significant producer is Algerias Annaba Province, which is also a significant consumer
17.
Samosa
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A samosa, or samoosa, is a fried or baked dish with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, peas, lentils, macaroni or noodles. Pine nuts can also be added and its size and consistency may vary, but typically it is distinctly triangular or tetrahedral in shape. Indian samosas are usually vegetarian, and often accompanied by a mint chutney, due to cultural diffusion and emigration from these areas, samosas in todays world are also prepared in other regions. Samosa is generally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, in eastern India, a similar dish is called Singara, Bengali, সিঙাড়া shingara, Sylheti, সিঙারা shingara sing-ra in Assamese, Odia, ଶିଙ୍ଗଡା shingada. Thambutha in Template, Kikuyu The word samosa can be traced to the sanbosag, while they are currently referred to as sambusak in the Arabic-speaking world, Medieval Arabic recipe books sometimes spell it sambusaj. The samosa is claimed to have originated in the Middle East prior to the 10th century, abolfazl Beyhaqi, an Iranian historian, mentioned it in his history, Tarikh-e Beyhaghi. Samosas were introduced to the Indian subcontinent in the 13th or 14th century by traders from Central Asia. Amir Khusro, a scholar and the poet of the Delhi Sultanate, wrote in around 1300 that the princes and nobles enjoyed the samosa prepared from meat, ghee, onion. The Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th-century Mughal document, mentions the recipe for qutab, regions where the dish serves as a staple of local cuisine have different ways of preparing it. Samosas were brought to India by various Muslim merchants, and patronized under various Islamic dynasties in the region, Samosas from South Asia are now world renowned, and are probably the most popular type of Samosas globally. The samosa contains Wheat flour or maida flour shell stuffed with filling, generally a mixture of mashed boiled potato, onions, green peas, spices. The entire pastry is then deep-fried to a brown color. It is served hot and is eaten with fresh Indian chutney, such as mint. It can also be prepared as a form, rather than as a savoury one. Samosas are often served in chaat, along with the accompaniments of yogurt, chutney, chopped onions, coriander. The samosa is bigger compared to other Indian and foreign variants, in Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, shingaras are popular snacks. Shingaras are easy to make, but the folding is a little tricky and they are wrapped in a thin dough and fried. The coating is of white flour, not wheat flour, what distinguishes good shingaras are flaky textures, almost as if they are made with a savoury pie crust
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Jallab
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Jallab is a type of fruit syrup popular in the Middle East made from carob, dates, grape molasses and rose water. Jallab is very popular in Jordan, Syria, Palestine and Lebanon and it is made mainly of grape molasses and artificial coloring, then smoked with Arabic incense. It is usually sold with crushed ice and floating pine nuts, list of smoked foods Grape syrup
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Tharid
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Tharid is a traditional Arabian dish made from pieces of bread in a vegetable or meat broth. It is typically consumed in especially the month of Ramadan and is Quite popular in Iraq. The dish belongs to Arabian cultures, the dish is notable in that it was mentioned in a number of hadith attributed to the Prophet Muhammad. List of stews Tajine Tanjia Harira Couscous Bastilla
20.
