1.
Potato cake
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Potato scallop a term that is sometimes applied to various different food preparations using potatoes. In parts of England, the term can refer to a patty of hashed potatoes and these are available pre-made and frozen in supermarkets and are served by many restaurants, such as fast food stands, often as part of the breakfast menu. It can also refer to a sort of potato pancake, best eaten warm, with baked beans, as part of a full English breakfast. Another variant popular in the United Kingdom is prepared from cold mashed potatoes, the two ingredients are combined together, then fried until crispy on the outside. In Australia and England potato cakes in the form of thin slices of potato, battered and deep-fried, are sold in fish and chip shops. The terminology used in Australia differs from state to state, in New South Wales, Queensland, and the ACT they are usually referred to as potato scallops, or simply as scallops. In Tasmania and Victoria, the term potato cakes is used, while in South Australia, Potato scallops originate from central England and are common in fish and chip shops there. This variant is normally a thin slice of potato, dipped in batter and deep fried, with no additional flavouring added except salt and vinegar. This type of potato scallop is also found in New Zealand fish and chip shops, however it is referred to as a potato fritter, not scallop. More commonly in New Zealand, a cake is made from either mashed or grated potato and is not covered in batter or deep fried. Hash browns, which are widely available, are distinctly different. In Scotland what are known as potato cakes in Australia are known as potato fritters and are of the type as the English variant. They are very common in fish and chip shops and are often the cheapest item on the menu, the term may refer to a preparation of mashed potatoes baked in the form of pie or a scallop made using potatoes or potato flour. Scottish tattie scones and Lancashire potato cakes are made from mashed or reconstituted potato and flour, irish potato cakes are typically made from mashed potato and flour or baking soda, and are usually fried. This is not the dish as boxty, because boxty is made using raw potatoes whereas potato cake is made using cooked potatoes. In Ireland, potato cakes are known as potato bread, or spud bread. Lefse List of potato dishes Potato pancake Tater tots
2.
Gratin
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Gratin is a widespread culinary technique in which an ingredient is topped with a browned crust, often using breadcrumbs, grated cheese, egg and/or butter. Gratin originated in French cuisine and is prepared in a shallow dish of some kind. A gratin is baked or cooked under a grill or broiler to form a golden crust on top and is traditionally served in its baking dish. A gratin dish refers to the shallow oven-proof container traditionally used to prepare gratins, the etymology of gratin is from the French language words gratter, meaning to scrape or to grate, and gratiné, from the transitive verb form of the word for crust or skin. The technique predates the current name which did not appear in English until 1846, the term le gratin signifies the upper crust of Parisian society, and, as gratin, has since been borrowed into English. Potatoes gratiné is one of the most common of gratins and is known by names including gratin potatoes. Slices of boiled potato are put in a buttered fireproof dish, sprinkled with cheese, in North America, the dish is referred to variously as scalloped potatoes, potatoes au gratin, or au gratin potatoes. In French-speaking Canada, the dish is referred to as patates au gratin, australians and New Zealanders refer to it as scalloped potatoes or potato bake. To make pommes de terre gratinées, or potatoes with cheese, according to the recipe of Marcel Boulestin, large floury potatoes are baked in the oven, then halved, the flesh is then mashed together with butter, cream, grated cheese and seasoning. The mix is then scooped back into the skins, arranged in a dish, sprinkled with grated cheese. This preparation is also called twice-baked potatoes, Gratin Dauphinois is a speciality of the Dauphiné region of France. The dish is made with thinly sliced and layered potatoes and cream. Some recipes call also for cheese and egg to be added, Gratin savoyard is a similar dish found in the neighbouring Savoie region. It consists of alternating layers of sliced potatoes, Beaufort cheese, a common alternative to using potatoes in a gratin is the use of various kinds of pasta, such as penne, rigatoni, fusilli/spirelli, or tagliatelle. Sole au gratin is a raw style of gratin, which often is covered with a mushroom covering. Many fish-based gratins use a white sauce and cheese. Cozze gratinate is a recipe found in Italy. Gratin Languedocien is a made with eggplant and tomato, covered in breadcrumbs and oil
3.
Escalope
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An escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender, the meat is then coated and fried. The typical sizes of a used in the food industry range from 113 to 227 g. Paillard is an older French culinary term referring to a quick-cooking, in France, it has been largely replaced by the word escalope. The cut is known as scallop in the US, not to be confused with the shellfish scallop, the term escalope originated in France. It first appeared in cookery terminology late in the 17th century as an expression in the northeast of rural France originally meaning a shelled nut or mollusk. In those days, an escalope was undoubtedly always veal, cutlet Chicken Paillard Saltimbocca Scaloppine Wiener Schnitzel
4.
Rheumaptera undulata
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The Scallop Shell is a moth of the Geometridae family. It is found in most of the Palearctic ecozone and North America, the ground colour of the forewings is pale. The cross-lines are darker, wavy, evenly spaced and numerous. The outer margin is brown with a scalloped fringe. The hindwings resemble the forewings but are paler, there is one generation per year with adults on wing from the end of May to August in Europe. Larvae can be found in August and September, Rheumaptera undulata undulata Rheumaptera undulata sajana Bryk,1921 Hydria undulata on European Butterflies and Moths Hydria undulata on Fauna Europaea Hydria undulata on UK Moths
5.
Precambrian
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The Precambrian is the earliest period of Earths history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is a supereon that is subdivided into three eons of the time scale. It spans from the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago, the Precambrian accounts for 89% of geologic time. Relatively little is known about the Precambrian, despite it making up roughly seven-eighths of the Earths history, the Precambrian fossil record is poorer than that of the succeeding Phanerozoic, and fossils from that time are of limited biostratigraphic use. This is because many Precambrian rocks have been metamorphosed, obscuring their origins, while others have been destroyed by erosion. A stable crust was apparently in place by 4,412 Ma, the term Precambrian is recognized by the International Commission on Stratigraphy as a general term including the Archean and Proterozoic eons. It is still used by geologists and paleontologists for general discussions not requiring the more specific eon names and it was briefly called the Cryptozoic eon. A specific date for the origin of life has not been determined, carbon found in 3.8 billion year old rocks from islands off western Greenland may be of organic origin. Well-preserved microscopic fossils of bacteria older than 3.46 billion years have found in Western Australia. Probable fossils 100 million years older have been found in the same area, there is a fairly solid record of bacterial life throughout the remainder of the Precambrian. The oldest fossil evidence from that era of such complex life comes from the Lantian formation of the Ediacarian period, a very diverse collection of soft-bodied forms is found in a variety of locations worldwide and date to between 635 and 542 Ma. These are referred to as Ediacaran or Vendian biota, hard-shelled creatures appeared toward the end of that time span, marking the beginning of the Phanerozoic era. By the middle of the following Cambrian period, a diverse fauna is recorded in the Burgess Shale. The explosion in diversity of lifeforms during the early Cambrian is called the Cambrian explosion of life, while land seems to have been devoid of plants and animals, cyanobacteria and other microbes formed prokaryotic mats that covered terrestrial areas. Evidence of the details of plate motions and other activity in the Precambrian has been poorly preserved. It is generally believed that small proto-continents existed prior to 4280 Ma, the supercontinent, known as Rodinia, broke up around 750 Ma. A number of glacial periods have been identified going as far back as the Huronian epoch, one of the best studied is the Sturtian-Varangian glaciation, around 850–635 Ma, which may have brought glacial conditions all the way to the equator, resulting in a Snowball Earth. The atmosphere of the early Earth is not well understood, most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other relatively inert gases, and was lacking in free oxygen
6.
