1.
Guys and Dolls
–
Guys and Dolls is a musical with music and lyrics by Frank Loesser and book by Jo Swerling and Abe Burrows. The premiere on Broadway was in 1950 and it ran for 1200 performances and won the Tony Award for Best Musical. The musical has had several Broadway and London revivals, as well as a 1955 film adaptation starring Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra, Guys and Dolls was selected as the winner of the 1951 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. Guys and Dolls was conceived by producers Cy Feuer and Ernest Martin as an adaptation of Damon Runyons short stories and these stories, written in the 1920s and 1930s, concerned gangsters, gamblers, and other characters of the New York underworld. Runyon was known for the dialect he employed in his stories, mixing highly formal language. Frank Loesser, who had spent most of his career as a lyricist for movie musicals, was hired as composer, George S. Kaufman was hired as director. When the first version of the book, or dialogue, written by Jo Swerling was deemed unusable, Feuer. Loesser had already much of the score to correspond with the first version of the book. Burrows would recall as follows, Frank Loessers fourteen songs were all great, later on, the critics spoke of the show as integrated. The word integration usually means that the composer has written songs that follow the story line gracefully, well, we accomplished that but we did it in reverse. The character of Miss Adelaide was created specifically to fit Vivian Blaine into the musical, when Loesser suggested reprising some songs in the second act, Kaufman warned, If you reprise the songs, we’ll reprise the jokes. A pantomime of never-ceasing activities depicts the hustle and bustle of New York City, three small-time gamblers, Nicely-Nicely Johnson, Benny Southstreet, and Rusty Charlie, argue over which horse will win a big race. The band members of the Save-a-Soul Mission, led by the pious and beautiful Sergeant Sarah Brown, call for sinners to Follow the Fold, Nicely and Bennys employer, Nathan Detroit, runs an illegal floating crap game. Due to local policeman Lt. Brannigans strong-armed police activity, he has only one likely spot to hold the game. However, the owner, Joey Biltmore, requires a $1,000 security deposit, Nathan hopes to get $1,000 by winning a bet against Sky Masterson, a gambler willing to bet on virtually anything. Nathan proposes a bet which he believes he cannot lose, Sky must take a doll of Nathans choice to dinner in Havana, Sky agrees, and Nathan chooses Sarah Brown. At the mission, Sky claims he wants to be saved and he offers Sarah a deal, He will bring the mission one dozen genuine sinners if she will accompany him to Havana the next night. Sarah rebuffs him, telling him that she plans to fall in love with an upright, Sky replies that he plans on being surprised when he falls in love
2.
Theatrical scenery
–
Theatrical scenery is that which is used as a setting for a theatrical production. The history of theatrical scenery is as old as the theatre itself, what we tend to think of as traditional scenery, i. e. By the Shakespearean era, the painted backdrop or theatrical prop was in evidence. However, this means that todays set designers must be much more careful. Our more modern notion of scenery, which dates back to the 19th century, finds its origins in the spectacle of opera buffa. Its elaborate settings were appropriated by the straight, or dramatic, theatre, through their use in comic operettas, burlesques, pantomimes and the like. Everything came together in the 1980s and 1990s and, continuing to today, until there is no established style of scenic production, modern stagecraft has grown so complex as to require the highly specialized skills of hundreds of artists and craftspeople to mount a single production. The construction of scenery is frequently one of the most time-consuming tasks when preparing for a show. As a result, many theatres have a place for storing scenery so that it can be used for multiple shows, since future shows typically are not known far in advance, theatres will often construct stock scenery that can be easily adapted to fit a variety of shows. Common stock scenery types include, Curtains Flats Platforms Scenery wagons Production sets Scenic design Set construction Scenography
3.
Theatre
–
The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence, the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι. Modern theatre, broadly defined, includes performances of plays and musical theatre, there are connections between theatre and the art forms of ballet, opera and various other forms. The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated, participation in the city-states many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member in particular—was an important part of citizenship. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture, Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play, the origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle, the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10, the stage consisted of a dancing floor, dressing room and scene-building area. Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics, the actors wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institution alised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus. As contestants in the City Dionysias competition playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays, the performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE, official records begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics, Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the surviving plays of Aristophanes. New Comedy is known primarily from the papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster. In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyrs themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal companions, often engaging in drunken revelry
4.
Stage (theatre)
–
In theatre and performing arts, the stage is a designated space for the performance of productions. The stage serves as a space for actors or performers and a point for the members of the audience. As an architectural feature, the stage may consist of a platform or series of platforms, in some cases, these may be temporary or adjustable but in theaters and other buildings devoted to such productions, the stage is often a permanent feature. There are several types of stages that vary as to the usage, the most common form found in the West is the proscenium stage. In this type, the audience is located on one side of the stage with the remaining sides hidden and used by the performers and technicians. Thrust stages may be similar to proscenium stages but with a platform or performance area that extends into the space so that the audience is located on three sides. In theatre in the round, the audience is located on all four sides of the stage, the fourth type of stage incorporates created and found stages which may be constructed specifically for a performance or may involve a space that is adapted as a stage. Since the Italian Renaissance, the most common used in the West has been the proscenium stage which may also be referred to as a picture frame stage. The primary feature is an opening known as the proscenium arch through which the audience views the performance. The audience directly faces the stage—which is typically raised several feet above front row audience level—and views only one side of the scene and this one side is commonly known as the invisible fourth wall of the scene. The proscenium arch evolved from the proskenium in Ancient Greek theaters and this was the space in front of the skênê or backdrop where the actors actually played. Stage floors were raked upward slightly from front to back in order to contribute to the illusion and also to make actors more visible to audiences. Subsequently, audience seating was raked, and balconies were added to give audiences a fuller view, by the end of the 19th century most stages had level floors, and much of the audience looked down on, rather than up to, the stage. The competition among royals to produce elegant and elaborate entertainments fueled and financed the expansion of European court theatres, the proscenium—which often was extremely decorative in the manner of a triumphal arch—framed the prospective picture. A wood grid above the stage supported pulleys from which wooden battens, the weight of heavy pieces was counterbalanced by sandbags. This system required the creation of a stage house or loft that was usually as high or higher than the proscenium itself. Theatres using these systems, which are manually operated by stage hands, are known as hemp houses. They have been supplanted by counterweight fly systems
5.
