1.
Airline codes
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This is a list of airline codes. The table lists IATAs two-character airline designators, ICAOs three-character airline designators, IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are two-character codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association to the worlds airlines. The standard is described in IATAs Standard Schedules Information Manual and the codes themselves are described in IATAs Airline Coding Directory, Airline designator codes follow the format xx, i. e. two alphanumeric characters followed by an optional letter. Although the IATA standard provides for three-character airline designators, IATA has not used the third character in any assigned code. This is because some legacy computer systems, especially the central reservations systems, have failed to comply with the standard, the codes issued to date comply with IATA Resolution 762, which provides for only two characters. These codes thus comply with the current airline designator standard, there are three types of designator, unique, numeric/alpha and controlled duplicate. IATA airline designators are used to identify an airline for commercial purposes in reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills, a flight designator is the concatenation of the airline designator, xx, and the numeric flight number, n, plus an optional one-letter operational suffix. Therefore, the format of a flight designator is xxn. After an airline is delisted, IATA can make the code available for reuse after six months, controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely to overlap, so that the same code is shared by two airlines. The controlled duplicate is denoted here, and in IATA literature, an example of this is the code 6Y, which refers to both Mid Airlines, a charter airline in Sudan, and Med Airways, a charter airline in Lebanon. IATA also issues an accounting or prefix code and this number is used on tickets as the first three characters of the ticket number. The IATA codes originally based on the ICAO designators which were issued in 1947 as two-letter airline identification codes and these codes are unique by airline, unlike the IATA airline designator codes. The designators are listed in ICAO Document 8585, Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, ICAO codes have been issued since 1947. The ICAO codes originally based on a two-letter-system and were identical to the codes used by IATA. After an airline joined IATA its existing ICAO-two-letter-code was taken over as IATA code, so in the 1970s the abbreviation BA was the ICAO code and the IATA code of British Airways while non-IATA-airlines like Court Line used their 2-letter-abbreviation as ICAO code only. In the early 1980s ICAO introduced the current three-letter-system due to the number of airlines. It became the new standard system in November 1987. Other designators, particularly starting with Y and Z, are reserved for government organizations
2.
Airline hub
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Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
3.
Copenhagen Airport
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Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup is the main international airport serving Copenhagen, Denmark, the entire Zealand, the Øresund Region, and a large part of southern Sweden. It is the largest airport in the Nordic countries with 29 million passengers in 2016 and it is the third-busiest airport in Northern Europe, and by far the busiest for international travel in Scandinavia. The airport is located on the island of Amager, just 8 kilometres south of Copenhagen city centre, the airport covers an area of 11.8 square kilometres. Most of the airport is situated in the municipality of Tårnby, the airport is the main hub out of three used by Scandinavian Airlines and is also an operating base for Thomas Cook Airlines Scandinavia and Norwegian Air Shuttle. Copenhagen Airport handles around 60 scheduled airlines, and has a maximum operation capability of 83 operations/hour, unlike other Scandinavian airports, most of the airports passengers are international. In 2015,6. 1% of passengers travelled to and from other Danish airports,83. 5% to/from other European airports, the airport is owned by Københavns Lufthavne, which also operates Roskilde Airport. Copenhagen Airport was originally called Kastrup Airport, since it is located in the town of Kastrup. The formal name of the airport is still Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, to distinguish it from Roskilde Airport, whose name is Copenhagen Airport. The airport was inaugurated 20 April 1925 and was one of the first civil airports in the world. It consisted of a large, impressive terminal built of wood, a couple of hangars, a balloon mast, a landing stage. The grass on the runways was kept short by sheep, which were shepherded away before take-offs, from 1932 to 1939, takeoffs and landings increased from 6,000 to 50,000 and passenger number increased to 72,000. Between 1936 and 1939, a new terminal was built, considered one of the finest examples of Nordic functionalism. The terminal was designed by Vilhelm Lauritzen, who was considered a pioneer among architects, in not only of architecture and construction. In the years of World War II, the Copenhagen airport was closed for operations except for periodic flights to destinations in Sweden, Germany. In the summer of 1941 the first hard-surface runway opened and it was 1,400 metres long and 65 metres wide. When World War II ended in May 1945, the Copenhagen airport was the most modern airport in Europe. On 1 August 1947, Scandinavian Airlines was founded, an important event for the Copenhagen Airport, traffic increased rapidly in the first years Scandinavian Airlines operated. On 26 January 1947, a KLM Douglas DC-3 Dakota crashed at the airport after stopping en route to Stockholm,22 people on board died, including the Swedish prince Gustav Adolf and the American opera singer Grace Moore
4.
Stockholm Arlanda Airport
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The airport is located within Stockholm County and the province of Uppland. It is the largest airport in Sweden and the third-largest airport in the Nordic countries, the airport is the major gateway to international air travel for large parts of Sweden. Arlanda Airport was used by close to 25 million passengers in 2016, Stockholm Arlanda Airport is the larger of Stockholms two airports. The other, Stockholm–Bromma, is located north-west of the citys centre, the smaller airports in Nyköping and Västerås are both located around 100 kilometres away from the Swedish capital. Stockholm Arlanda serves as a hub for NextJet, Norwegian Air Shuttle. The airport was first used in 1959, but only for practice flights and it opened for limited civil traffic in 1960, and in 1962 the official opening ceremony took place. It was used from the start for intercontinental traffic because the runway at Bromma was too short, Scandinavian Airlines started using Douglas DC-8s on North American routes. The airport was used very early by Pan American World Airways. The name Arlanda was decided after a prior to the airport opening. It is derived from Arland, an old name for the parish Ärlinghundra where the airport is situated, the -a was added in analogy with other Swedish place names ending with -landa and also plays on the Swedish verb landa, which means to land. The 1960s and 70s saw increases in traffic with scheduled traffic, the Boeing 747 jumbojet started to be used in the 1970s, both on one-stop scheduled flights to New York and on weekend nonstop charters to the Canary Islands. Domestic flights to Gothenburg, Malmö, Luleå and Kiruna were operated by SAS DC-9s from Arlanda since they were considered too noisy to be used at downtown Bromma, the rest of domestic traffic operated out of Bromma and all international traffic out of Arlanda. In 1983 the domestic traffic operated by Linjeflyg moved from Bromma to Arlanda, in 1990 two new domestic terminals called Domestic 2 and 3 were built south of the first domestic terminal. In 1992 the terminal 2 was partly abandoned because of traffic decrease and it started to be used for international traffic the year after, and the main domestic and international terminals were renumbered into 4 and 5. The third runway was built between 1998 and 2002, however, a recession in 2002 delayed its opening until 2003. At that time protests were raised by people living under its flight path in the municipality of Upplands Väsby, traffic has recovered since and is now showing healthy increases but the third runway is only used during peak hours for environmental reasons. In September 2010 the first Airbus A380 superjumbo landed at the airport, the plans were approved by the Environmental Court of Appeals in December 2014, and construction was scheduled to commence in the spring of 2015. Arlanda has three runways, Runway 1, Runway 2 and Runway 3, Runway 1 is 3,301 m long and can handle take-offs and landings of the heaviest aircraft in use today
5.