Cambrian
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The Cambrian Period was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lasted 55.6 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago to the beginning of the Ordovician Period 485.4 mya and its subdivisions, and its base, are somewhat in flux. The period was established by Adam Sedgwick, who named it after Cambria, the Latinised form of Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, as a result, our understanding of the Cambrian biology surpasses that of some later periods. The rapid diversification of lifeforms in the Cambrian, known as the Cambrian explosion, most of the continents were probably dry and rocky due to a lack of vegetation. Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia, the seas were relatively warm, and polar ice was absent for much of the period. The United States Federal Geographic Data Committee uses a barred capital C ⟨Є⟩ character similar to the capital letter Ukrainian Ye ⟨Є⟩ to represent the Cambrian Period, the proper Unicode character is U+A792 Ꞓ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH BAR. Despite the long recognition of its distinction from younger Ordovician Period rocks and older Supereon Precambrian rocks, the base of the Cambrian lies atop a complex assemblage of trace fossils known as the Treptichnus pedum assemblage. Pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western USA, the stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. The Cambrian Period followed the Ediacaran Period and was followed by the Ordovician Period, the Cambrian is divided into four epochs and ten ages. Currently only two series and five stages are named and have a GSSP, because the international stratigraphic subdivision is not yet complete, many local subdivisions are still widely used. In some of these subdivisions the Cambrian is divided into three epochs with locally differing names – the Early Cambrian, Middle Cambrian and Furongian, rocks of these epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle, or Upper Cambrian. Trilobite zones allow biostratigraphic correlation in the Cambrian, each of the local epochs is divided into several stages. The International Commission on Stratigraphy list the Cambrian period as beginning at 541 million years ago, the lower boundary of the Cambrian was originally held to represent the first appearance of complex life, represented by trilobites. The recognition of small shelly fossils before the first trilobites, and Ediacara biota substantially earlier and this formal designation allowed radiometric dates to be obtained from samples across the globe that corresponded to the base of the Cambrian. Early dates of 570 million years ago quickly gained favour, though the used to obtain this number are now considered to be unsuitable. A more precise date using modern radiometric dating yield a date of 541 ±0.3 million years ago, most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time, but was drifting north. Large, high-velocity rotational movement of Gondwana appears to have occurred in the Early Cambrian, the sea levels fluctuated somewhat, suggesting there were ice ages, associated with pulses of expansion and contraction of a south polar ice cap. In Baltoscandia a Lower Cambrian transgression transformed large swathes of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain into a epicontinental sea, the Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents
7.
Ordovician
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The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six periods of the Paleozoic Era. The Ordovician spans 41.2 million years from the end of the Cambrian Period 485.4 million years ago to the start of the Silurian Period 443.8 Mya. Lapworth recognized that the fauna in the disputed strata were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian periods. It received international sanction in 1960, when it was adopted as a period of the Paleozoic Era by the International Geological Congress. Life continued to flourish during the Ordovician as it did in the earlier Cambrian period, invertebrates, namely molluscs and arthropods, dominated the oceans. The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event considerably increased the diversity of life, fish, the worlds first true vertebrates, continued to evolve, and those with jaws may have first appeared late in the period. Life had yet to diversify on land, about 100 times as many meteorites struck the Earth during the Ordovician compared with today. The Ordovician Period began with a major extinction called the Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event and it lasted for about 42 million years and ended with the Ordovician–Silurian extinction event, about 443.8 Mya which wiped out 60% of marine genera. The dates given are recent radiometric dates and vary slightly from those found in other sources and this second period of the Paleozoic era created abundant fossils that became major petroleum and gas reservoirs. The boundary chosen for the beginning of both the Ordovician Period and the Tremadocian stage is highly significant and it correlates well with the occurrence of widespread graptolite, conodont, and trilobite species. The base of the Tremadocian allows scientists to relate these species not only to each other and this makes it easier to place many more species in time relative to the beginning of the Ordovician Period. A number of terms have been used to subdivide the Ordovician Period. In 2008, the ICS erected an international system of subdivisions. There exist Baltoscandic, British, Siberian, North American, Australian, the Ordovician Period in Britain was traditionally broken into Early, Middle and Late epochs. The corresponding rocks of the Ordovician System are referred to as coming from the Lower, Middle, the Floian corresponds to the lower Arenig, the Arenig continues until the early Darriwilian, subsuming the Dapingian. The Llanvirn occupies the rest of the Darriwilian, and terminates with it at the base of the Late Ordovician. The Sandbian represents the first half of the Caradoc, the Caradoc ends in the mid-Katian, during the Ordovician, the southern continents were collected into Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole, the small continent Avalonia separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the Rheic Ocean between Gondwana and Avalonia
8.
Silurian
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The Silurian is a geologic period and system spanning 24.6 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period, at 443.8 million years ago, to the beginning of the Devonian Period,419.2 Mya. As with other periods, the rock beds that define the periods start and end are well identified. The base of the Silurian is set at a major Ordovician-Silurian extinction event when 60% of marine species were wiped out, a significant evolutionary milestone during the Silurian was the diversification of jawed and bony fish. However, terrestrial life would not greatly diversify and affect the landscape until the Devonian, the Silurian system was first identified by British geologist Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, who was examining fossil-bearing sedimentary rock strata in south Wales in the early 1830s. He named the sequences for a Celtic tribe of Wales, the Silures, inspired by his friend Adam Sedgwick and this naming does not indicate any correlation between the occurrence of the Silurian rocks and the land inhabited by the Silures. As it was first identified, the Silurian series when traced farther afield quickly came to overlap Sedgwicks Cambrian sequence, however, charles Lapworth resolved the conflict by defining a new Ordovician system including the contested beds. An early alternative name for the Silurian was Gotlandian after the strata of the Baltic island of Gotland, the French geologist Joachim Barrande, building on Murchisons work, used the term Silurian in a more comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent knowledge. He divided the Silurian rocks of Bohemia into eight stages and his interpretation was questioned in 1854 by Edward Forbes, and the later stages of Barrande, F, G and H, have since been shown to be Devonian. Despite these modifications in the groupings of the strata, it is recognized that Barrande established Bohemia as a classic ground for the study of the earliest fossils. The epoch is named for the town of Llandovery in Carmarthenshire, the Wenlock, which lasted from 433.4 ±1.5 to 427.4 ±2.8 mya, is subdivided into the Sheinwoodian and Homerian ages. It is named after Wenlock Edge in Shropshire, England, during the Wenlock, the oldest known tracheophytes of the genus Cooksonia, appear. The first terrestrial animals also appear in the Wenlock, represented by air-breathing millipedes from Scotland. The Ludlow, lasting from 427.4 ±1.5 to 423 ±2.8 mya, comprises the Gorstian stage, lasting until 425.6 million years ago, and it is named for the town of Ludlow in Shropshire, England. The Pridoli, lasting from 423 ±1.5 to 419.2 ±2.8 mya, is the final and it is named after one locality at the Homolka a Přídolí nature reserve near the Prague suburb Slivenec in the Czech Republic. Přídolí is the old name of a field area. The high sea levels of the Silurian and the flat land resulted in a number of island chains. The southern continents remained united during this period, the melting of icecaps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea level, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. The continents of Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia drifted together near the equator and this event is the Caledonian orogeny, a spate of mountain building that stretched from New York State through conjoined Europe and Greenland to Norway
9.
Devonian
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The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic, spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian,419.2 million years ago, to the beginning of the Carboniferous,358.9 Mya. It is named after Devon, England, where rocks from this period were first studied, the first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian. Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land, forming extensive forests which covered the continents, by the middle of the Devonian, several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared. Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established, Fish reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the Age of Fish. The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared, while the placodermi began dominating almost every aquatic environment. The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates began adapting to walking on land, as their strong pectoral, in the oceans, primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician. The first ammonites, species of molluscs, appeared, trilobites, the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs, were still common. The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life, killing off all placodermi, and all trilobites, save for a few species of the order Proetida. The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south, the continent of Siberia to the north, while the rock beds that define the start and end of the Devonian period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian 419.2 Mya, another common term is Age of the Fishes, referring to the evolution of several major groups of fish that took place during the period. Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian and Farlovian stages, in the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common. The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions, the rocks corresponding to those epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System. Early Devonian The Early Devonian lasted from 419.2 ±2.8 to 393.3 ±2.5 and began with the Lochkovian stage, which lasted until the Pragian. It spanned from 410.8 ±2.8 to 407.6 ±2.5, and was followed by the Emsian, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began,393. 3±2.7 million years ago. Middle Devonian The Middle Devonian comprised two subdivisions, first the Eifelian, which gave way to the Givetian 387. 7±2.7 million years ago. Late Devonian Finally, the Late Devonian started with the Frasnian,382.7 ±2.8 to 372.2 ±2.5, during which the first forests took shape on land. The first tetrapods appeared in the record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision. This lasted until the end of the Devonian,358. 9±2.5 million years ago, the Devonian was a relatively warm period, and probably lacked any glaciers
10.