Caster
–
A caster is a wheeled device typically mounted to a larger object that enables relatively easy rolling movement of the object. Casters are essentially special housings that includes a wheel, facilitating the installation of wheels on objects, Casters are found virtually everywhere, from office desk chairs to shipyards, from hospital beds to automotive factories. They range in size from the very small furniture casters to massive industrial casters, Wheel materials include cast iron, plastic, rubber, polyurethane, forged steel, stainless steel, aluminum, and more. Casters comprise two categories, a swivel caster pivots around a kingpin, so it rotates as well as rolls, while a rigid caster has its wheel mounted in a fixed frame, or rig. This type of caster allows for movement in multiple directions and they can have one or two sets of raceways that allow the caster to swivel 360 degrees under a load. Kingpin-less casters, This caster does not have a bolt and nut kingpin, the raceways are a one piece construction forged together. This design is extremely durable and can be used in abusive applications, hollow Kingpin casters, This type of caster has a tubular rivet that holds the caster together. The hole in the rivet can accept a bolt or a stem for any type of mounting requirement. Plate casters, This is the most common type of means to mount a caster to a unit and is called the top plate. Most mounting plates contain four holes used to bolt the caster to the unit, top plates are offered with various hole patterns to match numerous types of mounting requirements. Stem casters, This type caster can have various styles to be used to mount the caster to a unit. Some common types of stems are threaded, round or square with mounting holes and this style of caster only allows forward and backward movement. Rigid casters tend to be stronger than swivel casters and they are rated at the same capacity as the swivel casters for safety reasons. They can be a one piece construction or a two piece construction that is riveted or welded. The key dimensions to consider when determining the type of caster and caster size for a particular type of equipment and application are its overall height, swivel radius. The key elements of a caster include the following, Mount, a caster top plate allows the caster to be bolted to the underside of the equipment. A caster stem may screw into place or ‘snap’ into place, Casters may also have a bracket allowing the caster to be mounted to vertical panels. Swivel head, A rigid caster allows single back and forth direction, a swivel caster allows for 360 degree directional movement
6.
Fly system
–
Systems are typically designed to fly components between clear view of the audience and out of view, into the large opening, fly loft, above the stage. Fly systems are used in conjunction with other theatre systems, such as scenery wagons, stage lifts and stage turntables. Theatrical rigging is most prevalent in proscenium theatres with stage houses designed specifically to handle the significant dead, building, occupational safety, and fire codes limit the types and quantity of rigging permitted in a theatre based on stage configuration. Theatrical rigging standards are developed and maintained by such as USITT. The line set is the machine of a typical fly system. The function of a line set is to fly a slender beam known as a batten by hoisting it with lift lines. By hanging scenery, lighting, or other equipment to a batten, a batten is said to be flying in when it is being lowered toward the stage, and flying out when it is being raised into the fly space. Battens may be just a few feet in length or may extend from one wing of the stage to the other, a batten is suspended from above by at least two lift lines, but long battens may require six or more lift lines. In manual rigging, a line set’s lift lines support weights opposite their connections to the batten in order to balance the weight of the batten and whatever it carries. The lift lines are reeved through a series of pulleys, known as blocks, an operating line allows riggers on the fly crew to raise and lower the batten. Automated rigging sometimes uses weights to help balance line set loads in a similar to manual counterweight rigging. Otherwise it relies solely on the power of an electric hoist to fly a line set. Together, a series of line sets regularly spaced up and down stage, commonly at 6 in,8 in, or 9 in centers. Theatrical rigging systems are made up of hemp, counterweight and/or automated line sets able to serve various functions, Line sets are typically general purpose in function, meaning they can perform any number of functions which vary depending upon the requirements of a particular theatre production. For example, a general purpose line set can usually be quickly transformed into a drapery or scenery line set, when a line set has a predetermined, relatively permanent, function it is known as a dedicated line set. Line sets are sometimes dedicated to particular draperies, such as the curtain and main border that mask the proscenium opening. Scenery line set In many stage productions, theatrical scenery is mounted to line sets in order to be flown in, for example, painted soft and hard flats and are commonly used to depict settings. Also, three-dimensional sets may be flown, Electrical line set Electrical line sets, commonly called electrics, are used to suspend and control lighting instruments and, in many cases, microphones and special effects equipment as well
7.
Elevator
–
An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between floors of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, in agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes screw, or the chain, languages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new multistory buildings. The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a hemp rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the Book of Secrets by al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of a lifting device. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the buildings of England. Louis XV of France had a flying chair built for one of his mistresses at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743. Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists or winders, the invention of a system based on the screw drive was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by Ivan Kulibin and installed in Winter Palace in 1793, several years later another of Kulibins elevators was installed in Arkhangelskoye near Moscow. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including coal, the technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with steam power and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. It elevated paying customers to a height in the center of London. Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the decade, – in 1835 an innovative elevator called the Teagle was developed by the company Frost. The elevator was belt-driven and used a counterweight for extra power, the hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the steam driven elevators, exploiting Pascals law. A water pump supplied a variable level of pressure to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder. Counterweights and balances were used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus
8.