Mansaf
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Mansaf is a traditional Levantine dish made of lamb cooked in a sauce of fermented dried yogurt and served with rice or bulgur. It is the dish of Jordan, and can also be found in Palestine, Iraq, Syria. The name of the dish comes from the term large tray or large dish, the original pastoralist Bedouin mansaf underwent significant changes in the 20th century. The dish is said to originally have been made with meat, meat broth or ghee. Similarly, the sauce is a recent development, as the Bedouins did not historically feature jamid in their cooked dishes until their modern sedentarization. Jameed is a hard dry yogurt that is prepared by the boiling of sheep or goats milk, the mixture is later kept in a fine woven cheesecloth to make a thick yogurt. Salt is added daily to thicken the yogurt even more for a few days, Al-Karak city in Jordan has a reputation for producing the highest quality of jameed. A jameed broth is prepared and the pieces of lamb are cooked in it. The dish is served on a platter with a layer of flatbread topped with rice and then the meat, garnished with almonds and pine nuts. Mansaf is associated with a traditional Jordanian culture based on a lifestyle in which meat. Since mansaf was originally popular among Bedouins, much of the traditions that they used with the dish still exist today, the tray containing mansaf is placed on a table where people gather around it while standing. Mansaf should be eaten with the use of a right hand only while the left is behind the persons back. The hand is used to create balls of rice and then the ball is placed in the mouth through the use of three fingers and it is frowned upon to blow on the ball of rice, no matter how hot. Many of these traditions are used, however, it can also be eaten normally with spoons. The inhabitants of Al-Karak and As-Salt are reputed to make the best mansaf in Jordan, other variants of the dish also exist and are adapted to the regional tastes and circumstances. These include fish mansaf, found in the south around the city of Aqaba. An urban, less ceremonial adaptation of mansaf using non-dried yogurt is called shakreyyeh and it is sometimes cooked with poultry instead of lamb and is common in the northern part of Jordan. Jordanian cuisine List of lamb dishes The Jordan Heritage Encyclopedia/ vol, cultural history of Jordan during the Mamluk period 1250–1517
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Manti (food)
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Manti or Mantu are dumplings popular in most Turkic cuisines, as well as in the Caucasian, Central Asian, Chinese Islamic, and Hejazi cuisines where it was brought by Central Asians settlers. Nowadays, manti are also consumed throughout Russia and other post-Soviet countries, the dumplings typically consist of a spiced meat mixture, usually lamb or ground beef in a dough wrapper, and either boiled or steamed. Size and shape vary significantly depending on the geographical location, manti resemble the Chinese jiaozi, Korean mandu, Mongolian buuz, and the Tibetan momo. Originally, mantou was meat filled, but nowadays mantou refers to steamed bun in China, the former territories of the Mongol Empire is where the various manti dishes are geographically located. The recipe was carried across Central Asia along the Silk Road to Anatolia by migrating Turkic, according to Holly Chase, Turkic and Mongol horsemen on the move are supposed to have carried frozen or dried manti, which could be quickly boiled over a camp-fire. In Turkey, it is also called Tatar böreği, which indicates its relation to nomadic peoples, Korean mandu is also said to have arrived in Korea through the Mongols in the 14th century. However, some researchers do not discount the possibility that manti may have originated in the Middle East and spread eastward to China, manti in Central Asian cuisines are usually larger in size. They are steamed in a metal steamer called mantovarka, mantyshnitsa. It consists of layered pots with holes, that are placed over a boiling stock, in Kazakh cuisine, the manti filling is normally ground lamb, spiced with black pepper, sometimes with the addition of chopped pumpkin or squash. This is considered to be a traditional Uyghur recipe, manti are served topped with butter, sour cream or onion sauce. When sold as food in Kazakhstan, manti are typically presented sprinkled with hot red pepper powder. In Uzbek, Tajik and Kyrgyz cuisines, manti are usually made of one of the ingredients, lamb, beef, potato or pumpkin. Steaming, frying and boiling are all common, manti are usually topped with butter and served with sour cream, tomato sauce or fresh onion rings. A sauce made by mixing vinegar and chilli powder is also common, in Uzbekistan, manti are also called kaskoni. The same style of cooking manti is traditional for Tatar, Bashkir and it is nowadays widespread throughout Russia and other post-Soviet countries. The mantu are also topped with a very small amount of tomato-based sauce which can include split peas. The amount of yoghurt sauce is much greater than the tomato sauce. Chutney, a green or red pepper condiment sauce, may be sprinkled on top
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Pilaf
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Pilaf is a dish in which rice is cooked in a seasoned broth. In some cases, the rice may attain its brown or golden colour by first being sauteed lightly in oil before the addition of broth, cooked onion, other vegetables as well as a mix of spices may be added. Depending on the cuisine, it may also contain meat, fish, vegetables, pasta. Pilaf and similar dishes are common to Balkan, Middle Eastern, Caucasian, Central and South Asian, East African, Latin American and Caribbean cuisines. The English term pilaf is borrowed directly from the Turkish pilav, which in turn comes from Persian polow, Hindi pulāo, from Sanskrit pulāka, the English spelling is influenced by the Modern Greek pilafi, which comes from the Turkish pilav. The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from India, mentions rice and meat cooked together, pilaf was known to have been served to Alexander the Great at a royal banquet