Carboniferous
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The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period 358.9 million years ago, to the beginning of the Permian Period,298.9 Mya. The name Carboniferous means coal-bearing and derives from the Latin words carbō and ferō, and was coined by geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822. Based on a study of the British rock succession, it was the first of the system names to be employed. The Carboniferous is often treated in North America as two periods, the earlier Mississippian and the later Pennsylvanian. Terrestrial life was established by the Carboniferous period. Amphibians were the dominant land vertebrates, of one branch would eventually evolve into amniotes. Arthropods were also common, and many were much larger than those of today. Vast swaths of forest covered the land, which would eventually be laid down, the atmospheric content of oxygen also reached their highest levels in geological history during the period, 35% compared with 21% today, allowing terrestrial invertebrates to evolve to great size. A major marine and terrestrial extinction event, the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, occurred in the middle of the period, the later half of the period experienced glaciations, low sea level, and mountain building as the continents collided to form Pangaea. In the United States the Carboniferous is usually broken into Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subperiods, the Silesian is roughly contemporaneous with the late Mississippian Serpukhovian plus the Pennsylvanian. In Britain the Dinantian is traditionally known as the Carboniferous Limestone, the Namurian as the Millstone Grit, and the Westphalian as the Coal Measures and Pennant Sandstone. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures, southern Gondwanaland was glaciated throughout the period and these conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush swamps, later to become coal, flourished to within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. Mid-Carboniferous, a drop in sea level precipitated a major extinction, one that hit crinoids. This sea level drop and the unconformity in North America separate the Mississippian subperiod from the Pennsylvanian subperiod. This happened about 323 million years ago, at the onset of the Permo-Carboniferous Glaciation, the Carboniferous was a time of active mountain-building, as the supercontinent Pangaea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America–Europe along the present line of eastern North America, in the same time frame, much of present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains. Most of the Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangea was now assembled, although North China, the Late Carboniferous Pangaea was shaped like an O. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous—Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys, which was inside the O in the Carboniferous Pangaea, other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed - Rheic Ocean, the small, shallow Ural Ocean and Proto-Tethys Ocean
11.
Permian
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The Permian is a geologic period and system which spans 46.7 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period 298.9 million years ago, to the beginning of the Triassic Period 252.2 Mya. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era, the following Triassic Period belongs to the Mesozoic Era, the concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison, who named it after the city of Perm. The Permian witnessed the diversification of the early amniotes into the groups of the mammals, turtles, lepidosaurs. The world at the time was dominated by two known as Pangaea and Siberia, surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa. The Carboniferous rainforest collapse left behind vast regions of desert within the continental interior, amniotes, who could better cope with these drier conditions, rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors. The Permian ended with the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in Earths history, in which nearly 90% of marine species and it would take well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe. Recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event was protracted, on land, the term Permian was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir R. I. Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, who identified typical strata in extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil, the region now lies in the Perm Krai of Russia. This could have in part caused the extinctions of marine species at the end of the period by severely reducing shallow coastal areas preferred by many marine organisms. During the Permian, all the Earths major landmasses were collected into a supercontinent known as Pangaea. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, a new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold, deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees appeared in the Permian, the climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still in an Ice Age, glaciers receded around the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continents interiors. In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles, Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks, echinoderms, and brachiopods. By the close of the Permian, trilobites and a host of other groups became extinct. Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, the period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea
12.
Triassic
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The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.9 million years from the end of the Permian Period 252.17 million years ago, to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.3 Mya. The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic Era, both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. Therapsids and archosaurs were the terrestrial vertebrates during this time. A specialized subgroup of archosaurs, called dinosaurs, first appeared in the Late Triassic, the vast supercontinent of Pangaea existed until the mid-Triassic, after which it began to gradually rift into two separate landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. The global climate during the Triassic was mostly hot and dry, however, the climate shifted and became more humid as Pangaea began to drift apart. The end of the period was marked by yet another mass extinction, the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event. The Triassic is usually separated into Early, Middle, and Late Triassic Epochs, from the east, along the equator, the Tethys sea penetrated Pangaea, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to be closed. Later in the mid-Triassic a similar sea penetrated along the equator from the west, the remaining shores were surrounded by the world-ocean known as Panthalassa. All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates, thus, the supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in that period—but had not yet separated. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west, thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms that lived in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as Estheria crustaceans. At the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, Africa was joined with Earths other continents in Pangaea, Africa shared the supercontinents relatively uniform fauna which was dominated by theropods, prosauropods and primitive ornithischians by the close of the Triassic period. Late Triassic fossils are found throughout Africa, but are common in the south than north. The time boundary separating the Permian and Triassic marks the advent of an event with global impact. At Paleorrota geopark, located in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, in these formations, one of the earliest dinosaurs, Staurikosaurus, as well as the mammal ancestors Brasilitherium and Brasilodon have been discovered. The Triassic continental interior climate was hot and dry, so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites. Pangaeas large size limited the effect of the global ocean, its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers. The strong contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and the global ocean triggered intense cross-equatorial monsoons, the best studied of such episodes of humid climate, and probably the most intense and widespread, was the Carnian Pluvial Event. On land, the vascular plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycadophytes, ginkgophyta, ferns, horsetails
13.
Jurassic
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The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that spans 56.3 million years from the end of the Triassic Period 201.3 million years ago to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period 145 Mya. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles, the start of the period is marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. The Jurassic is named after the Jura Mountains within the European Alps, by the beginning of the Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. This created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid, on land, the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna, dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs, to one dominated by dinosaurs alone. The first birds also appeared during the Jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs, other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards, and the evolution of therian mammals, including primitive placentals. Crocodilians made the transition from a terrestrial to a mode of life. The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, the chronostratigraphic term Jurassic is directly linked to the Jura Mountains. The name Jura is derived from the Celtic root jor, which was Latinised into juria, the Jurassic period is divided into the Early Jurassic, Middle, and Late Jurassic epochs. The Jurassic System, in stratigraphy, is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle, the separation of the term Jurassic into three sections goes back to Leopold von Buch. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous period, the Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation, as in the Triassic, there was apparently no land over either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, the Jurassic was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of calcium carbonate. Carbonate hardgrounds were thus very common, along with calcitic ooids, calcitic cements, the first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern American cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia. As the Jurassic proceeded, larger and more groups of dinosaurs like sauropods and ornithopods proliferated in Africa. Middle Jurassic strata are well represented nor well studied in Africa. Late Jurassic strata are also poorly represented apart from the spectacular Tendaguru fauna in Tanzania, the Late Jurassic life of Tendaguru is very similar to that found in western North Americas Morrison Formation. During the Jurassic period, the primary living in the sea were fish
14.
Cretaceous
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The Cretaceous is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period 145 million years ago to the beginning of the Paleogene Period 66 Mya. It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era, the Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide. The Cretaceous was a period with a warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites and rudists, during this time, new groups of mammals and birds, as well as flowering plants, appeared. The Cretaceous ended with a mass extinction, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, the name Cretaceous was derived from Latin creta, meaning chalk. The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series, in older literature the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series, Neocomian, Gallic and Senonian. A subdivision in eleven stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide, in many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds of the Cretaceous are well identified. No great extinction or burst of diversity separates the Cretaceous from the Jurassic and this layer has been dated at 66.043 Ma. A140 Ma age for the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary instead of the usually accepted 145 Ma was proposed in 2014 based on a study of Vaca Muerta Formation in Neuquén Basin. Víctor Ramos, one of the authors of the study proposing the 140 Ma boundary age sees the study as a first step toward formally changing the age in the International Union of Geological Sciences, due to the high sea level there was extensive space for such sedimentation. Because of the young age and great thickness of the system. Chalk is a type characteristic for the Cretaceous. It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, the group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites, among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls
15.