Wedge (mechanical device)
–
A wedge is a triangular shaped tool, and is a portable inclined plane, and one of the six classical simple machines. It can be used to two objects or portions of an object, lift up an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt end into forces perpendicular to its inclined surfaces, the mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width. Although a short wedge with an angle may do a job faster. Perhaps the first example of a wedge is the axe, also see biface. Wedges have been around for thousands of years, they were first made of simple stone, a hand axe is made by chipping stone, generally flint, to form a bifacial edge, or wedge. A wedge is a machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force. The available power is limited by the effort of the using the tool, but because power is the product of force and movement. This amplification, or mechanical advantage is the ratio of the speed to output speed. For a wedge this is given by 1/tanα, where α is the tip angle, the faces of a wedge are modeled as straight lines to form a sliding or prismatic joint. The origin of the wedge is not known, in ancient Egyptian quarries, bronze wedges were used to break away blocks of stone used in construction. Wooden wedges that swelled after being saturated with water, were also used, some indigenous peoples of the Americas used antler wedges for splitting and working wood to make canoes, dwellings and other objects. Wedges are used to lift objects, separating them from the surface upon which they rest. Consider a block that is to be lifted by a wedge, as the wedge slides under the block, the block slides up the sloped side of a wedge. This lifts the weight FB of the block, the horizontal force FA needed to lift the block is obtained by considering the velocity of the wedge vA and the velocity of the block vB. The velocity of the block is related to the velocity of the wedge by the slope of the side of the wedge. If the angle of the wedge is α then v B = v A tan α, thus, the smaller the angle α the greater the ratio of the lifting force to the applied force on the wedge. This is the advantage of the wedge
9.
Lever
–
A lever is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the location of fulcrum, load and effort and it is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide an output force. The ratio of the force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. The word lever entered English about 1300 from Old French, in which the word was levier and this sprang from the stem of the verb lever, meaning to raise. The verb, in turn, goes back to the Latin levare, itself from the adjective levis, the words primary origin is the Proto-Indo-European stem legwh-, meaning light, easy or nimble, among other things. The PIE stem also gave rise to the English word light, the earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by Archimedes. Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth with it is a remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical principle of levers. The distance required to do this might be exemplified in astronomical terms as the distance to the Circinus galaxy - about 9 million light years. It is assumed that in ancient Egypt, constructors used the lever to move, a lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. This is known as the law of the lever, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance of moments or torque, T, about the fulcrum. T1 = F1 a, T2 = F2 b where F1 is the force to the lever. The distances a and b are the distances between the forces and the fulcrum. Since the moments of torque must be balanced, T1 = T2, the mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force, M A = F2 F1 = a b. Levers are classified by the positions of the fulcrum, effort. It is common to call the force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance
10.
Hinge
–
A hinge is a mechanical bearing that connects two solid objects, typically allowing only a limited angle of rotation between them. Two objects connected by an ideal hinge rotate relative to each other about an axis of rotation. Hinges may be made of material or of moving components. In biology, many joints function as hinges like the elbow joint, there are many types of door hinges. The main types include, Spring hinge which is a hinge made to provide assistance in the closing or the opening of the hinge leaves. A spring is a component of a hinge, that force to secure a hinge closed or keep a hinge opened. Barrel hinge which is a sectional barrel secured by a pivot, pivot hinges which pivot in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame. Also referred to as a double-acting floor hinge and this type is found in ancient dry stone buildings and rarely in old wooden buildings. These are also called haar-hung doors and they are a low cost alternative for use light weight doors. Butt/Mortise hinges usually in threes or fours, which are inset into the door, most residential hinges found in the U. S. are made of steel, although mortise hinges for exterior doors are often made of brass or stainless steel to prevent corrosion. Case hinges Case hinges are similar to a butt hinge however usually more of a nature most commonly used in suitcases, briefcases. Continuous hinges, or piano hinges This type of hinge is also known as a piano hinge and it runs the entire length of the door, panel, or box. Continuous hinges are manufactured with or without holes and these hinges also come in various thicknesses, pin diameters, and knuckle lengths. Concealed hinges Used for furniture doors and they are made of two parts, One part is the hinge cup and the arm, the other part is the mounting plate. Also called cup hinge, or Euro hinge, as they were developed in Europe, most such concealed hinges offer the advantage of full in situ adjustability for standoff distance from the cabinet face as well as pitch and roll by means of two screws on each hinge. Butterfly hinges, or Parliament Hinges These were known as dovetail hinges from the 17th century onwards and can be found on old desks and cabinets from about 1670 until the 18th century. The form of these hinges varied slightly between manufacturers, and their size ranged from the large for heavy doors to the tiniest decorative hinge for use on jewellery boxes. Many hinges of this type were exported to America to support the home trades limited supply and they are still found to be both fairly cheap and decorative, especially on small items
11.
Clamp (tool)
–
A clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure. There are many types of available for many different purposes. Some are temporary, as used to position components while fixing them together, in the field of animal husbandry, using a clamp to attach an animal to a stationary object is known as rounded clamping. A physical clamp of this type is used to refer to an obscure investment banking term. Anything that performs the action of clamping may be called a clamp and these clamps are used to position components temporarily for various tasks, Band clamp or web clamp Bar clamp, F-clamp or sliding clamp Bench clamp The bench forms the fixed jaw. Forked clamp stainless steel for ST ground glass joints with/without setscrew, sizes for, ST14,19,24,29 änd 45. Gluing and Clamping, A Woodworker’s Handbook
12.
Brake
–
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp, most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight, notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a speed in a steep descent. The Saab B17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake, Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake, when the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down, Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. Typically the term brake is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes. Friction brakes are often rotating devices with a pad and a rotating wear surface. Other brake configurations are used, but less often, a drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel hub, drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the rear of some low-cost newer vehicles, compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat
13.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
14.