following his capture of the Sogdian capital of Marakanda. It is believed that soldiers from Alexanders army brought the preparation of pilaf back to Macedonia, in doing so, he described advantages and disadvantages of every item used for preparing the dish. Accordingly, Uzbeks and Tajiks consider Ibn Sina to be the father of modern pilaf, pilau became standard fare in the Middle East and Transcaucasia over the years with variations and innovations by the Persians, Arabs, Turks, and Armenians. It was introduced to Israel by Bukharan and Persian Jews, during the period of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian versions of the dish spread throughout all Soviet republics, becoming a part of the common Soviet cuisine. Known as pulao, polao, pallao and pulav locally, the dish has been an integral part of the Indian. The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from India, mentions rice and meat cooked together, and the word pulao or pallao is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti. A pulao is a dish consisting of rice and a mixture of either lentils or vegetables, mainly including peas, potatoes, french beans, carrots or meat, mainly chicken, fish, lamb, pork or prawn. It is usually served on occasions and weddings, though it is not uncommon to eat it for a regular lunch or dinner meal. It is considered high in food energy and fat. A pulao is often complimented with either spiced yogurt or raita, biryani is another rice dish in the Indian cuisine, similar to pulao, albeit with a different cooking method. The main distinction is that a biryani comprises layers of rice with meat or vegetables, Persian culinary terms referring to rice preparation are numerous and have found their way into the neighbouring languages, polov, chelov, kateh and tajine. There are also varieties of different rice dishes with vegetables and herbs which are popular among Iranians. There are four methods of cooking rice in Iran, Chelov, rice that is carefully prepared through soaking and parboiling, at which point the water is drained
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Chicken as food
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Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. In developed countries, chickens are usually subject to intensive farming methods, the modern chicken is a descendant of red junglefowl hybrids along with the grey junglefowl first raised thousands of years ago in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Chicken as a meat has been depicted in Babylonian carvings from around 600 BC, Chicken was one of the most common meats available in the Middle Ages. It was eaten over most of the Eastern hemisphere and a number of different kinds of such as capons, pullets. It was one of the ingredients in the so-called white dish. In the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats, Chicken consumption in the United States increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production, with an emphasis placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the animal. The most common breeds of chicken consumed in the US are Cornish, chickens raised specifically for food are called broilers. In the United States, broilers are typically butchered at a young age, modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds. Capons produce more and fattier meat, for this reason, they are considered a delicacy and were particularly popular in the Middle Ages. Main Breast, These are white meat and are relatively dry, leg, Comprises two segments, The drumstick, this is dark meat and is the lower part of the leg, the thigh, also dark meat, this is the upper part of the leg. Wing, Often served as a meal or bar food. Buffalo wings are a typical example, Comprises three segments, the drumette, shaped like a small drumstick, the middle flat segment, containing two bones, and the tip, sometimes discarded. Other Chicken feet, These contain relatively little meat, and are mainly for the skin. Although considered exotic in Western cuisine, the feet are common fare in other cuisines, especially in the Caribbean, giblets, organs such as the heart, gizzards, and liver may be included inside a butchered chicken or sold separately. Head, Considered a delicacy in China, the head is split down the middle, kidneys, Normally left in when a broiler carcass is processed, they are found in deep pockets on each side of the vertebral column. Neck, This is served in various Asian dishes and it is stuffed to make helzel among Ashkenazi Jews. Oysters, Located on the back, near the thigh, these small, pygostyle and testicles, These are commonly eaten in East Asia and some parts of South East Asia
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Kanafeh
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Kanafah, also spelled kunafeh or kunafah is a Middle Eastern cheese pastry soaked in sweet, sugar-based syrup. It is a specialty of the Levant and Turkey, the Arabic word kunāfah is derived from the Arabic verb Arabic, كَنَف, translit. In khishnah kanafeh the cheese is rolled in the pastry, a thick syrup of sugar, water, and a few drops of rose water or orange blossom water is poured on the pastry during the final minutes of cooking. Often the top layer of pastry is tinted with red food coloring, crushed pistachios are sprinkled on top as a garnish. Kanafeh was first mentioned in the 10th century and it is generally believed to have originated in the Palestinian city of Nablus, hence the name Nabulsieh. Nablus is still renowned for its kanafeh, which consists of white cheese and shredded wheat surface. In the Levant, this variant of kanafeh is the most common, the largest plate of kanafeh was made in Nablus in an attempt to win a Palestinian citation in the Guinness World Records. It measured 75×2 meters and weighed 1,350 kilograms, the Turkish variant of the pastry kanafeh is called künefe and the wirey shreds are called tel kadayıf. A semi-soft cheese such as Urfa peyniri, made of raw milk, is used in the filling, in making the künefe, the kadayıf is not rolled around the cheese, instead, cheese is put in between two layers of wiry kadayıf. It is cooked in copper plates, and then served very hot in syrup with clotted cream. In the Turkish cuisine, there is also yassı kadayıf and ekmek kadayıfı and this type of Azerbaijani variant is prepared in Tabriz, Iran. «Riştə Xətayi» is called to mesh shreds that are cooked typically in Ramadan in the worlds biggest covered Bazaar of Tabriz and it is made of chopped walnuts, cinnamon, ginger, powder of rose, sugar, water, rose water, olive oil. In this variant, called also καταΐφι or κανταΐφι in Greek, a Bosnian style kadaif pastry is made by putting down a layer of wire kadaif, then a layer of a filling of chopped nuts, then another layer of wire kadaif. The pastries are painted with melted butter, baked until golden brown, ekmek kadayıfı, Turkish bread custard List of pastries Phyllo Qatayef, a dumpling-like confection involving some of the same ingredients Palestinian cuisine