Paleogene
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The Paleogene is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period 66 million years ago to the beginning of the Neogene Period 23.03 Mya. It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon and this period consists of the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene epochs. The terms Paleogene System and lower Tertiary System are applied to the rocks deposited during the Paleogene Period. By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs, the periods are more comparable to the duration of periods of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras. The trend was caused by the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. During the Paleogene, the continued to drift closer to their current positions. India was in the process of colliding with Asia, subsequently forming the Himalayas, the Atlantic Ocean continued to widen by a few centimeters each year. Africa was moving north to meet with Europe and form the Mediterranean, inland seas retreated from North America early in the period. Australia had also separated from Antarctica and was drifting towards Southeast Asia, mammals began a rapid diversification during this period. Some of these mammals would evolve into forms that would dominate the land, while others would become capable of living in marine, specialized terrestrial. Those that took to the oceans became modern cetaceans, while those that took to the trees became primates, the group to which humans belong. Birds, which were well established by the end of the Cretaceous. In comparison to birds and mammals, most other branches of life remained unchanged during this period. As the Earth cooled, tropical plants became less numerous and were now restricted to equatorial regions, deciduous plants, which could survive through the seasonal climates the world was now experiencing, became more common. The Paleogene is notable in the context of offshore oil drilling, and especially in Gulf of Mexico oil exploration and these rock formations represent the current cutting edge of deep-water oil discovery. Lower Tertiary explorations to date include, Kaskida Oil Field Tiber Oil Field Jack 2 Paleogene Microfossils, 180+ images of Foraminifera
16.
Neogene
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The Neogene is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period 23.03 million years ago to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period 2.58 Mya. The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs, the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene, some geologists assert that the Neogene cannot be clearly delineated from the modern geological period, the Quaternary. During this period, mammals and birds continued to evolve into modern forms. Early hominids, the ancestors of humans, appeared in Africa near the end of the period, some continental movement took place, the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama, late in the Pliocene. This cut off the ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene, the terms Neogene System and upper Tertiary System describe the rocks deposited during the Neogene Period. The continents in the Neogene were very close to their current positions, the Isthmus of Panama formed, connecting North and South America. The Indian subcontinent continued to collide with Asia, forming the Himalayas, sea levels fell, creating land bridges between Africa and Eurasia and between Eurasia and North America. The global climate became seasonal and continued an overall drying and cooling trend which began at the start of the Paleogene. The ice caps on both poles began to grow and thicken, and by the end of the period the first of a series of glaciations of the current Ice Age began, marine and continental flora and fauna have a modern appearance. The reptile group Choristodera became extinct in the part of the period. Mammals and birds continued to be the dominant terrestrial vertebrates, the first hominids, the ancestors of humans, appeared in Africa and spread into Eurasia. In response to the cooler, seasonal climate, tropical plant species gave way to deciduous ones, grasses therefore greatly diversified, and herbivorous mammals evolved alongside it, creating the many grazing animals of today such as horses, antelope, and bison. The Neogene traditionally ended at the end of the Pliocene Epoch, just before the definition of the beginning of the Quaternary Period. However, there was a movement amongst geologists to also include ongoing geological time in the Neogene, by dividing the Cenozoic Era into three periods instead of seven epochs, the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of periods in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras. The International Commission on Stratigraphy once proposed that the Quaternary be considered a sub-era of the Neogene, with a date of 2.58 Ma. In the 2004 proposal of the ICS, the Neogene would have consisted of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, thus the Neogene Period ends bounding the succeeding Quaternary Period at 2.58 Mya. Digital Atlas of Neogene Life for the Southeastern United States — by San Jose State University via Web Archive
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Argopecten irradians
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It is native to the northwest Atlantic from New Jersey to the Gulf of Mexico. This species of scallop used to support a large fishery on the East Coast of the United States, but since the 1950s, the fishery of the wild scallops has decreased greatly. This decrease is apparently the result of negative influences, one of which is a reduction in sea grasses due to increased coastal development and concomitant nutrient runoff. Another possible factor is reduction of sharks from overfishing, a variety of sharks used to feed on rays, which are a main predator of bay scallops. With the shark population reduced, in places almost eliminated. By contrast, the Atlantic sea scallop is at high levels of abundance. Bay scallops are now raised in aquaculture in Florida and they were introduced into China for the 1980s and are the basis of a vibrant aquaculture industry in that country. This species has five different subspecies, A. i. amplicostatus A. i. concentricus A. i. irradians A. i. sablensis - a fossil subspecies A. i. taylorae Petuch,1987 - the southern bay scallop Scallop
18.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
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Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
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Mollusca
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The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion
21.
Bivalvia
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Bivalves as a group have no head and they lack some usual molluscan organs like the radula and the odontophore. They include the clams, oysters, cockles, mussels, scallops, the gills have evolved into ctenidia, specialised organs for feeding and breathing. Most bivalves bury themselves in sediment where they are safe from predation. Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces, some bivalves, such as the scallops and file shells, can swim. The shipworms bore into wood, clay, or stone and live inside these substances, the shell of a bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate, and consists of two, usually similar, parts called valves. These are joined together along one edge by a ligament that, usually in conjunction with interlocking teeth on each of the valves. This arrangement allows the shell to be opened and closed without the two halves detaching, the shell is typically bilaterally symmetrical, with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane. Adult shell sizes of bivalves vary from fractions of a millimetre to over a metre in length, Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal and riparian human populations. Oysters were cultured in ponds by the Romans, and mariculture has more become a important source of bivalves for food. Modern knowledge of molluscan reproductive cycles has led to the development of hatcheries, a better understanding of the potential hazards of eating raw or undercooked shellfish has led to improved storage and processing. Pearl oysters are the most common source of natural pearls, the shells of bivalves are used in craftwork, and the manufacture of jewellery and buttons. Bivalves have also used in the biocontrol of pollution. Bivalves appear in the record first in the early Cambrian more than 500 million years ago. The total number of living species is about 9,200 and these species are placed within 1,260 genera and 106 families. Marine bivalves represent about 8,000 species, combined in four subclasses and 99 families with 1,100 genera, the largest recent marine families are the Veneridae, with more than 680 species and the Tellinidae and Lucinidae, each with over 500 species. The freshwater bivalves include seven families, the largest of which are the Unionidae, the taxonomic term Bivalvia was first used by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 to refer to animals having shells composed of two valves. More recently, the class was known as Pelecypoda, meaning axe-foot, the name bivalve is derived from the Latin bis, meaning two, and valvae, meaning leaves of a door. Bivalves vary greatly in overall shape, some, such as the cockles, have shells that are nearly globular, cockles can jump by bending and straightening their foot
22.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
23.
Family (biology)
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In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
24.
Spondylus
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Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family Spondylidae. As well as being the systematic or scientific name, Spondylus is the most often used name for these animals, though they are also known as spondylids, thorny oysters. The meat of these bivalves is edible, the many species of Spondylus vary considerably in appearance and range. They are grouped in the superfamily as the scallops. They are not closely related to oysters, however, they do share some habits such as cementing themselves to rocks rather than attach themselves by a byssus. Their key characteristic is that the two halves of their shells are joined with a type of hinge rather than with a toothed hinge. They also still retain vestigial anterior and posterior auricles along the hinge line, like all scallops, Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of their shells, and have relatively well-developed nervous systems. Their nervous ganglia are concentrated in the region, with recognisable optic lobes connected to the eyes. Spondylus shells are sought after by collectors, and a lively commercial market exists for them. The genus Spondylus originated in the Mesozoic era and it is known in the records from the Triassic to the Quaternary. There are about 40 extinct species and these molluscs can be found in fossil shells all over the world. They are present in rocks in the Fort Worth Formation of Texas. Archaeological evidence indicates people in Neolithic Europe were trading the shells of S. gaederopus to make bangles. The main use period appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC, the shells were harvested from the Aegean Sea but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the LBK and Lengyel cultures, Spondylus shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets, over time styles changed with the middle neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late neolithic smaller flatter and disk shaped beads. Significant finds of jewelry made from Spondylus shells were made at the Varna Necropolis, during the late Neolithic the use of Spondylus in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children. S. princeps is found off the coast of Colombia and Ecuador and has been important to Andean peoples since pre-Columbian times, the Moche people of ancient Peru regarded the sea and animals as sacred they used Spondylus shells in their art and depicted Spondylus in effigy pots. Spondylus were also harvested from the Gulf of California and traded to tribes through Mexico, in Aegean, Balkan, European and American contexts
25.