Scenic design
–
Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish a visual concept for the production. All of these required drawing elements can be created from one accurate 3-D CAD model of the set design. Scenic designers are responsible for creating models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations. Prague, CZ What is Scenography Article illustrating the differences between US and European theatre design practices Special, WhatLinksHere/Julia Anastasopoulos
15.
Stagecraft
–
Stagecraft is the technical aspect of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, make-up, stage management, audio engineering, stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than a field, it is primarily the practical implementation of a scenic designers artistic vision. In its most basic form, stagecraft may be executed by a person who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director, modern stagecraft is highly technical and specialized, it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. Greeks were the earliest recorded practitioners of stagecraft, Skene is Greek, translating roughly into scene or scenery, and refers to a large scenic house, about one story tall, with three doors. On the audience-side of the Skene, what are now known as flats could be hung. Flats developed to two-sided painted flats which would be mounted, centered, on a pin, with rope running around each consecutive pin. The double-sided-flat eventually evolved into the periaktos, over 20 such scenic inventions can be traced back to the Greeks. No light but that of the sun was used, plays started at sun-rise, plays of Medieval times were held in different places such as the streets of towns and cities, performed by traveling, secular troupes. Some were also held in monasteries, performed by church-controlled groups, the playing place could represent many different things such as indoors or outdoors. They were played in places so the props could be used for the play. Songs and spectacles were often used in plays to enhance participation, more modern stagecraft was in developed in England between 1576–1642. There were three different types of theaters in London – public, private and court, the size and shape varied but many were suggested to be round theaters. Most of the theatres had circular-design, with an area above the pit to allow sunlight to enter. It was an admission to stand in the pit. Court plays were used for holidays and special occasions, Lighting of the period would have consisted of candles, used as foot-lights, and hanging from chandeliers above the stage. Stagecraft during the Victorian era in England developed rapidly with the emergence of the West End, prompted by and influx of urbanites in the greater London area, Parliament was forced to do away with previous licensing laws and allowed all theatres to perform straight plays in 1843
16.
Scene shop
–
A scenery shop or scene shop is a specialized workshop found in many medium or large theaters, as well as many educational theatre settings. The primary function of a shop is to fabricate and assemble the flats, platforms, scenery wagons. Commonly, a shop is also the location where most of the set painting is done. It is common for the working in a scene shop to be knowledgeable in a wide variety of technical skills. Scenic studios also sometimes make elements for museum booths, touring concerts, although many scene shops are located in general purpose building, most are in purpose built spaces because scenic fabrication has some fairly specific needs. Often they are in large, open rooms, to accommodate big elements that a show may call for. They are usually attached directly to a dock for delivery of materials. If they are attached to a venue, it is also common to have large doors providing access to the stage. Typically, compressed air and dust collection systems are distributed around the shop, many processes in a scene shop such as spray painting, welding, or hot-wire foam cutting produce dangerous gasses, so often extra ventilation is installed. Ideally, fume collection systems are available to use near the actual workpiece, Power is usually available in floor pockets or dropped from the ceiling, in a variety of voltages, as some tools, especially welders require high voltages. Often, scene shops have designated areas inside for paints, carpentry, metalwork, circular saws Table saw Power drills Screwdrivers Hammers Miter saws Welder Cutoff grinder Power sander Showers
17.
Set construction
–
The set designer produces a scale model, scale drawings, paint elevations, and research about props, textures, and so on. In theater, the director or production manager is the person responsible for evaluating the finished designs and considering budget. He or she engineers the scenery, has it redrafted for building, budgets time, crew and materials, technical directors often have assistant technical directors whose duties can range from drafting to actually building scenery. A scene shop, in production is often overseen by a shop foreman or master carpenter. This person assigns tasks, does direct supervision of carpenters, and deals with matters such as absences, breaks, tool repair. The staff of a shop is usually referred to as scenic carpenters, but within that there are many specialities such as plasterers, welders. Scenic painting is an aspect of scenic construction, although the scenic painter usually answers to the technical director. In major film production in England, a Supervising Art Director is responsible for a team of Art Directors, Construction supervisors interpret the drawings and allocate labor and resources, with the Production Designer giving approval of the finished set on the Directors behalf. Film construction is rigidly compartmentalized on major motion pictures, a prop making workshop is set up in a similar stage and may be paid for out of a Construction or Art Department budget depending on the nature and size of the props in question. The construction department is led by a construction coordinator, the coordinator reports to the art director and production designer and is in charge of budgeting and implementing designs. The construction coordinator has a general foreman to assist, next there are other foremen, lead carpenters called gang bosses, and then all of the carpenters and craftsmen. In the United States, set construction workers are members of the entertainment union, IATSE. Sound stage Stagecraft Staging Theatrical scenery Film sculptor
18.
Batten (theater)
–
In theaters, a batten is a long metal pipe suspended above the stage or audience from which lighting fixtures, theatrical scenery, and theater drapes and stage curtains may be hung. Battens that are located above a stage can usually be lowered to the stage or raised into a fly tower above the stage by a fly system, an electric is a batten that incorporates electrical cables above the pipe, often enclosed in a raceway. It typically has power cables for lights and DMX512 data cable for lighting control, the cables emerge from one end of the batten and continue through a snake to dimmers, control boards, or patchbays. All cable plugs have identifying numbers printed on them so that they can be referenced by the lighting control system. Loaded electrics are among the heaviest types of battens, often weighing more than a thousand pounds, electrics will often employ large loops of spring steel that extend outward to prevent adjacent battens from colliding with and damaging the lighting instruments. Electrics generally have an established trim height so that focusing is consistent, a drapery pipe may support front curtains, tormentor legs, borders, or tabs. Stage-width drapes can be heavy, weighing hundreds of pounds. Legs or borders are usually lighter as they may use less fabric and are not usually very thick, many theaters have built in shells designed to reflect sound produced on stage back into the audience. These shells often include large folding panels which can be flown in, elements of the set which are relatively flat or light can be flown in on battens. Some theatres use spare battens to store unneeded scenery or lighting instruments and this practice is generally discouraged due to the hazard created by overhead storage. Some theaters do not employ this system, and instead use a network of pipes accessible from catwalks above the stage. Rig Fly system Fly captain Holloway, John, burlington, MA, Elsevier Science & Technology
19.