Oslo Airport
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Oslo Airport is the main international airport serving Oslo, the capital of and most populous city in Norway. Oslo is also served by the low-cost Torp airport, Oslo Airport is the main domestic hub and international airport for Norway, and is the second-busiest airport in the Nordic countries. A hub for Scandinavian Airlines, a base for Norwegian Air Shuttle. Almost 26 million passengers traveled through the airport in 2016, making it the nineteenth-busiest airport in Europe, the airport is located 19 nautical miles northeast of Oslo, at Gardermoen in the municipality of Ullensaker, in Akershus county. It has two parallel roughly north–south runways measuring 3,600 metres and 2,950 metres and 71 aircraft stands, the airport is connected to the city center by the high-speed railway Gardermoen Line served by mainline trains and Flytoget. The percentage of using public transport to get to and from the airport is one of the highest in the world at nearly 70%. The ground facilities are owned by Oslo Lufthavn AS, a subsidiary of the state-owned Avinor, also at the premises is Gardermoen Air Station, operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force. An expansion with a new building and a third pier is scheduled to open in 2017. Oslo Airport is the largest and busiest of three international airports located around Oslo. The airport location was first used by the Norwegian Army from 1940, the Norwegian army started using Gardermoen as a camp in 1740, although it was called Fredericksfeldt until 1788. It was first used by the cavalry, then by the dragoons, the base was also taken into use by the infantry from 1834 and by the artillery from 1860. Tents were solely used until 1860, when the first barracks, insulated buildings were built around 1900, allowing the camp to be used year-round. By 1925, the base had eleven camps and groups of buildings, the first flight at Gardermoen happened in 1912, and Gardermoen became a station for military flights. However, only fields and dirt surfaces were used, during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe took over Gardermoen, and built the first proper airport facilities with hangars and two crossing runways, both 2,000 metres long. After World War II, the airport was taken over by the Norwegian Air Force, three fighter and one transport squadron were stationed at the Gardermoen. In 1946, Braathens SAFE established their base at the airport. Gardermoen also became the airport for Oslo Airport, Fornebu. From 1946 to 1952, when a runway was built at Fornebu
6.
Focus city
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In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
7.
Bergen Airport, Flesland
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Bergen Airport, Flesland is an international airport located at Flesland in Bergen, a city and municipality in Hordaland county, Norway. Opened in 1955, it is the second-busiest airport in Norway, Flesland is operated by the state-owned Avinor. Until 1999 Flesland Air Station of the Norwegian Air Force was co-located at the airport, Scandinavian Airlines, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe are the largest airlines operating at the airport. The route to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen is among the busiest in Europe, a substantial traffic is generated by CHC Helikopter Service and Bristow Norway to offshore oil platforms in the North Sea. International feeder services are provided by SAS to Copenhagen, KLM to Amsterdam, originally Bergen was served by water aerodromes at Flatøy, Sandviken and Herdla. Financing of Flesland was largely secured through NATO funds and the airport opened on 2 October 1955, until the 1980s, Bergen was the Norwegian airport used for SAS intercontinental flights to New York. A new terminal opened in 1988, the terminal is too small for todays traffic. A new terminal is scheduled for completion in 2017, by which time Bergen Light Rail will have expanded to the airport. The first aircraft to operate in Bergen was a flight by Carl Gustav Cederström on 25 September 1911. The first airport in the Bergen area was Flatøy Air Station, the water aerodrome was established in 1919, it remained in use until 1940. The aerodrome became the Bergen base for both Norwegian Air Lines and Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap, planning of an airport with an airstrip took place during the 1930s. The main alternative was Herdla, an island northern-most in Askøy, the main disadvantage with Flesland was the topography and that it would not be possible to build longer runways than 800 and 850 meters, respectively. A municipal committee recommended therefore in 1938 that Herdla be chosen, to be financed by the state. After the German occupation of Norway, the Wehrmacht started looking for a location for an airstrip and they were partially in need for a counteraction against British raids and in part in need to protect German ship traffic. Four locations were considered, Nesttun, Haukåsmyrene in Åsane, Flesland, the choice of Herdla was taken after a German bomber emergency landed in a field and was later able to take off from there. Herdla received two runways, the longest 1,000 meters long, the Civil Aviation Administration started working on plans for an airport for Bergen in 1947. Herdla was by them seen as the candidate, against based on the poor topography around Bergen. The CAA recommended that Herdla be chosen and that the two runways be expanded, at the time there was no bridge either from Herdla to Askøy nor from Askøy to the mainland, nor was there a road across the island
8.