Cosmopolitan distribution
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In biogeography, a taxon is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution if its range extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. Such a taxon is said to exhibit cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitism and this means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution, say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there is debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitism. The term cosmopolitan distribution usually should not be literally, because it often is applied loosely in various contexts. Commonly the intention is not to include regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small. For example, the housefly is nearly as cosmopolitan as any animal species, another concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Again, as far as many species are concerned, the Southern Ocean, in the light of such considerations, it is no surprise to find that endemism and cosmopolitanism are quite as marked in the oceans as on land. Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations, a species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans, might in fact occupy only littoral zones, or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions, cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa. Even where a population is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies, varieties or morphs, also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations and they also lead to the formation of clines such as in Drosophila. Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species, for example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after a mass extinction. In the modern world, the whale has a cosmopolitan distribution. The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world, other examples include humans, cats, dogs, orchids, the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata, and the mollusc genus Mytilus. The term can apply to some diseases. It may result from a range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for evolution
26.
Byssus
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A byssus /ˈbɪsəs/ is a bundle of filaments secreted by many species of bivalve mollusk, that function to attach the mollusk to a solid surface. Species from several families of clams have a byssus, including the pen shells, the mussels and the false mussels, the Pinnidae, the Mytilidae. Byssus cloth is a fabric, also known as sea silk. Byssus filaments are created by certain kinds of marine and freshwater bivalve mollusks, in edible mussels, the inedible byssus is commonly known as the beard, and is removed before cooking. Byssus often refers to the long, fine, silky threads secreted by the large Mediterranean pen shell, the byssus threads from this Pinna species can be up to 6 cm in length and have historically been made into cloth. Many species of mussels secrete byssus threads to anchor themselves to surfaces, with Families including the Arcidae, Mytilidae, Anomiidae, Pinnidae, Pectinidae, Dreissenidae, and Unionidae. When a mussels foot encounters a crevice, it creates a chamber by forcing out the air and arching up. The byssus, which is made of keratin, quinone-tanned proteins, and other proteins, is spewed into this chamber in liquid form, by curling its foot into a tube and pumping the foam, the mussel produces sticky threads about the size of a human hair. The mussel then varnishes the threads with another protein, resulting in an adhesive, byssus is a remarkable adhesive, one that is neither degraded nor deformed by water as synthetic adhesives are. This property has spurred genetic engineers to insert mussel DNA into yeast cells for translating the genes into the appropriate proteins, böz – An Exotic Cloth in the Chinese Imperial Court. Biology, The Unity and Diversity of Life, belmont, CA, Thomson Learning, Inc.2004. Through the Jade Gate to Rome, A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, see Section 12 plus Appendix B – Sea Silk. A draft annotated translation of the 3rd century Weilüe – see Section 12 of the text and Appendix D. McKinley, Pinna and Her Silken Beard, A Foray Into Historical Misappropriations. Ars Textrina, A Journal of Textiles and Costumes, Vol. Twenty-nine, June 1998, Winnipeg, Manitoba, the project Sea-silk — Rediscovering an Ancient Textile Material. Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, Number 35, Autumn 2002, pp. 8–11, maeder, Felicitas, Hänggi, Ambros and Wunderlin, Dominik, Eds. Bisso marino, Fili d’oro dal fondo del mare — Muschelseide, naturhistoriches Museum and Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Switzerland. Turner, Ruth D. and Rosewater, Joseph 1958, the Family Pinnidae in the Western Atlantic Johnsonia, Vol.3 No. 38,28 June 1958, pp. 285–326, adamo Fabbroni, Del Bombice e del Bisso degli antichi, Stamperia del Costantini, Perugia,1783 Pietro Lazzarini, Bisso e porpora, il b
27.
Starfish
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Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea. Common usage frequently finds these names being applied to ophiuroids. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the worlds oceans and they are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths,6,000 m below the surface. They typically have a disc and five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and they have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence, the Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the sea star and the reef sea star, have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have played a part in literature, legend, design and they are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten. The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830 and it is derived from the Greek aster, ἀστήρ and the Greek eidos, εἶδος. The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata, as well as the starfish, the echinoderms include sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea cucumbers and crinoids. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry, but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry, adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres. Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa, the characteristics of which include a flattened, star-shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc, the subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea, the starfish, and Ophiuroidea, the brittle stars and basket stars. The starfish are a large and diverse class with about 1,500 living species, there are seven extant orders, Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones, Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida. Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc, Luidia ciliaris has seven arms, members of the Solasteridae have ten to fifteen while the Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have up to fifty
28.
Eye
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Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide organisms vision, the ability to process visual detail, eyes detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten different forms. Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods, the simplest eyes, such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms. Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours, the visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, the first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago about the time of the Cambrian explosion. The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, in most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells and the rod cells in the retina detect, the visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lens—similar to how a camera focuses. Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell. Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image. With each eye viewing a different thing, an image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different. Possessing detailed hyperspectral colour vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the worlds most complex colour vision system, trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes, in this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however, some trilobites had only one, in contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye which gives a rough image, some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually see in the normal sense
29.
Mantle (mollusc)
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The mantle is a significant part of the anatomy of molluscs, it is the dorsal body wall which covers the visceral mass and usually protrudes in the form of flaps well beyond the visceral mass itself. In many species of molluscs the epidermis of the mantle secretes calcium carbonate and conchiolin, in sea slugs there is a progressive loss of the shell and the mantle becomes the dorsal surface of the animal. The words mantle and pallium both originally meant cloak or cape, see mantle, the mantle cavity is a central feature of molluscan biology. This cavity is formed by the skirt, a double fold of mantle which encloses a water space. This space contains the gills, anus, osphradium, nephridiopores. The mantle cavity functions as a chamber in most molluscs. In bivalves it is part of the feeding structure. In some molluscs the mantle cavity is a chamber, and in cephalopods and some bivalves such as scallops. In cephalopods the contraction of the mantle is used to water through a tubular siphon, the hyponome. In gastropods it is used as a kind of foot for locomotion over the surface, in Patella the foot includes the entire ventral surface of the animal. The foot of the Bivalvia is a fleshy process adapted by its form to digging rather than to locomotion, in shelled molluscs, the mantle is the organ that forms the shell, and adds to the shell to increase its size and strength as the animal grows. Shell material is secreted by the cells of the mantle tissue. The mantle of many gastropods is usually fully or partially hidden inside the gastropod shell, in species where the shell is small compared to the size of the body, more of the mantle shows. Shell-less slugs have the mantle fully visible, the dorsal surface of the mantle is called the notum, while the ventral surface of the mantle is called the hyponotum. In the family Philomycidae, the covers the whole back side of the body. Mollusc shell, which is formed by the mantle Siphon, which is a part of the mantle in some groups of molluscs
30.