Theater drapes and stage curtains
–
Theater drapes and stage curtains are large pieces of cloth that are designed to mask backstage areas of a theater from spectators. Theater drapes represent a portion of any productions soft goods, a category includes any cloth-based element of the stage or scenery. Proscenium stages use a variety of drapes than arena or thrust stages. In proscenium theaters, drapes are typically suspended from battens that are controlled by a fly system. The front curtain, which is called a grand drape, act curtain, house curtain, house drape, main drape, main rag, or, in the UK, tabs, hangs downstage. It is typically opened and closed during performances to reveal or conceal the stage, there are several types of front curtains, which may consist of a single section or two sections, of fabric that may be pleated or flat. Depending on the type, front curtains may travel horizontally or vertically, in the case of front curtains that travel vertically, some types gather near the top of the proscenium when opened, while others are raised into the fly space above the stage. Hard teasers and tormentors are flat, horizontal and vertical pieces that are located just upstage of the grand drape, together, one hard teaser and a pair of tormentors are frequently used to form a reduced-size false proscenium within the frame of the actual theater proscenium. Hard teasers and tormentors are typically covered with plywood, which in turn is covered with dark colored. The teaser is usually flown from a dedicated batten so that its height can be adjusted so as to optimize its masking of the flies. In the UK this teaser is usually referred to as the House Header, in some productions, a show portal is used in place of a false proscenium. This is a frame for the stage which also serves to mask backstage areas, just as a teaser. Legs are tall, narrow stage drapes that are used to mask the wings on either side of the stage. Borders, are wide, short draperies that span the width of the stage, legs and borders are typically made from a heavy, light-absorbing material similar to that of other stage drapes. Typically, a set of two legs, one on side of the stage, and one border, is used to form a complete masking frame around the stage. Several such sets of legs and borders are typically employed at varying distances upstage from the proscenium, travelers are curtains onstage which can open and close. Drapes that hang at the sides of the perpendicular to the proscenium opening to mask the wings are known as Tabs. In the UK, these curtains have other names, often Up & Downers, a scrim, sometimes gauze, is a curtain made of an open-weave fabric that appears opaque when lit from the front, but transparent when a person or object behind the curtain is lit
20.
Flat (theatre)
–
A flat or coulisse is a flat piece of theatrical scenery which is painted and positioned on stage so as to give the appearance of buildings or other background. Flats can be covered or hard covered. Soft-covered flats have changed little from their origin in the Italian Renaissance, flats with a frame that places the width of the lumber parallel to the face are called Broadway or stage flats. Hard-covered flats with a frame that is perpendicular to the paint surface are referred to as Hollywood or studio flats, rails are the top and bottom framing members of a flat. Rails run the width of the flat. Stiles are the members of the frame. The length of the stiles is the height of the flat. Toggles are horizontal cross pieces that run between the stiles or studs, the number and placement of toggles depends on the type of flat. The length of the toggles is the width of the flat minus the combined width of the stiles. Corner blocks are used to join the corners of a soft-cover flat and they are normally made of 1⁄4-inch plywood, and are triangles with corners of 45°, 45°, and 90°. They are most often made by ripping the plywood at 6 1⁄2 inches, keystones join the toggles to the stiles of soft-cover flats. They are 8 inches long, and normally rip sawn to the width as the toggles on one end. Straps can be used in place of keystones and they are 8 inches long and 2 1⁄2 inches wide rectangles. They are easier to construct than keystones, but not as strong, a coffin lock or screws may be used to join securely adjacent flats, or traditionally with a lash line cleat, where cotton sash cord is lashed around cleats installed on the flats edges. This allows for standing and striking of the set. Broadway or stage flats are generally constructed of 1-by-3-inch nominal pine boards, the boards are laid out flat on the shop floor, squared, and joined with the keystones and corner blocks. The keystones and corner blocks are inset 1 inch from the outside edge and they are then glued in place, and stapled or screwed down. The flat can then be flipped over and covered with muslin or decorative plywood, toggles in a Broadway flat are placed on 4 ft centers
21.