Stavanger Airport, Sola
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Stavanger Airport, Sola is an international airport located serving Stavanger, a city and municipality in Rogaland county, Norway. The airport is located 6 NM southwest of Stavanger, in the municipality of Sola and it is Norways third-busiest airport, with both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter traffic for the offshore North Sea oil installations. In addition, the Royal Norwegian Air Force operates Westland Sea King search, the airport had 85306 air movements and 4,501,368 passengers in 2015. Five airlines offered domestic flights to nine destinations while ten airlines offered international flights to 37 destinations, two helicopter companies operate out of Sola. The busiest route is Sola–Oslo Gardermoen, which has about 28 daily flights, in the vicinity of the airport there is an aeronautical museum, Flyhistorisk Museum, Sola. Stavanger Airport, Sola is Norways second oldest airport, opened by King Haakon VII29 May 1937, the airport was the second to have a concrete runway in Europe. The airport was attacked and captured by German fallschirmjägers from 1st battalion of the 1st Regiment, the attack was over in an hour, and the airport remained in German hands for the duration of World War II. During the war, the German occupation forces and Luftwaffe expanded the airport considerably, former anti-aircraft positions are also still visible along the neighboring beach Solastranda. Sola Air Station has since been of importance for the Norwegian armed forces, but gradually lost assignments. Stavanger Airport has two terminals, one for airplanes and one for helicopters. When the present terminal was put into use 28 January 1987, it was the first airport in Norway to have jet bridges, the old terminal was then converted into a heliport. The airport has two crossing runways, the runway, north/south and the main runway for helicopters, which is oriented northwest–southeast. Expansion of the terminal took place in 2009. The new gates were built without jetbridges, the airports two largest airlines, SAS and Norwegian, showed little interest in such amenity and desired quicker turnaround times. SAS though later said that they did want jetbridges for their jet aircraft. In April 2009, Avinor decided not to build jetbridges, det Norske Luftfartsselskap started flying to Sola after the war, as did Braathens SAFE in 1946 on its routes to Europe and the Far East with the Douglas DC-3 aircraft. In 1952, Braathens SAFE received concession to fly the routes Oslo–Stavanger, Oslo–Kristiansand–Stavanger, Widerøe established itself at Sola in the late 1980s after they bought Sandefjord Airport, Torp-based Norsk Air. When the oil exploration in the Norwegian part of the North Sea started in 1967, the offshore helicopter operations were moved to the Sola in 1989
9.
Airline alliance
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An airline alliance is an aviation industry arrangement between two or more airlines agreeing to cooperate on a substantial level. Alliances may provide marketing branding to facilitate travelers making inter-airline codeshare connections within countries and this branding may involve unified aircraft liveries of member aircraft. In 2015, Star Alliance was the largest with 23% of total scheduled traffic in RPK, followed by SkyTeam with 20. 4% and Oneworld with 17. 8%, benefits can consist of, An extended network, often realised through codeshare agreements. Many alliances started as only codeshare networks, cost reduction from sharing of, sales offices maintenance facilities operational facilities, e. g. catering or computer systems. Operational staff, e. g. ground handling personnel, at check-in, investments and purchases, e. g. in order to negotiate extra volume discounts. Traveler benefits can include, lower prices due to lowered operational costs for a given route, more departure times to choose from on a given route. Shorter travel times as a result of optimised transfers, a wider range of airport lounges shared with alliance members faster mileage rewards by earning miles for a single account on several different carriers. Round-the-world tickets, enabling travelers to fly over the world for a low price. Airline alliances may also create disadvantages for the traveler, such as, less frequent flights, for instance, if two airlines separately fly three and two times a day respectively on a shared route, their alliance might fly less than 5 times a day on the same route. This might be especially true between hub cities for each airline, E. g. flights between Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The ability of an airline to join an alliance may be restricted by laws, competition law issues must also be considered in some countries. The first airline alliance was formed in the 1930s, when Panair do Brasil, the first large alliance began in 1989, when Northwest Airlines and KLM agreed to large-scale codesharing. Normally landing rights are granted for a number of flights per week to a fixed destination. Each adjustment requires negotiations, often between governments rather than between the companies involved, in return, the United States granted antitrust immunity to the alliance between Northwest Airlines and KLM. Other alliances would struggle for years to overcome the barriers and lack of antitrust immunity. The Star Alliance was founded in 1997, which brought competing airlines to form Oneworld in 1999, in 2010 Richard Branson, chairman of the Virgin Group, announced his intention to form a fourth alliance among Virgin branded airlines. Then in September 2011, Branson said that Virgin would join one of the existing alliances, in December 2012, Delta Air Lines purchased Singapore Airlines 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic for £224 million. On February 14,2013, it was announced that American Airlines and US Airways would merge, retaining the American Airlines name, US Airways participation in the Star Alliance lapsed
10.
Star Alliance
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Star Alliance is one of the worlds largest global airline alliances. Founded on 14 May 1997, its current CEO is Mark Schwab and its headquarters is in Frankfurt am Main, as of 7 August 2016, Star Alliance is the second largest global alliance by passenger count with 641.1 million, after SkyTeam and ahead of Oneworld. Its slogan is The Way The Earth Connects, the alliance has a two-tier rewards program, Silver and Gold, with incentives including priority boarding and upgrades. Like other airline alliances, Star Alliance airlines share airport terminals, on 14 May 1997, an agreement was announced forming Star Alliance from five airlines on three continents, Scandinavian Airlines, Thai Airways International, Air Canada, Lufthansa, and United Airlines. The alliance chose Young & Rubicam for advertising, with a budget of $25 million, the airlines shared the star logo from the beginning, with its five points representing the founding airlines. The alliance adopted its first slogan, The Airline Network for Earth, with its goal an alliance that will take passengers to major city on earth. The now defunct Brazilian airline VARIG joined the Star Alliance network on 22 October 1997, also joining were Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand, expanding Star Alliance to Australia and the Pacific. With the addition of the two carriers, the alliance served 720 destinations in 110 countries with a combined fleet of 1,650 aircraft. The next airline to join was All Nippon Airways, the groups second Asian airline, during the early 2000s, a number of airlines joined Star Alliance, the Austrian Airlines Group joined on 26 March 2000 and Singapore Airlines on 1 April. BMI and Mexicana Airlines joined on 1 July, bringing the membership to 13. The addition of BMI made London Heathrow the only European hub with two alliances, during the year, Emirates considered joining Star Alliance, but decided against it. That year the now-defunct BWIA West Indies Airways, which had entered an alliance with United Airlines, considered becoming a member, in 2000, the alliance also opened its first three business centers and announced the formation of an Alliance Management Team, the partnerships executive body. In September 2001, Ansett Australia left Star Alliance due to bankruptcy and that year, Star Alliance announced the appointment of a new CEO, Jaan Albrecht. Asiana Airlines joined the alliance on 1 March 2003, Spanair on 1 May, around this time, Mexicana Airlines left the alliance after deciding not to renew a codeshare agreement with United Airlines, later joining Oneworld. US Airways joined the alliance in May 2004, becoming its second US-based airline, in November Adria Airways, Blue1 and Croatia Airlines joined the alliance as its first three regional members. Although Star Alliance invited Lineas Aereas Azteca in 2005 to join in mid-2007, TAP Portugal joined on 14 March 2005, adding African destinations to the network. In April 2006 Swiss International Air Lines, the alliances sixth European airline, by May 2007, Star Alliances 10th anniversary, its members had a combined 16,000 daily departures to 855 destinations in 155 countries and served 406 million passengers annually. VARIG left the alliance on 31 January 2007, and the two Chinese airlines Air China and Shanghai Airlines joined on 12 December
11.