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Muhallebi
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Blancmange is a sweet dessert commonly made with milk or cream and sugar thickened with gelatin, cornstarch or Irish moss, and often flavoured with almonds. It is usually set in a mould and served cold, although traditionally white, blancmanges are frequently given alternative colours. Some similar desserts are Bavarian cream, panna cotta, annin tofu, the Turkish muhallebi, and haupia. The historical blancmange originated some time in the Middle Ages and usually consisted of capon or chicken, milk or almond milk, rice, tavuk göğsü is a sweet contemporary Turkish pudding made with shredded chicken, similar to the medieval European dish. The true origin of the blancmange is obscure, but it is believed by some that it was a result of the Arab introduction of rice and almonds in early medieval Europe. However, there is no evidence of the existence of any similar Arab dishes from that period, though the Arabic mahallabīyah is similar, variants of the dish appear in numerous other European cultures with closely related names including Biancomangiare in Italy and Manjar Blanco in Spain. The Danish work may simply be a translation of a German work which is in turn assumed to have based on a Latin or Romance vernacular manuscript from the 12th century or even earlier. The whitedish was a dish common to most of Europe during the Middle Ages. The basic ingredients were milk or almond milk, sugar and shredded chicken or fish, and often combined with rosewater, rice flour, almond milk and fish were used as substitutes for the other animal products on fast days and Lent. It was also flavored with spices like saffron or cinnamon. Spices were often used in recipes of the later Middle Ages since they were considered highly prestigious, the whitedish was one of the preparations that could be found in recipe collections all over Europe and one of the few truly international dishes of medieval and early modern Europe. The brightly coloured whitedishes were one of the most common of the early entremets, edibles that were intended to entertain and delight through a gaudy appearance, in the 17th century, the whitedish evolved into a meatless dessert pudding with cream and eggs and, later, gelatin. In the 19th century, arrowroot and cornflour were added and the dish evolved into the modern blancmange, the word blancmange derives from Old French blanc mangier. The name whitedish is a term used by some historians. Food scholar Terence Scully has proposed the alternative etymology of bland mangier, bland dish, reflecting its often mild and dainty taste and popularity as a sick dish. Maja blanca Flummery Annin tofu Medieval cuisine Food in the Middle Ages, A Book of Essays edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-8153-1345-4 Ossa, fogón de negros, cocina y cultura en una región latinoamericana. Scully, Terence, The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages, ISBN 0-85115-611-8 Blanc-Manger, A Journey Through Time More Intelligent Life article
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Basbousa
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Basbousa is a native Egyptian and traditional Middle Eastern sweet cake. It is made from cooked semolina or farina soaked in simple syrup, the syrup may also optionally contain orange flower water or rose water. Basbousa has many regional and dialect names and it is found in the cuisines of the Middle East, the Balkans and the Horn of Africa under a variety of names. In southern Greece, it is called ravani, while in the north, basbousa is often called hareesa in Jordan, the Maghreb, and the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Basbousa is a popular dessert among the Egyptian Coptic Christians for fasts, such as Great Lent. In Israel, a variety of the dish flavoured with yogurt, honey, like basbousa, it is made from semolina soaked in sweet syrup. It is characterized by the addition of finely ground pistachios and orange flower water, Şekerpare Sambali Melomakarono Hurma Works cited Davidson, Alan
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Arabic coffee
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Arabic coffee or Arab coffee refers to a flavorful version of the brewed coffee of Coffea arabica beans which is one of two prominent species of coffee beans, the last is Robusta. Arabic coffee is grown at a height of 1200 to 1500 meters, and represents about 80% of the industry in the world. In most Arab countries throughout the Middle East, coffee making is an important part of warm hospitality, in fact, it has developed a unique method for brewing and preparing coffee. Cardamom is often added, or it is served plain قهوة سادة qahwah sādah, the English word coffee comes from the Arabic word for coffee, qahweh. Arabic coffee is an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Arab states confirmed by UNESCO, the earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemens Sufi monasteries. Coffee beans were first exported from Karachi to Yemen, Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean. The word qahwa originally meant wine, and Sufis in Yemen used the beverage as an aid to concentration, Sufis used it to keep themselves alert during their nighttime devotions. A translation of Al-Jaziris manuscript traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad. By 