Stage lighting
–
Stage lighting is the craft of lighting as it applies to the production of theatre, dance, opera and other performance arts. Several different types of lighting instruments are used in this discipline. In addition to lighting, modern stage lighting can also include special effects, such as lasers. People who work on stage lighting are commonly referred to as lighting technicians, the personnel needed to install, operate, and control the equipment also cross over into these different areas of stage lighting applications. The earliest known form of lighting was during the early Grecian theatres. They would build their theatres facing east to west so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and have the natural sunlight hit the actors, natural light continued to be utilized when playhouses were built with a large circular opening at the top of the theatre. Early Modern English theatres were roofless, allowing light to be utilized for lighting the stage. As theatres moved indoors, artificial lighting became a necessity and it was developed as theatres, at an unknown date, candlelight was introduced which brought more developments to theatrical lighting across Europe. While Oliver Cromwell was ruling Britain, all production was suspended in 1642. During this theatrical famine, great developments were being made in theatres on the European mainland, Charles II, who would later become King Charles II witnessed Italian theatrical methods and brought them back to England when he came to power. New playhouses were built in England and their large sizes called for more elaborate lighting, English theatres during this time used dipped candles to light chandeliers and sconces. Dipped candles were made by dipping a wick into hot wax repeatedly to create a cylindrical candle, candles needed frequent trimming and relighting regardless of what was happening on-stage because they dripped hot grease on both the audience and actors. Chandeliers also blocked the view of some patrons, there were two different types of Restoration theatres in England, Restoration commercial theatres and Restoration court theatres. Commercial theatres tended to be conservative in their lighting, for economic reasons. Court theatres could afford to use most of the Continental innovations in their productions, two main court theatres, built between 1660 and 1665, were the Cockpit Theatre and the Hall Theatre. Chandeliers and sconces seemed to be the primary lighting sources here but other developments were being made, by the 1670s, the Hall Theatre started using footlights, and between 1670 and 1689 they used candles or lamps. It can be noted that by the end of the 17th century, French, there is not much written on theatrical lighting in England at the end of the 17th century and from the little information historians do have, not much changed by the middle of the 18th century. Gas lighting hit the English stage in the early 1800s beginning with the Drury Lane, in the 1820s, a new type of artificial illumination was developed
22.
Lighting designer
–
The LD also works closely with the stage manager or show control programming, if show control systems are used in that production. The role of the lighting designer varies greatly within professional and amateur theater, for a Broadway show, a touring production and most regional and small productions the LD is usually an outside freelance specialist hired early in the production process. Smaller theatre companies may have a resident lighting designer responsible for most of the companys productions or rely on a variety of freelance or even help to light their productions. At the Off-Broadway, or Off-Off-Broadway level the LD will occasionally be responsible for much of the technical work that would be the work of the lighting crew in a larger theater. The LD must take account the shows mood and the directors vision in creating a lighting design. Because lighting design is more abstract than costume or scenic design. Various forms of paperwork are essential for the LD to successfully communicate their design to various members of the production team, examples of typical paperwork include cue sheets, lightplots, instrument schedules, shop orders and focus charts. Cue sheets are of the most value to stage management, the light plot is a scale drawing that communicates the location of lighting fixtures and lighting positions so a team of electricians can independently install the lighting system. Next to each instrument on the plan will be information for any color gel, gobo, or other accessory that needs to go with it, often, paperwork listing all of this information is also generated by using a program such as Lightwright. The lighting designer uses this paperwork to aid in the visualization of not only ideas but simple lists to assist the Master Electrician during load-in, focus, professional LDs generally use special computer-aided design packages to create accurate and easily readable drafted plots that can be swiftly updated as necessary. The LD will discuss the plot with the production manager. After the Electricians have hung, circuited and patched the lighting units, nevertheless, any errors of focusing or changes to the lighting plan are corrected only when the performers are not onstage. These changes take place during work or note calls, the LD only attends these notes calls if units are hung or rehung and require additional focusing. The LD or Assistant Lighting Director will be in charge if in attendance, if the only work to be done is maintenance then the Production or Master Electrician will be in charge and will direct the Electrics crew. After the tech process, the performance may go into Dress rehearsal without a ticketed audience and/or Previews with a ticketed audience, during this time, if the cueing is finished, the LD will sit in the audience and take notes on what works and what needs changing. At this point, the Stage Manager will begin to take over the work of calling cues for the light board op to follow. Often, changes take place during notes call, but if serious problems occur the performance may be halted. If the show is still in previews, then the LD will make changes, changes should not be made after the lighting design is finished, and never without the LDs approval
23.
Stage lighting accessories
–
Stage lighting accessories are components manufactured for conventional stage lighting instruments. Most conventional fixtures are designed to accept a number of different accessories designed to assist in the modification of the output and these accessories are intended to either provide relatively common functionality not originally provided in a fixture, or to extend the versatility of a lighting instrument by introducing features. Other accessories have been designed to overcome limitations or difficulties some fixtures present in specific applications. Barn doors, or occasionally a set of doors, are an attachment fitted to the front of a Fresnel lantern, a type of lantern used in films, television. The attachment has the appearance of a set of barn doors. Barn doors are mounted with a ring that fits inside of the color gel slot on the instrument, because of this, barn doors have a gel slot built into them, so the light can still be colored. Depending on the size and local practices, barn doors may be attached to the pipe or the instrument with their own safety cable, Barn doors are generally not used with profile or ellipsoidal reflector spotlights such as the Source Four because they have internal shutters which work more effectively. Barn doors are not effective at shaping the light of a PAR lights, a top hat, also known as a stove pipe or snoot, is a device used in theatrical lighting to shield the audiences eyes from the direct source of the light. It is shaped like a top hat with a hole in the top, the cylinder allows light to pass through but takes away the glint of a lighting instrument facing the audience. It also reduces flare created by the light, which is useful when the unit is hung near the proscenium or other objects that the designer does not want to light. There are also half-hats or eyelashes, which function in a similar manner but have only half the cylinder, and short hats, top hats are manufactured for most modern-day lighting instruments with gel frames of varying sizes. Gel extenders are similar to top hats in appearance, being a tube placed over the end of a lighting fixture, unlike top hats, however, gel extenders have a colour frame holder built into the end to allow color gel to be mounted. Gel extenders are available in a conical shape which does not constrict the beam of light output from the fixture at all. A colour frame or gel frame is a piece of folded material, made from metal or cardboard. Colour frames are placed directly outside the fixture, immediately in front of lens assembly, most fixtures include an integrated holder for the frame. Some accessories designed to mount in the gel frame holder, such as Barn Doors and this increases sharpness of the light by reducing the effect of imperfect lenses. Doughnuts are designed to fit into the colour frame holder directly outside the fixture, because they are typically thin, doughnuts can often be placed in the same slot as a gel frame. Doughnuts are typically used in fixtures in order to sharpen the beam when a template is in place
24.