SAS Group
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Scandinavian Airlines System Aktiebolag, trading as SAS Group and SAS AB, is an airline holding company headquartered in the SAS Frösundavik Office Building in Solna Municipality, Sweden. It is the owner of the airlines Scandinavian Airlines, SAS used to own 19. 9% of the now defunct Spanish airline Spanair. It also owns the aviation services companies SAS Business Opportunities, SAS Cargo Group, SAS Ground Services and it holds minority ownership of Air Greenland, Estonian Air, and Skyways Express. SAS Group is partially owned by the governments of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, with a 21. 4%,14. 3%, the remaining 50% is held by private owners, of which Foundation Asset Management at 7. 6% is the only significant one. The company is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange, the Stockholm Stock Exchange, until 2001, the three national companies owned a fixed share of the SAS Group, after which the shares of the three companies were merged. The SAS Group previously has owned the Rezidor Hotel Group and Braathens and has had minority ownership of bmi, airBaltic, Thai Airways International, SAS was a founder of the Amadeus Computerised Reservation System and the Star Alliance, where several of the groups airlines are members. SAS runs the frequent flyer program EuroBonus, operations started on 17 September 1946. The companies then started coordination of European operations in 1948 and finally merged to form the current SAS Consortium in 1951, when established the airline was divided between SAS Danmark, SAS Norge, and SAS Sweden, all owned 50% by private investors and 50% by their respective governments. SAS gradually acquired control of the markets in all three countries by acquiring full or partial control of several local airlines. In May 1997 SAS formed the global Star Alliance network with Air Canada, Lufthansa, Thai Airways International, the first intercontinental flight is from Stockholm to New York. 1951 DDL, DNL, and ABA form the present SAS Consortium,1954 SAS is the worlds first airline to fly the Copenhagen - Los Angeles polar route in regular scheduled service. 1955 SILA is quoted on the Stockbrokers List in Sweden,1957 SAS is the first airline to offer round the world service over the North Pole from Copenhagen to Tokyo via Anchorage. 1959 SAS enters the jet age, the first jet aircraft, the Caravelle, is introduced in service. 1960 SAS opens its first hotel, the SAS Royal Hotel Copenhagen, SAS helps set up Thai Airways International, taking a 30% share in the joint venture. 1965 SAS is the first airline to introduce a reservation system. 1967 DNL is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange,1971 SAS puts its first Boeing 747 jumbo jet into service. 1977 SAS sells its remaining stakes in Thai Airways,1980 SAS opens its first hotel outside of Scandinavia, the SAS Kuwait Hotel. SILA is listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange,1981 SAS EuroClass is introduced on all European routes
12.
Solna Municipality
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Solna Municipality is a municipality in Stockholm County in south-east Sweden, located just north of the Stockholm City Centre. Its seat is located in the town of Solna, which is a part of the Stockholm urban area, the municipality is a part of Metropolitan Stockholm. None of the area is considered rural, which is unusual for Swedish municipalities, Solna is the third smallest municipality in Sweden in terms of area. There are two parishes in Solna Municipality, Råsunda and Solna, Solna is divided into eight traditional parts with no administrative functions, Bergshamra, Haga, Hagalund, Huvudsta, Järva, Råsunda, Skytteholm and Ulriksdal. The largest districts are Råsunda, Hagalund and Huvudsta, with the Solna Centrum in between them, the final matches of both the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 1995 FIFA Womens World Cup were played at Råsunda Stadium, the national football stadium from 1937 to 2012. Solna has very low tax rates and has attracted a range of companies and authorities. Among the most important employers are the medical university Karolinska Institutet, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute are also located in Solna. As with all 290 municipalities of Sweden, Solna has a municipal assembly, an executive committee is appointed by its members. It was served by trams until 1959, trams returned after 54 years of absence when Tvärbanan was extended from Alvik to Solna centrum. A further extension will be opened in 2014, skanska has its head office in Solna. NextJet has its office in Solna. Mall of Scandinavia has opened in November 2015 and is located in Solna, the head office of Scandinavian Airlines and SAS Group is located in Solna. The airline head office was located on the property of Stockholm Arlanda Airport in Sigtuna Municipality. Haga Park, part of the Royal National City Park, was initiated by king Gustav III, the city features three of Swedens royal palaces. Friends Arena, the Swedish national arena of association football, the Solna Church was constructed in the 12th century. For defensive purposes, it was built as a round church, the following football clubs are located in Solna, AIK Blue Hill KF Råsunda IS Vasalunds IF Solna Gymnasium is the senior high school/sixth form college of Solna
13.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
14.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
15.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
16.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
17.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
18.
Flag carrier
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The term also refers to any carrier that is or was owned by a government, even long after their privatization when preferential rights or privileges continue. Flag carriers may be known as such due to maritime law requiring all aircraft or ships to display the flag of the country of their registry. A flag carrier may also be known as an airline or a national carrier. The first definition is rooted in the fact that pursuant to Article 17 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation aircraft have the nationality of the state in which they are registered. U. S. law requires American air carriers to operate aircraft registered in the United States and most countries have similar laws. Article 3 of Tokyo Convention declares that The State of registration is competent to exercise jurisdiction over “offenses, the American definition of U. S. -flag air carrier service contained in 48 CFR47. 403-1. is based on this first definition. The U. S. requirements under the Fly America Act, are consistent with requiring that Title 18 of the United States Code would protect U. S. government employees on flights to foreign countries. The second and more broadly used definition of flag carrier is a legacy of the time when countries established state-owned airline companies, governments then took the lead due to the high capital costs of establishing and running airlines. However, not all such airlines were government-owned, Pan Am, TWA, Cathay Pacific, Union de Transports Aériens, Canadian Pacific Air Lines and Olympic Airlines were all privately owned. Most of these were considered to be flag carriers as they were the national airline. The heavily regulated aviation industry also meant aviation rights are negotiated between governments, denying airlines the right to an open market. Some countries also establish flag carriers such as Israels El Al or Lebanons Middle East Airlines for nationalist reasons, or to aid the countrys economy, in many cases, governments would directly assist in the growth of their flag carriers typically through subsidies and other fiscal incentives. The establishment of competitors in the form of other locally registered airlines may be prohibited, in the last two decades, however, many of these airlines have since been corporatized as a public company or a state-owned enterprise, or completely privatized. One of the features of such agreements is the right of a country to designate multiple airlines to serve routes with the result that there is no single flag carrier. The chart below lists airlines considered to be a carrier, based on current or former state ownership. International Air Transport Association US Maritime Administration
19.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
20.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
21.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
22.