Scallop aquaculture
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Scallop aquaculture is the commercial activity of cultivating scallops until they reach a marketable size and can be sold as a consumer product. Wild juvenile scallops, or spat, were collected for growing in Japan as early as 1934, the first attempts to fully cultivate scallops in farm environments were not recorded until the 1950s and 1960s. Traditionally, fishing for wild scallops has been the practice, since farming can be expensive. However worldwide declines in wild scallop populations have resulted in the growth of aquaculture, globally the scallop aquaculture industry is now well established, with a reported annual production totalling over 1,200,000 metric tonnes from about 12 species. China and Japan account for about 90% of the reported production, there are varying degrees of aquaculture intensity used for different species of scallop. Some species fall under multiple categories in different world regions, aequipecten opercularis Argopecten irradians Sub species A. irradians irradians Sub species A. Initial attempts made at cultivation of Pecten novazelandiae in New Zealand were hampered by large levels of fouling by mussels, there are a variety of aquaculture methods that are currently utilized for scallops. The effectiveness of particular methods depends largely on the species of scallop being farmed, collection of wild spat has historically been the most common way obtaining young scallops to seed aquaculture operations. There are a variety of ways in which spat can be collected, most methods involve a series of mesh spat bags suspended in the water column on a line which is anchored to the seafloor. Spat bags are filled with a suitable cultch onto which scallop larvae will settle, here larvae will undergo metamorphosis into post-larvae. Spat can then be collected and transferred to a site for on-growing. Spat collectors will be set in areas of high scallop productivity where spat numbers are naturally high, however, to establish where the most appropriate areas to collect spat are, trial collectors will often be laid at a variety of different sites. Well-funded farms can potentially set thousands of individual spat bags in collection trials, while initial attempts to culture scallops in hatcheries were fraught with extremely low spawning and high larval mortality rates, a number of successful techniques have now been developed. One of the most important aspects of hatchery rearing is obtaining and maintaining broodstock, broodstock must be conditioned so to stimulate gonad development leading up to spawning and much research has been devoted to identifying the best diets and water quality requirements for broodstock. Once broodstock have been conditioned, spawning can be induced and this is most commonly achieved by varying water temperature, increasing water circulation, or by an injection of serotonin. Following spawning, scallop eggs will develop into the “D” larval stage in 2 to 4 days post-fertilization, as larvae, they continue to grow and can be fed a variety of microalgal diets with mixed algal diets being reported as giving higher growth rates than single species diets. Settlement of larvae in hatcheries typically occurs between 35 and 45 days after fertilization of the eggs when larvae are approximately 250 μm in size. Following settlement, the larvae undergo metamorphosis where they rearrange their form to begin their life as a seafloor dwelling juvenile scallop
31.
Adductor muscles (bivalve)
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The adductor muscles are the main muscular system in bivalve mollusks, i. e. in clams, scallops, mussels, oysters, etc. In many parts of the world, when people eat scallops, adductor muscles leave noticeable scars or marks on the interior of the shells valves. Those marks are used by scientists who are in the process of identifying empty shells to determine their correct taxonomic placement. Bivalve mollusks generally have one or two adductor muscles. Most bivalve species have two adductor muscles, which are located on the anterior and posterior sides of the body, some families of bivalves have only one adductor muscle, or rarely even three adductor muscles. The resiliency of the ligament is what causes the valves of the mollusk to open when the adductor muscles relax
32.
Seafood
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Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Seafood prominently includes fish and shellfish, shellfish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food, edible sea plants, such as some seaweeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood around the world, especially in Asia. In North America, although not generally in the United Kingdom, for the sake of completeness, this article includes all edible aquatic life. The harvesting of seafood is usually known as fishing or hunting. Seafood is often distinguished from meat, although it is still animal and is excluded in a vegetarian diet. Seafood is an important source of protein in many diets around the world, most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used as fish food to farm other fish or rear farm animals. Some seafoods are used as food for other plants, in these ways, seafoods are indirectly used to produce further food for human consumption. Products, such as oil and spirulina tablets are also extracted from seafoods. Some seafood is feed to fish, or used to feed domestic pets, such as cats. The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into the Paleolithic, isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains of Tianyuan man, a 40, 000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The ancient river Nile was full of fish, fresh and dried fish were a food for much of the population. The Egyptians had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in scenes, drawings. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime, fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However, Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a treatise on sea fishing
33.
Sculpture (mollusc)
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Sculpture is a feature of many of the shells of mollusks. It is three-dimensional ornamentation on the surface of the shell, as distinct from either the basic shape of the shell itself or the pattern of colouration. Sculpture is a found in the shells of gastropods, bivalves. Sculpture can be concave or convex, incised into the surface or raised from it, sometimes the sculpture has microscopic detailing. In many taxa, there is no sculpture on the surface at all. Axial sculpture - Sculpture running parallel to the axis of coiling, bead - A small hemispherical protuberance resembling a bead, similar to but smaller than a nodule. Beaded - resembling rows or strings of beads, growth line - A fine transverse line marking the growth of the shell. Lira, lirate - ornamented with fine lines or grooves. Longitudinal sculpture - Sculpture following the direction of the axis of the shell, nodule - A rounded protuberance on the shell sculpture, larger than a bead. Nodose, Nodulose, Nodular - Bearing small rounded protuberances or tubercules, ornament - Can refer to surface sculpture standing out in relief on shell surface, or simply to sculpture as a whole. Plait - Folds on the columella, pustule - A very fine knob-like protrusion, smaller than a tubercule. Reticulate - Sculpture consisting of a network of riblets, threads. Rib - A strong ridge on the surface of the shell, riblet - Smaller than a rib, but coarser than a thread. Spiral sculpture - Sculpture following the growth of the shell. Stria - A shallow incised groove, thread - A very fine riblet. Transverse sculpture - Sculpture parallel to the edge of the lip of the aperture. Tubercle - Elevated knob-like projections or protrusions, larger than a pustule, varicose - Bearing one or more varices
34.
Beachcombing
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Beachcombing is an activity that consists of an individual combing the beach and the intertidal zone, looking for things of value, interest or utility. A beachcomber is a person who participates in the activity of beachcombing, despite these general definitions, beachcombing and beachcomber are words with multiple, but related, meanings that have evolved over time. The first appearance of the word beachcombers in print was in Herman Melvilles Omoo and it described a population of Europeans who lived in South Pacific islands, combing the beach and nearby water for flotsam, jetsam, or anything else they could use or trade. In other words, the deserter, if caught, would end up working the entire voyage for no pay at all, in Typee, Melville deserted, not once but twice, before signing on as a crewman on a Navy frigate, without fear of repercussions. Some beachcombers traded between local tribes, and between tribes and visiting ships, some lived on the rewards for deserters, or found replacement crewmen either through persuasion or through shanghaiing. Many, such as David Whippy, also served as mediators between hostile native tribes as well as natives and visiting ships. Whippy deserted his ship in 1820 and lived among the cannibal Fijis for the rest of his life, the Fijis would sometimes capture the crew of a stranded ship for ransom, and eat them if they resisted. Whippy would try to rescue them but sometimes found only roasted bones, ultimately he became American Consul to Fiji, and left many descendants among the islands. It is estimated that 75% of beachcombers were sailors, particularly whalemen and they were predominantly British but with an increasing number of Americans, particularly in Hawaii and the Carolines. Perhaps 20% were English convicts who had transported to Australia. It is estimated that in 1850 there were over 2,000 beachcombers throughout Polynesia and Micronesia, Beachcombers who return to Europe, conveyed tattoo styles of the Pacific islands. Many beachcombers made the transition to become island traders, in Uruguay, the term has been naturalized into the Spanish form Bichicome, and refers to poor or lower-class people. The Spanish form also draws on the similarities to the Spanish bicho and comer, Similarly, the term has entered the Greek slang through sailors, the word pitsikómis. The Russian word бич appeared not later than 1930s, in the sense of temporarily unemployed sailor, hanging about in the port and living from hand to mouth, in archaeology the beachcombing lifestyle is associated with coastal shell-middens that sometimes accumulate over many hundreds if not thousands of years. Many modern beachcombers follow the lines or tide lines on the beach and are interested in the objects that the sea casts up. Sophisticated recreational beachcombers use knowledge of how storms, geography, ocean currents and they also practice eco-conservation and do not kill mollusks for their shells, dig holes in the sand, or gouge cliff faces for fossils or reefs for coral specimens. Many beachcombers serve as excellent stewards of the seashore, working with government agencies to monitor shore erosion, dumping and pollution, a popular Canadian family television drama, The Beachcombers, focused on the work of beachcombers in late-twentieth-century British Columbia. In the James Bond film On Her Majestys Secret Service, Bond gets two weeks leave, and when Moneypenny asks him where he is off to, he replies, just some place to laze about
35.