1414, the beverage was known in Mecca, and in the early 1500s was spreading to the Mameluke Sultanate of Egypt, associated with Sufism, a myriad of coffee houses grew up in Cairo around the religious University of the Azhar. These coffee houses also opened in Syria, especially in the city of Aleppo, and then in Istanbul. In 1511, it was forbidden for its effect by conservative. However, these bans were to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Suleiman I, in Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. It has also proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Serving Arabic coffee is one of the important aspects of hospitality in Arab societies, traditionally, coffee is prepared in front of guests. Coffee begins by lightly roasting coffee beans in a shallow skillet over a fire, then placed in a brass mortar, the coffee is placed in a large copper coffee pot, water is added and a pot is placed on the fire. Once brewed, the coffee is poured into small cups, the most important or oldest guests are served first, filling a quarter cup, which can then be filled. Common practice is to drink at least one cup but not exceed three, Arabic coffee is made and enjoyed by men and women from all segments of society, especially at home. Sheikhs and tribal chiefs serving Arabic coffee in their places, old Bedouin men and women
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Coffeehouse
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A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages, tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea, many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins, or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to multinational corporations. A coffeehouse may share some of the characteristics of a bar or restaurant. Many coffee houses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha, espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. Since the development of Wi-Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops, a coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams, who banned them, as well as the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city, they opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a Kiva Han in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose, the narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. It often happens that two or three people talk at the time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese and Spanish spelling, thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English-language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i. e. greasy spoon variety. The Italian spelling, caffè, is sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often altered to /ˈkæf/. The English words coffee and café both descend from the Italian word for coffee, caffè—first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570— and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa. The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine but after the ban by Mohammed
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Cardamom
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Cardamom, sometimes Cardamon or Cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to India, Bhutan, Indonesia and Nepal, some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Cardamom is the worlds third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla, the modern genus name Elettaria is derived from the local name. The root ēlam is attested in all Dravidian languages viz. Kannada elakki, Telugu yelakulu, Tamil elakkai, the second element kai means seed or fruit. The Malabar region had historical connections and was a prominent area of cardamom cultivation. A related root is present in Hindi ilaychi, Bengali ælachi. In Sindhi it is called Photta, in Sanskrit it was known as ela or ellka. In Marathi it is known as velchi or veldoda. In Sri Lanka, the plant is known as Enasal by Sinhala language, there are two main types of cardamom, True or green cardamom comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, the two types of cardamom, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus. Theophrastus and informants knew that these varieties were originally and solely from India, both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. E. cardamomum is used as a spice, a masticatory, Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, green cardamom is one of the more expensive spices by weight, but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in the pod as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavor, grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1 1⁄2 teaspoons of ground cardamom and it is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee, Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In Asia both types of cardamom are used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai
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Dallah (coffee pot)
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It is commonly used in the coffee tradition of the Arabian peninsula and of the Bedouins. Old Bedouins used the ritual of preparation, serving and drinking as a sign of hospitality, generosity. The most distinctive feature is a spout with a crescent-shaped beak. This beak may be covered with a flap to keep the coffee warmer. A dallah can be made of brass, steel, silver, the origins of the dallah are unclear. Among the earliest references to a dallah as a boiler in the modern shape date to the mid-17th century. The dallah plays such an important role in the identity of Persian Gulf countries that it is featured in public artworks, modern dallah are more typically practical vessels, and even automatic dallah and thermos dallah are available to the modern coffee drinker. Other traditional and regional recipes include saffron or other spices and it is also called a Baghdad boiler or Gulf pot. Cezve Jebena Arabic coffee Saudi cuisine Coffee portal
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Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
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Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
33.