Oslo Airport, Gardermoen
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Oslo Airport is the main international airport serving Oslo, the capital of and most populous city in Norway. Oslo is also served by the low-cost Torp airport, Oslo Airport is the main domestic hub and international airport for Norway, and is the second-busiest airport in the Nordic countries. A hub for Scandinavian Airlines, a base for Norwegian Air Shuttle. Almost 26 million passengers traveled through the airport in 2016, making it the nineteenth-busiest airport in Europe, the airport is located 19 nautical miles northeast of Oslo, at Gardermoen in the municipality of Ullensaker, in Akershus county. It has two parallel roughly north–south runways measuring 3,600 metres and 2,950 metres and 71 aircraft stands, the airport is connected to the city center by the high-speed railway Gardermoen Line served by mainline trains and Flytoget. The percentage of using public transport to get to and from the airport is one of the highest in the world at nearly 70%. The ground facilities are owned by Oslo Lufthavn AS, a subsidiary of the state-owned Avinor, also at the premises is Gardermoen Air Station, operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force. An expansion with a new building and a third pier is scheduled to open in 2017. Oslo Airport is the largest and busiest of three international airports located around Oslo. The airport location was first used by the Norwegian Army from 1940, the Norwegian army started using Gardermoen as a camp in 1740, although it was called Fredericksfeldt until 1788. It was first used by the cavalry, then by the dragoons, the base was also taken into use by the infantry from 1834 and by the artillery from 1860. Tents were solely used until 1860, when the first barracks, insulated buildings were built around 1900, allowing the camp to be used year-round. By 1925, the base had eleven camps and groups of buildings, the first flight at Gardermoen happened in 1912, and Gardermoen became a station for military flights. However, only fields and dirt surfaces were used, during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe took over Gardermoen, and built the first proper airport facilities with hangars and two crossing runways, both 2,000 metres long. After World War II, the airport was taken over by the Norwegian Air Force, three fighter and one transport squadron were stationed at the Gardermoen. In 1946, Braathens SAFE established their base at the airport. Gardermoen also became the airport for Oslo Airport, Fornebu. From 1946 to 1952, when a runway was built at Fornebu
23.
Swedish krona
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The krona has been the currency of Sweden since 1873. Both the ISO code SEK and currency sign kr are in use, the former precedes or follows the value. In English, the currency is referred to as the Swedish crown. The Swedish krona was the 11th most traded currency in the world by value in April 2013, one krona is subdivided into 100 öre. However, all öre coins have been discontinued as of 30 September 2010, goods can still be priced in öre, but all sums are rounded to the nearest krona when paying with cash. The introduction of the krona, which replaced at par the riksdaler, was a result of the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which came into effect in 1876 and lasted until the beginning of World War I. The parties to the union were the Scandinavian countries, where the name was krona in Sweden and krone in Denmark and Norway, the three currencies were on the gold standard, with the krona/krone defined as 1⁄2480 of a kilogram of pure gold. After dissolution of the union in August 1914, Sweden, Denmark. On 11 September 2012, the Riksbank announced a new series of coins with new sizes to replace the 1 and 5 kronor coins which arrived in October 2016. The design of the coins follows the theme of singer-songwriter Ted Gärdestads song, Sol, vind och vatten and this also included the reintroduction of the 2 kronor coin, while the current 10 kronor coin remained the same. The new coins also have a new portrait of the king in the design, one of the reasons for a new series of coins is to end the use of nickel. It is expected that vending machines and parking meters will to a high degree stop accepting coins. Cash is already used in Sweden, with many young people avoiding cash as much as possible. Between 1873 and 1876, coins in denominations of 1,2,5,10,25, and 50 öre and 1,2,10, and 20 kronor were introduced. The 1,2 and 5 öre were in bronze, the 10,25,50 öre and 1 krona and 2 kronor were in silver, gold 5 kronor coins were added in 1881. In 1873 the Scandinavian Monetary Union currency was fixed so that 248,000 öre purchased 1 kg of gold, in 2017 the price of gold is 365,289 kronor per kg. So one öre in 1873 bought as much gold as 1.47 krona in 2017, so if it is reasonable to have the smallest denomination coin 1 krona today, in 1873 a reasonable smallest denomination coin was 1 öre. A10 kr gold coin weighed 4.4803 grams with 900 finess so that the weight was 4.03327 grams or exactly 1/248th of a kilogram
24.
Airbus
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Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
25.
Airbus A319
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The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries up to 160 passengers and has a range of 3,700 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin. The A319 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,457 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 21 airliners are on firm order. As of 28 February 2017, EasyJet was the largest operator of the Airbus A319, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, the SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was known as the A320M-7. It would provide competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four frames fore. Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two, the bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics, power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN, with option for 105 kN thrust. With virtually the same capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers. The A319s wingspan is longer than the overall length
26.
Airbus A320 family
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The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, the A320s are also named A320ceo after the introduction of the A320neo. Final assembly of the takes place in Toulouse, France. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km, the first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988. The family was extended to include the A321, the A319, the A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction, as of 28 February 2017, a total of 7,481 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 7,157 are in service. In addition, another 5,580 airliners are on firm order and it ranked as the worlds fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, as of 28 February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 384 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737 and has competed with the 717,757, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of February 2017, a total of 5,063 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, the first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25 January 2016. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal, prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which was dominated by the 737. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, germanys MBB, British Aircraft Corporation, Swedens Saab and Spains CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications, vFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale, the design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2, which then became the Airbus S. A1/2/3 series, before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984
27.