Indo-Pacific
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It does not include the temperate and polar regions of the Indian and Pacific oceans, and the Tropical Eastern Pacific, along the Pacific coast of the Americas, is also a distinct marine realm. The WWF and Nature Conservancy divide the Indo-Pacific into three realms, and each of these into a number of marine provinces, the Central Indo-Pacific, due in part to its central location at the meeting of two oceans, has the greatest diversity of corals and mangroves. Since 2011, the term ‘Indo-Pacific’ is being used increasingly in the global strategic/ geo-political discourse, from 2010 onwards, the term Indo-Pacific acquired salience within the Indian government and has since been used often by Indias apex political leadership. From about 2011 onwards, the term has been used frequently by strategic analysts and high-level government/ military leadership in Australia, Japan, however, a formal/ official documented articulation of the term first appeared in Australia’s Defence White Paper,2013. It has been argued that the concept of the Indo-Pacific may lead to a change in popular mental maps of how the world is understood in strategic terms, lately, the US officials have begun using the term Indo-Asia Pacific. This would enable America to maintain its geographic inclusiveness in the new coinage of Indo-Pacific, helen E. Fox, Gerald R. Allen, Nick Davidson et al. Marine Ecoregions of the World, A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas
36.
Seagrass
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Seagrasses are flowering plants belonging to four families, all in the order Alismatales, which grow in marine, fully saline environments. There are 12 genera with some 60 species known, like all autotrophic plants, seagrasses photosynthesize so are limited to growing in the submerged photic zone, and most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms. Most species undergo submarine pollination and complete their life cycle underwater. Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows, which can be either monospecific or in mixed beds where more than one species coexist. In temperate areas, usually one or a few species dominate, whereas tropical beds usually are more diverse, some fish species that visit/feed on seagrasses raise their young in adjacent mangroves or coral reefs. Also, seagrasses trap sediment and slow down water movement, causing suspended sediment to fall out, the trapping of sediment benefits coral by reducing sediment loads in the water. Their importance for associated species is due to provision of shelter. Seagrass meadows account for more than 10% of the total carbon storage. Per hectare, it twice as much carbon dioxide as rain forests. Yearly, seagrasses sequester about 27.4 million tons of CO2, global warming models suggest, some seagrasses will go extinct – Posidonia oceanica is expected to go extinct, or nearly so, by 2050. This would result in CO2 release, historically, seagrasses were collected as fertilizer for sandy soil. This was an important use in the Ria de Aveiro, Portugal and it was also used for bandages and other purposes. Currently, seagrass is used in furniture, and woven like rattan, natural disturbances, such as grazing, storms, ice-scouring, and desiccation, are an inherent part of seagrass ecosystem dynamics. Seagrasses display a high degree of phenotypic plasticity, adapting rapidly to changing environmental conditions. Seagrasses are in decline, with some 30,000 km2 lost during recent decades. The main cause is human disturbance, most notably eutrophication, mechanical destruction of habitat, excessive input of nutrients is directly toxic to seagrasses, but most importantly, it stimulates the growth of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. This weakens the sunlight, reducing the photosynthesis that nourishes the seagrass, decaying seagrass leaves and algae fuels increasing algal blooms, resulting in a positive feedback. This can cause a regime shift from seagrass to algal dominance
37.
Kelp
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Kelps are large seaweeds belonging to the brown algae in the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera, Kelp grows in underwater forests in shallow oceans, and is thought to have appeared in the Miocene,23 to 5 million years ago. The organisms require nutrient-rich water with temperatures between 6 and 14 °C and they are known for their high growth rate—the genera Macrocystis and Nereocystis can grow as fast as half a metre a day, ultimately reaching 30 to 80 metres. Through the 19th century, the word kelp was closely associated with seaweeds that could be burned to obtain soda ash, the seaweeds used included species from both the orders Laminariales and Fucales. The word kelp was also used directly to refer to these processed ashes, in most kelp, the thallus consists of flat or leaf-like structures known as blades. Blades originate from elongated stem-like structures, the stipes, the holdfast, a root-like structure, anchors the kelp to the substrate of the ocean. Gas-filled bladders form at the base of blades of American species, such as Nereocystis lueteana, growth occurs at the base of the meristem, where the blades and stipe meet. Growth may be limited by grazing, sea urchins, for example, can reduce entire areas to urchin barrens. The kelp life cycle involves a diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stage, the haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction then results in the beginning of the sporophyte stage. The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a layer, rather than cuticle. Kelp may develop dense forests with high production, biodiversity and ecological function, along the Norwegian coast these forests cover 5800 km2, and they support large numbers of animals. Numerous sessile animals are found on kelp stipes and mobile invertebrate fauna are found in high densities on epiphytic algae on the kelp stipes, more than 100,000 mobile invertebrates per square meter are found on kelp stipes and holdfasts in well-developed kelp forests. Giant kelp can be harvested fairly easily because of its surface canopy, bongo kelp ash is rich in iodine and alkali. In great amount, kelp ash can be used in soap, until the Leblanc process was commercialized in the early 19th century, burning of kelp in Scotland was one of the principal industrial sources of soda ash. Alginate, a carbohydrate, is used to thicken products such as ice cream, jelly, salad dressing. Alginate powder is used frequently in general dentistry and orthodontics for making impressions of the upper and lower arches. Kombu is used to flavor broths and stews, as a garnish for rice and other dishes, as a vegetable
38.
Valve (mollusc)
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Valve is an anatomical term applied to the shell of those molluscs that have a shell. This exceptional family is known as the bivalved gastropods. Gastropods in general are sometimes called univalves, because in those that have a shell, the valves of chitons are eight dorsal, articulated shell plates, which are frequently coloured and sculpted. After death the girdle that holds the plates together disintegrates and the plates separate, thus individual plates can be found washed up in beach drift, as shown in the image at the top of this article. Bivalve molluscs have a shell which is composed of two separate but articulating parts, each one of these two parts is known as a valve. The two valves are known as the valve and the left valve, these are labeled with respect to the anterior end of the bivalve. In many, but not all, bivalves, the two valves are more or less symmetrical and thus look like mirror images of one another, the great majority of shelled gastropods or snails have a shell in one part, hence the older name univalve. The gastropod operculum, when present, even when it is composed mostly of carbonate, is not considered to be a valve. In contrast, species within one family of sea snails. These two parts very closely resemble the two valves of a bivalve and this group of species are often referred to as bivalved gastropods. These are sacoglossans in several genera including Julia, Berthelinia, Midorigai, Edenttellina, Tamanovalva and these bivalve gastropods were for a long time known only from fossils and dead material. Because of this, they had described as being somewhat atypical bivalves. It was not until living individuals were found in the late 20th century that it was understood that these are in very unusual gastropods
39.