Sheep
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The sheep is a quadrupedal, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, although the name sheep applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female sheep is referred to as a ewe, a male as a ram or occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether. Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe, one of the earliest animals to be domesticated for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat and milk. A sheeps wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is harvested by shearing. Ovine meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when from older ones, Sheep continue to be important for wool and meat today, and are also occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy animals, or as model organisms for science. Sheep husbandry is practised throughout the majority of the inhabited world, in the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep production. Sheepraising has a lexicon of unique terms which vary considerably by region. Use of the sheep began in Middle English as a derivation of the Old English word scēap. A group of sheep is called a flock, herd or mob, many other specific terms for the various life stages of sheep exist, generally related to lambing, shearing, and age. Being a key animal in the history of farming, sheep have a deeply entrenched place in human culture, as livestock, sheep are most often associated with pastoral, Arcadian imagery. Sheep figure in many mythologies—such as the Golden Fleece—and major religions, in both ancient and modern religious ritual, sheep are used as sacrificial animals. Domestic sheep are relatively small ruminants, usually with a crimped hair called wool, domestic sheep differ from their wild relatives and ancestors in several respects, having become uniquely neotenic as a result of selective breeding by humans. A few primitive breeds of sheep retain some of the characteristics of their wild cousins, depending on breed, domestic sheep may have no horns at all, or horns in both sexes, or in males only. Most horned breeds have a pair, but a few breeds may have several. Another trait unique to domestic sheep as compared to wild ovines is their variation in color. Wild sheep are largely variations of brown hues, and variation within species is extremely limited, colors of domestic sheep range from pure white to dark chocolate brown, and even spotted or piebald
34.
Goat
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The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food, female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and juveniles of both sexes are called kids. Goat meat from animals is called kid or cabrito, while meat from older animals is known simply as goat or sometimes called chevon. To refer to the male, Old English used bucca until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century, nanny goat originated in the 18th century and billy goat in the 19th. Goats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, the most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains is the likely original ancestor of probably all domestic goats today. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü. Studies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date, historically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also used to produce parchment. Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 140 kg for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy. Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed, Goats have horns unless they are polled or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats, although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited, the horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile
35.