Airbus A321
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The Airbus A321 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. It was the first derivative of the baseline Airbus A320 aircraft, final assembly of the aircraft takes place in Hamburg, Germany or Mobile, Alabama in the US. The A321 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in 1994 with Lufthansa. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,461 Airbus A321 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 275 airliners are on firm order. As of February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A321, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly lengthened fuselage A321neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The A321neo has total orders for 1,384 aircraft as of 28 February 2017, the Airbus A321 was the first derivative of the A320, also known as the Stretched A320, A320-500 and A325. Its launch came on 24 November 1988, around the time as the A320 entered service. The aircraft would be a derivative, apart from a number of minor modifications to the wing. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, the fuselage was lengthened by four plugs, giving the A321 an overall length of 6.94 metres longer than the A320. This is achieved by adding a 4.27 m front plug immediately forward of wing, to maintain performance, double-slotted flaps were included, in addition to increasing the wing area by 4 m2, to 128 m2. Other minor modifications were made to accommodate the A321-100s 9,600 kg increase in takeoff weight to 83,000 kg. The length increase required the overwing exits of the A320 to be enlarged and repositioned in front of, the A321 is the largest variant of the A320 family. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate the increase in takeoff weight of 9,600 kg. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft requested, the first of Lufthansas V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March 1994. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa, final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany. The second production line was located at Hamburg, which would subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319
28.
Airbus A330
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The Airbus A330 is a medium- to long-range wide-body twin-engine jet airliner made by Airbus, a division of Airbus Group. Versions of the A330 have a range of 5,000 to 13,430 kilometres, the A330s origin dates to the mid-1970s as one of several conceived derivatives of Airbuss first airliner, the A300. The A330 was developed in parallel with the four-engine A340, which shared many common airframe components, both airliners incorporated fly-by-wire flight control technology, first introduced on an Airbus aircraft with the A320, as well as the A320s six-display glass cockpit. In June 1987, after receiving orders from customers, Airbus launched the A330. The A330 was Airbuss first airliner that offered a choice of three engines, General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney PW4000, and Rolls-Royce Trent 700. The A330-300, the first variant, took its flight in November 1992. Airbus followed up with the slightly shorter A330-200 variant in 1998, subsequently-developed A330 variants include a dedicated freighter, the A330-200F, a military tanker, the A330 MRTT, and a corporate jet, ACJ330. Since its launch, the A330 has allowed Airbus to expand market share in wide-body airliners, competing twinjets include the Boeing 767 and 777, along with the 787, which entered service in late 2011. The long-range Airbus A350 XWB was planned to succeed both the A330 and A340, the current A330 is to be replaced by the A330neo, which includes new engines and other improvements. As of February 2017, A330 orders stand at 1,682, the largest operator is Turkish Airlines with 60 A330s in its fleet. Airbuss first airliner, the A300, was envisioned as part of a family of commercial aircraft. In pursuit of this goal, studies began in the early 1970s into derivatives of the A300, before introducing the A300, Airbus identified nine possible variations designated B1 through B9. A tenth variant, the A300B10, was conceived in 1973, Airbus then focused its efforts on single-aisle studies, conceiving a family of airliners later known as the Airbus A320 family, the first commercial aircraft with digital fly-by-wire controls. During these studies Airbus turned its focus back to the aircraft market. In the mid-1970s Airbus began development of the A300B9, a derivative of the A300. The B9 was essentially a lengthened A300 with the same wing and it was targeted at the growing demand for high-capacity, medium-range, transcontinental trunk routes. It was also considered as a successor to the A300. At the same time, a 200-seat four-engine version, the B11 was also under development, to differentiate from the SA series, the B9 and B11 were re-designated as the TA9 and TA11, with TA standing for twin aisle
29.
Airbus A340
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The Airbus A340 is a long-range, four-engine, wide-body commercial passenger jet airliner developed and produced by the European aerospace company Airbus. The A340 was assembled in Toulouse, France and it seats up to 375 passengers in the standard variants and 440 in the stretched -600 series. Depending on the model, it has a range of 6,700 to 9,000 nautical miles and its distinguishing features are four high-bypass turbofan engines and three-bogie main landing gears. The A340 was manufactured in four fuselage lengths, the initial variant, A340-300, which entered service in 1993, measured 63.69 metres. The shorter -200 was developed next, and the A340-600 was a 15.96 metres stretch of the -200, the -600 was developed alongside the shorter A340-500, which would become the longest-range commercial airliner until the arrival of the Boeing 777-200LR. The -200 and -300 models were powered by the 151 kilonewtons CFM56-5C, the initial A340-200 and -300 variants share the fuselage and wing of the twin-engine Airbus A330 with which it was concurrently designed. The heavier A340-500 and -600 are longer and have larger wings, launch customers Lufthansa and Air France placed the A340 into service in March 1993. In September 2011,379 orders had been placed, of which 375 were delivered, the most common type were the A340-300 model, with 218 aircraft delivered. Lufthansa is the biggest operator of the A340, having acquired 59 aircraft, Airbus announced on 10 November 2011 that A340 production had been concluded. When Airbus designed the Airbus A300 during the 1970s, it envisioned a broad family of airliners to compete against Boeing and Douglas, from the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the introduction of the first Airbus airliners, Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft that would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which resulted in the Airbus A320 family. The decision to work on the A320, instead of an aircraft proposed by the Germans. The A300B11, a derivative of the A310, was designed upon the availability of ten ton engines and it would seat between 180 and 200 passengers, and have a range of 6,000 nautical miles. It was deemed the replacement for the less-efficient Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s still in service, the A300B11 was joined by another design, the A300B9, which was a larger derivative of the A300. The B9 was developed by Airbus from the early 1970s at a pace until the early 1980s. It was essentially a stretched A300 with the wing, coupled with the most powerful turbofan engine at the time
30.