Color gel
–
Modern gels are thin sheets of polycarbonate or polyester, placed in front of a lighting fixture in the path of the beam. Gels have a life, especially in saturated colors and shorter wavelength. The color will fade or even melt, depending upon the absorption of the color. In permanent installations and some uses, colored glass filters or dichroic filters are being used. The main drawbacks are additional expense and a limited selection. In Shakesperean theater, red wine was used in a container as a light filter. In later days, colored water or silk was used to light in the theater. Later, a gelatin base became the material of choice, gelatin gel was available at least until 1979. The name gel has continued to be used to the present day, gelatin based color media had no melting point, and the color was cast in the media as opposed to being coated on the surface, both important properties for color media. It would, however, char at high temperature and became brittle once heated, by 1945 more heat-tolerant self-extinguishing acetate-based through-dyed materials were being manufactured. In the States Roscolene was also developed to deal with higher output light sources. The acetate-based material was replaced by polycarbonates like Roscolar and polyester based filters and these materials have superior heat tolerance when compared to acetate-based gels. Many were transparent film with a surface coating, the first dyed polyester gels were introduced by Berkey-Colortran in 1969 as Gelatran, the original deep dyed polyester. The Gelatran process is used today to produce GAMColor and Roscolux. Other color manufacturers, such as Lee Filters and Apollo Design Technology use a surface applied dye, almost every color manufacturer today uses either polycarbonate or polyester to manufacture their gels. Even todays gels can burn out easily, rendering them useless, to help combat this, a high temperature material, can be used to help prolong the life in high-heat output lighting instruments. In the 1930s Strand Electric of Floral Street, London provided the first numbering system for their swatches and with their agents in New York, remnants of this original filter color system exist in the color swatches of today. In the theater, gels are typically available in single 20x 24 sheets, the size originates from the gelatin days, it is the same as a standard bakers sheet, which was used to cast the sheets
25.
Color scroller
–
A color scroller moves plastic gel color gel into the beam of the light. Most scrollers are controlled via DMX512 protocol, but some models also utilize the RDM protocol, when color scrollers were first introduced around 1980, a number of companies produced them, including, Avolites, GAM Products, Morpheus Lights, Rainbow, Rosco Laboratories and Wybron Inc. Now the main manufacturers are, A. C. Lighting, Apollo, Morpheus Lights, the most commonly used type of scroller is the single string scroller. This type has only one string of color anywhere from 2 to 33 frames long, dual string scrollers use 2 strings and allow for a form of CMY mixing. The Apollo MXR2, Chroma-Q Cascade and the Wybron CXI use 2 gel strings to obtain a CMY mix, one frame of clear gel is positioned at the center of each gel string with progressively denser frames of color positioned to either side of it. The first string has progressively denser yellow and cyan frames and the string has progressively denser yellow. This permits various YC, YM, and CM combinations to be achieved as a static color mix, there is a limited ability to transition live between mixed colors - although some transitions cannot be accomplished without passing through the clear center frame. Finally, there are true CYM mixing scrollers that utilize three independently controlled gel strings - namely, the ColorFader system manufactured by Morpheus Lights of Las Vegas, independent control of the gel strings permits users to cross-fade from any color to any color directly. The ColorFader system was developed to mimic the systems used in most moving lights. These transitions are achieved by starting with a full-density sheet of gel, at the start position on a ColorFader scroll the holes are large and plentiful - so the percentage of white light predominates and low-saturation colors are achieved. Ultimately a solid, unperforated sheet of gel is positioned in the optical path - for full saturation of and combination of Cyan, color scrollers come in many different sizes and are mountable on nearly every type of conventional lighting instrument. Sizes include,4 Inch 6 to 7.5 Inch 8 to 10 inch 12 inch 15 inch 20-30 inch Large format scrollers for ETC Multi-PAR units Most color scrollers use DMX512 addressing protocol, each scroller unit is given an address or identifying number. Earlier scroller models used binary DIP switches to set the address, depending on the manufacturer, power supplies can power anywhere from 1 to 64 units. Some color scrollers are configured for daisy chain connection, by which 4-pin power/control cable feeds into, the number of units that can be daisy chained together is limited by a head-feet restriction. Head-feet is defined as the sum of the lengths of cable from each device to a single power supply. It is a way to account for the drop in the power/signal cable caused the current drawn from each unit. If you exceed the recommended head feet you may experience problems with all of the scrollers on the chain. Other scroller systems, such as the Morpheus ColorFader, do not permit daisy chaining
26.
Cyclorama (theater)
–
A cyclorama is a large curtain or wall, often concave, positioned at the back of the apse. It was popularized in the German theater of the 19th century, a cyc can be made of unbleached canvas or muslin, filled scrim, or seamless translucent plastic. Traditionally it is hung at 0% fullness, when possible, it is stretched on the sides and weighted on the bottom to create a flat and even surface. As seams tend to interrupt the surface of the cyclorama. As the name implies, it often encircles or partially encloses the stage to form a background, cycloramas or cycs also refer to photography curving backdrops which are white to create no background, or green screen to create a masking backdrop. Cycloramas are often used to create the illusion of a sky onstage, by varying the equipment, intensity, color and patterns used, a lighting designer can achieve many varied looks. A cyclorama can be front lit or, if it is constructed of translucent and seamless material, to achieve the illusion of extra depth, often desirable if one is re-creating a sky, the cyclorama can be paired with a sharkstooth scrim backdrop. Cycloramas are also often illuminated during dance concerts to match the mood of a song, occasionally, the cyc may be painted with a decorative or pictorial scene to fit a specific show, these are generally referred to as backdrops. Cyclorama Building, Boston Stage lighting Striplight Theater drapes and stage curtains Phyllis Hartnoll, the Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre
27.