Camel milk
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Camels milk has supported Bedouin, nomad and pastoral cultures since the domestication of camels millennia ago. Herders may for periods survive solely on the milk when taking the camels on long distances to graze in desert, Camel farming, by utilising a native species well-adapted to arid regions, able to eat salty desert plants, has been linked to de-desertification by UNESCO. Camel milk can be found in supermarkets in the UAE, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Mauritania, Camel milk is a rich source of proteins with potential antimicrobial and protective activities, these proteins are not found in cow milk or found only in minor amount. Camel milk has enough nutrients to sustain a person through the day, in many countries, camel milk is given to babies suffering from malnutrition. Compared to cow, buffalo and ewe milk fat, camel milk fat contains fewer short-chained fatty acids, some researchers claim that the value of camel milk is to be found in the high concentrations of linoleic acid among other polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are essential for human nutrition. Camel milk has more fat and protein than cows milk, cholesterol in camel milk is lower than cow or goat milk. Camel milk has a vitamin and mineral content and immunoglobin content. Camel milk is three times higher in vitamin C than cows milk and 10 times higher in iron and it is also high in unsaturated fatty acids and B vitamins but lower in vitamin A and B2. The composition of camel milk depends on its feed and species, Camel milk is lower in lactose than cows milk. However, levels of potassium, magnesium, iron, copper, manganese, sodium, Camel milk is still largely a subsistence product, but production in camel milk dairies is a growing industry. Camel milk in India has been used by raika and other desert communities, aadvik Foods is the first Indian company which markets and sells camel milk and products like Milk powder, soaps, Chocolates at Pan India level. Its products are available on its website, Amazon, and other E commerce platforms, the USA has an imported population of 5,000 camels. Laws in the United States allow an individual who owns an animal to consume that animals milk, Milk sold in the U. S. must be tested for antibiotic residue if it crosses state lines or is sold commercially in stores. As the law stands in most states, the dairies are allowed to sell the milk directly from the farms to customers who buy it directly from the farm, each state is different with regulations governing the sale of the milk. Milk is allowed to be sold, depending on the state, in raw form, pasteurized, the current market for the milk in the US is for medical purposes and as a food for ethnic populations. There is also a large demand for the colostrum, which is in very limited amounts and is quite expensive. The cost of producing a quart of milk is considerably higher than that of producing a quart of cows milk. In the United States, female camels are very rare, they mature slowly and their thirteen-month gestation period must conclude in a live birth followed by suckling, else the female camel will stop producing milk
36.
Bedouin
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The term contrasts against Hathar which refers to the city or town dwellers in the Arabic language. Bedouin means Badiyah dwellers in the Arabic language, as Badyah means literally the visible land, the Bedouins identify themselves as Arabs or by the names of their tribes. City dwellers in Arabia who descended from known tribes refer to themselves as Bedouins to recognize their origin to Arabia. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans and share a culture of herding camels. The Bedouin form a part of, but are not synonymous with, Bedouins have been referred to by various names throughout history, including Qedarites in the Old Testament and Arabaa by the Assyrians. They are referred to as the Araab in the Koran, traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are also popular leisure activities for urbanised Bedouins who live within close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas. The term Bedouin derives from a form of the Arabic word badu. The Arabic term badu literally translates in Arabic as Badiyah dwellers, the word bādiyah means visible land such as plain or desert. The term Bedouin therefore means those in bādiyah or those in the desert, in English usage, however, the form Bedouin is commonly used for the singular term, the plural being Bedouins, as indicated by the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition. The term Bedouin also uses the root word as the Arabic noun for the beginning, بداية. The Arabs believe the Bedouins to be the predecessors to the settled Arabs, disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility. The individual family unit typically consisted of three or four adults and any number of children, when resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage, acquaintance, or no clearly defined relation. The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm or descent group, whilst the phrase descent group suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members. The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, the tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the governments and organizations. Distinct structure of the Bedouin society leads to lasting rivalries between different clans
37.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
38.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
39.
Vimto
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Vimto is a soft drink sold in the United Kingdom. It was first manufactured as a tonic in cordial form. It contains the juice of grapes, raspberries and blackcurrants, flavoured with herbs, the original recipe was invented in 1908 by Noel Nichols. Nichols grew up in the Lancashire town of Blackburn, Vimto has also been made into a sweet and an ice lolly. It is available in cans and bottles and as a soft drink in pubs, clubs. Vimto was created in 1908 at 19 Granby Row in the centre of Manchester England, by Noel Nichols of Blackburn, Lancashire and he saw the market opening for soft drinks due to the temperance movement and the passage of the 1908 Licensing Act. It was originally sold under the name Vim Tonic, which Nichols shortened to Vimto in 1912, Vimto was originally registered as a health tonic or medicine, which was then re-registered in 1913 as a cordial. In the 1990s, Vimto print advertisements used the cartoon character Purple Ronnie, along with slightly rude poems by Giles Andreae, in 2003, Purple Ronnie was dropped, and a new creative direction was adopted, revolving around the benefits of Shlurpling the Purple. The theme tune Dads Pants become something of a cult classic, a sculpture entitled A Monument to Vimto, carved out of an oak tree from a sustainable forest by Kerry Morrison, is on Granby Row in central Manchester. The statue was restored and repainted in 2011, the sculpture commemorates the fact that Vimto was originally produced on this site. Vimto is currently produced by Cott Beverages in both Leicestershire and Yorkshire on behalf of Vimto Soft Drinks, a division of Nichols plc, Nichols moved out of manufacturing in 2003 when it closed its final production site in Golborne. Vimto is also manufactured under licence in Saudi Arabia in Dammam City, Yemen, a Sunday Times article claims that it is considered to be the most popular drink during the holy month of Ramadan in some Arab countries. The drink was made under licence in the United Kingdom by A. G. Barr in 1996. In 2014 the recipe of Vimto Fizzy was changed to include Acesulfame K, ellis Wilkinson Mineral Water facilitated the production of drinks for Vimto in their early days of trading. A subsidiary of Nichols plc, Cabana is the arm of the company. In Scotland and Sussex, the distributor is an owned subsidiary of Cabana. Vimto is currently available in countries and the number of countries in which it is on sale is growing. Both a still, dilutable version and a carbonated premixed version are available in the UK, while Vimto has its origins in Northern England it can now be found both nationally and internationally
40.