Boeing 737 Next Generation
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The Boeing 737 Next Generation, commonly abbreviated as 737NG, is the name given to the −600/-700/-800/-900 series of the Boeing 737 airliner. It is the third derivative of the 737, and follows the 737 Classic series. They are short- to medium-range, narrow-body jet airliners, produced since 1996 by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the 737NG series includes four variants and can seat between 110 and 210 passengers. As of December 2016, a total of 7,071 737NG aircraft have been ordered, the remaining orders are in the -700, -700 BBJ, -800, and -900ER variants. The 737NGs primary competition is with the Airbus A320 family, upgraded and re-engined models in development as the 737 MAX series are to eventually supplant the 737NG, with the first 737 MAX to be delivered in 2017. Prompted by the development of the Airbus A320, which incorporated ground-breaking technologies such as fly-by-wire, after working with potential customers, the 737 Next Generation program was announced on November 17,1993. The 737NG encompasses the −600, −700, −800 and −900 variants, the performance of the 737NG is essentially that of a new airplane, but important commonality is retained from previous 737 generations. The wing was modified, increasing its area by 25% and span by 16 ft, new quieter and more fuel-efficient CFM56-7B engines were used. These improvements combine to increase the 737s range by 900 nmi, a flight test program was operated by 10 aircraft,3 -600s,4 -700s, and 3 -800s. The interior of the 737 Next Generation also became the interior on the Boeing 757-300. In 2010, the interior of the 737 Next Generation was updated to look similar to that of the Boeing 787, known as the Boeing Sky Interior, it introduces new pivoting overhead bins, new sidewalls, new passenger service units, and LED mood lighting. Boeing also offers BSI retrofits for older 737NG aircraft, Boeings Space Bins carry 50% more than the pivoting bins, allowing a 737 to hold 174 carry-on bags. The first NG to roll out was a −700, on December 8,1996 and this aircraft, the 2, 843rd 737 built, first flew on February 9,1997 with pilots Mike Hewett and Ken Higgins. The prototype −800 rolled out on June 30,1997 and first flew on July 31,1997, piloted by Jim McRoberts, the monthly production rate could reach 57 per month in 2019, even to the factory limit of 63 later. A single airplane is produced in Boeing Renton Factory in 10 days, the empty fuselage from Spirit AeroSystems in Wichita, Kansas, enters the plant on Day 1. Electrical wiring is installed on Day 2 and hydraulic machinery on Day 3, on Day 4 the fuselage is crane-lifted and rotated 90 degrees, wings are mated to the airplane in a six-hour process, along with landing gear, and the airplane is again rotated 90 degrees. The final assembly process begins on Day 6 with the installation of seats, galleys, lavatories, overhead bins. Engines are attached on Day 8 and it rolls out of the factory for test flights on Day 10
31.
Airbus A320neo family
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The original family is now called A320ceo, for current engine option. The first flight of the A320neo took place on 25 September 2014 and it was introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Airbus has 5,063 firm orders as of February 2017, in 2006 Airbus started the A320 Enhanced programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4-5% efficiency gain with large winglets, aerodynamic refinements, weight savings and a new aircraft cabin. At the time Airbus Chief Operating Officer and executive member John Leahy said Whos going to roll over a fleet to a new aircraft for 5% better than an A320 today. Especially if another 10% improvement might be coming in the half of the next decade based on new engine technology. Engine improvements reducing fuel consumption by 1% were fitted into the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion, the winglets increase efficiency by decreasing lift-induced drag. In December 2011, Airbus filed suit in the district of Texas over Aviation Partners claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design & construction which were granted in 1993. The first Sharklet equipped A320 was delivered to Air New Zealand at the June 2013 Paris Airshow and it offers better and larger luggage storage. The flight crew controls the cabin through touchscreen displays, with larger, Cabin-Flex relocated exit doors, it allows up to 20 more passengers for the A321neo without putting more sardines in the can, and up to 9 more passengers for the A320neo. Fuel efficiency per seat is increased by 6% with this option, in total exceeding 20% together with the new engines, the moved and enlarged exit doors are estimated to add 100 kg empty weight. At the February 2010 Singapore Air Show, Airbus said its decision to launch was scheduled for the July 2010 Farnborough Air Show and it wasnt still decided in August but the choice for new engines included the CFM International LEAP-1A and the Pratt & Whitney PW1100G. On 1 December 2010, Airbus launched the A320neo New Engine Option with a range of 500 nmi or 2 t of extra payload. Initially scheduled for spring 2016, introduction was advanced to October 2015, Airbus announces a 15% fuel saving thanks to those latest-generation engines and large sharklet wingtip devices, keeping over 95% airframe commonality with the current A320. In March 2013, airlines choices between the two engines were almost equal and its commonality helped to reduce delays associated with large changes. A rearranged cabin allows up to 20 more passengers enabling in total over 20% lower fuel consumption per seat, the first Airbus A320neo rolled out of the Toulouse factory on 1 July 2014 and first flight was scheduled to September 2014. Its first flight occurred on 25 September 2014 and its Pratt & Whitney PW1100G-JM geared turbofan engine was certified by the Federal Aviation Administration on 19 December 2014. A first flight on schedule is unusual for most recent airliner developments like competitors Bombardier CSeries, Comac C919, Irkut MS-21, first delivery slipped to early 2016. Lufthansa has taken delivery of the first A320neo on 20 January 2016, the A320neo is half as loud than an A320 at take-off with a 85 decibel noise footprint
32.
ATR 72
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The ATR72 is a twin-engine turboprop short-haul regional airliner manufactured by the French-Italian aircraft manufacturer ATR. It was developed as a variant of the ATR42. It has been employed as a regional airliner, although other roles have been performed by the type such as corporate transport, cargo aircraft. Successive models of the ATR72 have been introduced, an aircraft can seat up to 78 passengers in a single-class configuration. The 72 was announced in 1986, made its flight on 27 October 1988. A tail stand must be installed when passengers are boarding or disembarking in case the nose lifts off the ground, the ATR72 is powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100-based turboprop engines with four or six-bladed propellers supplied by Hamilton Standard. The aircraft does not have a power unit as normally equipped. The APU is an option and would be placed in the C4 cargo section, at the end of 2014, ATR had received 1000 orders for the type and delivered 754, leaving a backlog of 246 aircraft. Although expressing his satisfaction with the current engine and supplier, Castelbajac noted the designs age, to be worthwhile, any re-engine would require a 15% improvement in fuel-burn and 20-25% reduction of direct maintenance costs. Castelbajac sees the potential re-engine as a bridge to the development of a larger 100-seat aircraft. Two sub-types were marketed as the 100 series, ATR 72–101 Initial production variant with front and rear passenger doors, powered by two PW124B engines and certified in September 1989. ATR 72–102 Initial production variant with a front cargo door and a passenger door. Two sub-types were marketed as the 200 series, the −200 was the original production version, powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PW124B engines rated at 2,400 shp. ATR 72–201 Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −101, a PW124B-powered variant certified in September 1989, ATR 72–202 Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −102, a PW124B-powered variant certified in December 1989. Two sub-types were marketed as the 210 series, the −211, is a −200 with PW127 engines producing 2,750 shp each for improved performance in hot, the sub-types differ in the type of doors and emergency exits ATR 72–211 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992. ATR 72–212 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992, certified in January 1997 and fitted with either PW127F or PW127M engines, the −212A is an upgraded version of the −210 using six-bladed propellers on otherwise identical PW127F engines. Other improvements include higher maximum weights and superior performance, as well as automation of power management to ease pilot workload. ATR 72–500 Initial marketing name for the ATR 72-212A, ATR 72–600 Marketing name for ATR 72-212A with different equipment fit
33.