Plane of symmetry
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Reflection symmetry, line symmetry, mirror symmetry, mirror-image symmetry, is symmetry with respect to reflection. That is, a figure which does not change upon undergoing a reflection has reflectional symmetry, in 2D there is a line/axis of symmetry, in 3D a plane of symmetry. An object or figure which is indistinguishable from its image is called mirror symmetric. The set of operations that preserve a property of the object form a group. Two objects are symmetric to each other with respect to a group of operations if one is obtained from the other by some of the operations. Another way to think about the function is that if the shape were to be folded in half over the axis. Thus a square has four axes of symmetry, because there are four different ways to fold it and have the edges all match, a circle has infinitely many axes of symmetry. Triangles with reflection symmetry are isosceles, quadrilaterals with reflection symmetry are kites, deltoids, rhombuses, and isosceles trapezoids. All even-sided polygons have two simple reflective forms, one with lines of reflections through vertices, and one through edges, for an arbitrary shape, the axiality of the shape measures how close it is to being bilaterally symmetric. It equals 1 for shapes with reflection symmetry, and between 2/3 and 1 for any convex shape, for each line or plane of reflection, the symmetry group is isomorphic with Cs, one of the three types of order two, hence algebraically C2. The fundamental domain is a half-plane or half-space, in certain contexts there is rotational as well as reflection symmetry. Then mirror-image symmetry is equivalent to inversion symmetry, in contexts in modern physics the term parity or P-symmetry is used for both. For more general types of reflection there are more general types of reflection symmetry. For example, with respect to a non-isometric affine involution with respect to circle inversion, most animals are bilaterally symmetric, likely because this supports forward movement and streamlining. Mirror symmetry is used in architecture, as in the facade of Santa Maria Novella. It is also found in the design of ancient structures such as Stonehenge, Symmetry was a core element in some styles of architecture, such as Palladianism. Patterns in nature Point reflection symmetry Stewart, Ian, weidenfeld & Nicolson. is potty Weyl, Hermann. Mapping with symmetry - source in Delphi Reflection Symmetry Examples from Math Is Fun
40.
Beak (bivalve)
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The beak is part of the shell of a bivalve mollusk, i. e. part of the shell of a saltwater or freshwater clam. The beak is the projection of the oldest part of the valve of the adult animal. The beak usually, but not always, coincides with the umbo, because by definition, all bivalves have two valves, the shell of a bivalve has two umbones, and two beaks. In many species of bivalves the beaks point towards one another, however, in some species of bivalves the beaks point posteriorly, in which case they are referred to as opisthogyrate, in others the beaks point forward, and are described as being prosogyrate. If the beak is not eroded or worn down at all, it may still be capped with the prodissoconch, which is the larval shell of the animal
41.
Umbo (bivalve)
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The umbo is the vaguely defined, often most prominent, highest part of each valve of the shell of a bivalve or univalve mollusk. It usually contains the valves beak, the oldest point of the valve, the umbo forms while the animal is a juvenile, and radial growth subsequently proceeds around that area. The umbo is situated above the hinge line, umbo is also in use in anatomic descriptions of brachiopods, for the origin of growth of the valves
42.
Roe
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Roe or hard roe is the fully ripe internal egg masses in the ovaries, or the released external egg masses of fish and certain marine animals, such as shrimp, scallop and sea urchins. As a seafood, roe is used both as an ingredient in many dishes and as a raw ingredient. The roe of marine animals, such as the roe of lumpsucker, hake, roe from a sturgeon or sometimes other fishes is the raw base product from which caviar is made. The term soft roe or white roe denotes fish milt, the large Indian population in KwaZulu Natal consumes fish roe in the form of slightly sour curry or battered and deep fried. Shad, pike and other roe are sometimes pan-fried with bacon, spot Prawn roe is also a delicacy from the North Pacific. Flounder roe, pan-fried and served with grits is popular on the Southeastern coast, in the province of New Brunswick, roe of the Atlantic sturgeon is harvested from the Saint John river. Roe from the cisco is harvested from the Great Lakes, primarily for overseas markets, roe is also extracted from herring, salmon, and sea urchins. In coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar, in Chile, sea urchin roe is a traditional food known as an erizo de mar. Chile is one of countries that exports sea urchins to Japan in order to fulfill Japanese demand. In Peru, roe is served in seafood restaurants sauteed, breaded and pan fried. Cojinova yields the best roe for this dish, despite the fact that many people like it, it is hardly considered a delicacy. Upscale restaurants are not expected to offer it, but street vendors, cojinova itself is caught for its fish meal, not for its roe, which is considered a chance product. Sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and it is used to add strength to ceviche, roe from the Ilish fish is considered a delicacy in Bangladesh. The roe is usually deep-fried, although other preparations such as mashed roe where the roe crushed along with oil, onion and pepper, in many regions in China, crab and urchin roes are eaten as a delicacy. Crab roe are used as topping in dishes such as crab roe tofu. Nanxiang Steamed Bun Restaurant serves crab roe xiaolongbao as their special, Shrimp roes are also eaten in certain places, especially around the downstream of Yangtze River, such as Wuhu, as toppings for noodle soup. Among the tribal populace of eastern India, roe that has been deeply roasted over a fire is a delicacy. In this region, the roe of rohu is also considered a delicacy and is fried or as a stuffing within a fried pointed gourd to make potoler dolma
43.
Ostreidae
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The Ostreidae, the true oysters, include most species of molluscs commonly consumed as oysters. Pearl oysters are not true oysters, and belong to the order Pterioida, like scallops, true oysters have a central adductor muscle, which means the shell has a characteristic central scar marking its point of attachment. The shell tends to be irregular as a result of attaching to a substrate, both oviparous and larviparous species are known within Ostreidae. Members of genus Ostrea generally live continually immersed and are quite flat and they differ from most bivalves by having shells completely made up of calcite, but with internal muscle scars of aragonitic composition. They fare best in somewhat oligotrophic water and they brood their fertilized eggs for various proportions of the period from fertilization to hatching. Members of genera Saccostrea and Crassostrea generally live in the zone, broadcast sperm and eggs into the sea. One of the most commonly cultivated oysters is Crassostrea gigas, the Japanese oyster, which is ideally suited for cultivation in seawater ponds
44.
Anatomical terms of motion
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Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body, the terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative to the anatomical position of the joints. In general, motion is classified according to the plane it occurs in. Flexion and extension are examples of angular motions, in two axes of a joint are brought closer together or moved further apart. Rotational motion may occur at other joints, for example the shoulder, other terms, such as elevation and depression, describe movement above or below the horizontal plane. Many anatomical terms derive from Latin terms with the same meaning, motions are classified after the anatomical planes they occur in, although movement is more often than not a combination of different motions occurring simultaneously in several planes. Angular motions occur over synovial joints and causes them to increase or decrease angles between bones. Rotational motions move a structure in a rotational motion along a longitudinal axis, apart from this motions can also be divided into, Linear motions, which move in a line between two points. A rectilinear motion refers to a motion in a line between two points, whereas a curvilinear motion refers to a motion following a curved path. Angular motions occur when an object is another object increasing or decreasing the angle. The different parts of the object do not move the same distance, examples include a movement of the knee, where the lower leg changes angle compared to the femur, or movements of the ankle. The study of movement is known as kinesiology, a categoric list of movements of the human body and the muscles involved can be found at list of movements of the human body. The prefix hyper- is sometimes added to describe movement beyond the limits, such as in hypermobility. The range of motion describes the range of motion that a joint is able to do. For example, if a part of the such as a joint is overstretched or bent backwards because of exaggerated extension motion. Hyperextension increases the stress on the ligaments of a joint, and is not always because of a voluntary movement and it may be a result of accidents, falls, or other causes of trauma. It may also be used in surgery, such as in temporarily dislocating joints for surgical procedures and these are general terms that can be used to describe most movements the body makes. Most terms have a clear opposite, and so are treated in pairs, flexion and extension describe movements that affect the angle between two parts of the body
45.
Oyster
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Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape, many, but not all, oysters are in the superfamily Ostreoidea. Some kinds of oysters are consumed by humans, cooked or raw. Some kinds of oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle. Windowpane oysters are harvested for their translucent shells, which are used to various kinds of decorative objects. True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae and this family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola, and Saccostrea. Examples include the Belon oyster, eastern oyster, Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearl oysters are not closely related to oysters, being members of a distinct family. Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels, the largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls naturally, in fact, in a harvest of two and a half tons of oysters, only three to four oysters produce what commercial buyers consider to be absolute perfect pearls. In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with nacre, over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the pigment of the nacre. Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, in three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. These pearls are not as valuable as natural pearls, but look exactly the same, in fact, since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market. A number of molluscs also have common names that include the word oyster, usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters. Examples include, Thorny oysters in the genus Spondylus Pilgrim oyster, another term for a scallop, because of its good flavor, it commands high prices. Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above 10 °C
. PMID 21672233.
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