Hejaz
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The Hejaz, also Al-Hijaz, is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. The region is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihamah in the west and it is also known as the Western Province. It is bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the north by Jordan, on the east by the Najd and its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As the site of Islams holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab, historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia. The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz, hejazi Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of diverse origins. The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula, people of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula, thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd. One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Al-Hijaz, the Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Rummah and Wadi Al-Batin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the system was active in 8000 BCE. The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, Saudi Arabias first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hjir. The name Al-Hijr occurs in the Qur’an, and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. Despite their rather Polytheistic nature, a member of folk was a Monotheistic preacher called Salih. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada’in Saleh, it came under the influence of people, such as the Nabataeans. Later, it would lie in a used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca. According to Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrahim brought his son Isma‘il and wife Hajar here and it was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca. Given that he had followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sad ibn Abi Waqqas, the Hijaz fell under Muhammads influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire
41.
Ramadan
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Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the month lasts 29–30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths. The word Ramadan comes from the Arabic root ramiḍa or ar-ramaḍ, fasting is fardh for adult Muslims, except those who are suffering from an illness, travelling, are elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, diabetic or going through menstrual bleeding. Fasting the month of Ramadan was made obligatory during the month of Shaban, while fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking, and engaging in sexual relations. Muslims are also instructed to refrain from behavior that may negate the reward of fasting, such as false speech. Food and drinks are served daily, before dawn and after sunset, spiritual rewards for fasting are also believed to be multiplied within the month of Ramadan. Fasting for Muslims during Ramadan typically includes the offering of salat. Chapter 2, Verse 185, of the Quran states, The month of Ramadan is that in which was revealed the Quran, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the criterion. And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, a number of other days. Allah desires for you ease, He desires not hardship for you, and that you should complete the period, and that you should magnify Allah for having guided you, and that perhaps you may be thankful. It is believed that the Quran was first revealed to Muhammad during the month of Ramadan which has been referred to as the best of times, the first revelation was sent down on Laylat al-Qadr which is one of the five odd nights of the last ten days of Ramadan. According to hadith, all holy scriptures were sent down during Ramadan, the tablets of Ibrahim, the Torah, the Psalms, the Gospel and the Quran were sent down on 1st, 6th, 12th, 13th and 24th Ramadan respectively. According to the Quran, fasting was also obligatory for prior nations, God proclaimed to Muhammad that fasting for His sake was not a new innovation in monotheism, but rather an obligation practiced by those truly devoted to the oneness of God. The pagans of Mecca also fasted, but only on tenth day of Muharram to expiate sins, the ruling to observe fasting during Ramadan was sent down 18 months after Hijra, during the month of Shaban in the second year of Hijra in 624 CE. According to Philip Jenkins, Ramadan comes from the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian churches, however, this suggestion is based on the orientalist idea that the Quran itself has Syrian origins, which was refuted by Muslim academics such as M. Al-Azami. The beginning and end of Ramadan are determined by the lunar Islamic calendar, hilāl is typically a day after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon marks the beginning of the new month, however, to many Muslims, this is not in accordance with authenticated Hadiths stating that visual confirmation per region is recommended. The consistent variations of a day have existed since the time of Muhammad, Laylat al-Qadr, which in Arabic means the night of power or the night of decree, is considered the holiest night of the year
42.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
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