Bombardier CRJ700 series
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The Bombardier CRJ700, CRJ900, and CRJ1000 are regional airliners manufactured by Bombardier and based on the CRJ200. Final assembly of the aircraft is at Montréal-Mirabel International Airport in Mirabel, Quebec, outside Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It accounts for over 20% of all jet departures in North America and globally the family more than 200,000 flights per month. Design work on the CRJ700 by Bombardier started in 1995 and the programme was launched in January 1997. The CRJ700 is a stretched 70-seat derivative of the CRJ200, seating ranges from 66 to 78 for the CRJ700 versions, however. The CRJ700 features a new wing leading edge slats and a stretched and slightly widened fuselage. The early build aircraft were equipped with two General Electric CF34-8C1 engines, however, later build aircraft are now equipped standard with the -8C5 model, which is essentially an uprated 8C1. Most airlines have replaced the engines with the newer model. Maximum speed is Mach 0.85 at an altitude of 12,500 m. Depending upon payload, the CRJ700 can travel up to 3,620 km with original engines, the CRJ700 comes in three versions, Series 700, Series 701, and Series 702. The 700 is limited to 68 passengers, the 701 to 70 passengers, the CRJ700 also has three fuel/weight options, standard, ER, and LR. The ER version has an increase in capacity as well as maximum weight. The LR increases those values further, the executive version is marketed as the Challenger 870. Its first flight took place on 27 May 1999, the aircrafts FAA Type Certificate designation is the CL-600-2C10. The CRJ700 first entered service with Brit Air in 2001. The CRJ700 directly competes with the Embraer 170, which typically seats 70 passengers, in 2006, the CRJ700 was featured in Microsoft Flight Simulator X as one of the demo aircraft. In 2008, the CRJ700 was replaced with the CRJ700 NextGen, featuring improved economics, in January 2011, SkyWest Airlines ordered four CRJ700 NextGen aircraft. The CRJ900 is a stretched 76–90 seat version of the CRJ700, the aircraft features two GE CF34-8C5 engines,59.4 kN thrust with APR, and added leading edge slats
34.
Consortium
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Consortium is a Latin word, meaning partnership, association or society and derives from consors partner, itself from con- together and sors fate, meaning owner of means or comrade. The Big Ten Academic Alliance and Five Colleges, Inc. along with the Claremont Consortium are among the oldest and most successful higher education consortia in the United States. The Big Ten Academic Alliance, formerly known as the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, the participants in Five Colleges, Inc. are, Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Another example of a successful consortium is the Five Colleges of Ohio of Ohio, Oberlin College, Ohio Wesleyan University, Kenyon College, College of Wooster and Denison University. These consortia have pooled the resources of their colleges and the universities to share human and material assets as well as to link academic. An example of a non-profit consortium is the Appalachian College Association located in Richmond, the association consists of 35 private liberal arts colleges and universities spread across the central Appalachian mountains in Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Collectively these higher education institutions serve approximately 42,500 students, six research universities in the region are affiliated with the ACA. These institutions assist the ACA in reviewing grant and fellowship applications, conducting workshops, the ACA works to serve higher education in the rural regions of these five states. An example of a for-profit consortium is a group of banks that collaborate to make a loan—also known as a syndicate and this type of loan is more commonly known as a syndicated loan. In England it is common for a consortium to buy out financially struggling football clubs in order to them out of liquidation. Hulu, the American video streaming service, is owned by a consortium of media conglomerates including Time Warner, 21st Century Fox, Comcast. Airbus Industries was formed in 1970 as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, the retention of production and engineering assets by the partner companies in effect made Airbus Industries a sales and marketing company. This arrangement led to inefficiencies due to the inherent conflicts of interest that the four partner companies faced, the companies collaborated on development of the Airbus range, but guarded the financial details of their own production activities and sought to maximize the transfer prices of their sub-assemblies. In 2001, EADS and BAE Systems transferred their Airbus production assets to a new company, in return, they got 80% and 20% shares respectively. BAE would later sell its share to EADS, coopetition is a word coined from cooperation and competition. It is used when companies otherwise competitors collaborate in a consortium to cooperate on areas non-strategic for their core businesses and they prefer to reduce their costs on these non-strategic areas and compete on other areas where they can differentiate better. For example, the GENIVI Alliance is a consortium between different car makers in order to ease building an in-vehicle infotainment system. Another example is the World Wide Web Consortium, which is a consortium that standardizes web technologies like HTML, XML, joint venture This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. passim
35.
Transatlantic flight
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A transatlantic flight is the flight of an aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from Europe, Africa or the Middle East to North America, Central America, South America, or vice versa. Such flights have been made by fixed-wing aircraft, airships, balloons, early aircraft engines did not have the reliability needed for the crossing, nor the power to lift the required fuel. There are difficulties navigating over featureless expanses of water for thousands of miles, since the middle of the 20th century, however, transatlantic flight has been routine, for commercial, military, diplomatic, and other purposes. Experimental flights still present challenges for transatlantic fliers, the idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the balloon. The balloons of the period were inflated with gas, a moderate lifting medium compared to hydrogen or helium. In 1859, John Wise built an enormous aerostat named the Atlantic, the flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in Henderson, New York. Lowe prepared a massive balloon of 725,000 cubic feet called the City of New York to take off from Philadelphia in 1860, the possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged after the First World War, which had seen tremendous advances in aerial capabilities. In April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to The competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918. Between 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane NC-4 made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U. S. to Newfoundland, then to the Azores and on to mainland Portugal, the whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 station ships across the Atlantic gave the points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it more than 72 consecutive hours. With the war over, there were four teams competing to be the first non-stop across the Atlantic and they were Australian pilot Harry Hawker with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single engine Sopwith Atlantic, Frederick Raynham and C. W. F. Morgan in a Martinsyde, the Handley Page Group, led by Mark Kerr, each group had to ship its aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the take off. Hawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18 May, Raynham and Morgan also made an attempt on 18 May but crashed on take off due to the high fuel load. The Handley Page team was in the stages of testing its aircraft for the flight in June. During 14–15 June 1919, the British aviators Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, Alcocks enthusiasm impressed Vickerss team, and he was appointed as its pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the flight, replacing its bomb racks with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post, Alcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines
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