Gobo (lighting)
–
A gobo is a physical stencil or template that is placed inside or in front of a light source, to control the shape of the emitted light. They are often used with stage lighting instruments to manipulate the shape of the light which is cast over a space or object. A metal gobo with patterned holes allows only the shape or pattern of light through, casting a specific pattern of light. This placement is important because it allows a pattern with crisp, Gobos placed after the optics do not have the option of such fine focus, and are more precisely called flags or cucoloris. Gobos may be used, in connection with projectors and simpler light sources, simple gobos, incorporated into automated lighting systems, are popular at nightclubs and other musical venues to create moving shapes. Gobos may also be used for lighting, as well as in interior design. Gobos can be made from various materials, common types include steel, glass and plastic/transparency gobos. Steel gobos use a template from which the image is cut out of. These types of gobos are the most sturdy of the common gobo types, in order to correctly represent the letter O for example, small tabs or bridges must be made in order to keep the metal tab in the middle of the letter supported. This effect may be undesirable in more intricate patterns or designs, glass gobos are made from transparent glass with a partial mirror coating to block the light and produce black areas in the projected image. This eliminates any need for bridging, since the glass itself is the support, glass gobos generally offer the highest image fidelity but are the most fragile. Usually, to create a glass gobo laser ablation or photo etching are used, plastic gobos or Transparency gobos can be used in LED ellipsoidal spotlights. These LED Only plastic gobos can be full color, but without the delicate nature and these plastic LED Only gobos are new to the market, as are the lights they go in, so there is much about the durability and effectiveness that will vary from brand to brand. In the past plastic gobos had been generally custom made—for when a pattern is needed in color, a lapse in the cooling apparatus, even for just a few seconds, can cause plastic gobos in a traditional lighting instrument to be ruined. Generally the lighting designer chooses a pattern from a catalogue or small swatch book provided by the manufacturer, because of the large number of gobos available, they are generally referred to by number, not name. For example, most manufacturers offer a gobo of a window, so instead of calling it window, it would be identified as gobo xxxxx Gobos are often used in weddings and corporate events to add a personal touch to the look of an event. Company logos, the names, or just about any artwork can be turned into a projected image. Some companies can turn a custom gobo out in as little as a week, stock gobo patterns are also widely used for these events, often stars or water projected onto the ceiling to set a mood in the whole room
28.
Lighting control console
–
A lighting control console is an electronic device used in theatrical lighting design to control multiple lights at once. They are used throughout the entertainment industry and are placed at the Front of House position or in a control booth. All lighting control consoles can control dimmers which control the intensity of the lights, many modern consoles can control Intelligent lighting, fog machines and hazers, and other special effects devices. Some consoles can also interface with other performance hardware to improve synchronization or unify their control. Lighting consoles communicate with the dimmers and other devices in the system via an electronic control protocol. Consoles vary in size and complexity, from small preset boards to dedicated moving light consoles, most consoles accept MIDI Show Control signals and commands to allow show control systems to integrate their capabilities into more complex shows. Preset boards are the most basic lighting consoles—and also the most prevalent in smaller installations and they consist of two or more identical fader banks, called scenes. The faders on these scenes can be manually adjusted, each scene has the same number of channels which control the same dimmers. So the console operator can build a scene offline or in blind, generally, at least with a preset board, the operator has a cue sheet for each scene, which is a diagram of the board with the faders in their positions as determined by the lighting designer. The operator sets the faders into their positions based on the cue sheets, typically during a cue, the operator sets the next scene. Then, the operator makes the transition between the scenes using the cross-fader, Preset boards are not as prevalent since the advent of digital memory consoles, which can store scenes digitally, and are generally much less cumbersome but more expensive than preset boards. However, for small setups such as that of a DJ, they remain the board of choice for their simple to use interface and this is however not recommended since it is a long, drawn-out, and cumbersome process. Memory-based consoles have become popular in almost all larger installations. This type of controller has almost completely replaced preset consoles as controllers of choice and they also allow for lighting cues to contain larger channel counts due to the same time savings gained from not physically moving individual channel faders. Many memory consoles have a bank of faders and these faders can be programmed to control a single channel or a group of channels. The console may also have provision to operate in analog to a desk for programming scenes or live control. On some more advanced consoles, faders can be used to control effects, chases, moving Light Controllers are another step up in sophistication from Memory Consoles. As well as being capable of controlling ordinary luminares via dimmers, on midrange controllers, these are usually provided as a section separate from main Preset and Cue stack controls
29.
Socapex
–
They are wired with six hot/live pins, six neutral pins, six ground/earth pins, and a final central pin used to aid alignment of the male end of the connector with a female receptacle. The Socapex was first created by a company called Socapex in 1961, Socapex became a brand name owned by Amphenol Socapex, the term is now often applied to similar off-brand connectors as a genericized trademark. Breakouts are often used to connect fixtures to the cable, a breakin is the opposite, consisting of tails with male Parallel Blade, stage pin connectors, IEC6030916 A, NEMA L5-20R twist-lock, BS546 or Schuko connectors feeding a female socapex connector. These are used to connect Socapex cables to dimmer packs that do not have Socapex outputs, Amphenol Socapex is still manufacturing and selling the original Socapex. The company also manufacturers a wider range of robust multi-way electrical connectors available in various standard, while some companies use Socapex as a rigging motor power cable, this is generally not recommended as differences in voltage can be misinterpreted, causing extensive equipment damage. Please note that the image above displays CEEP connectors who were the first company to introduce the mono piece backshell into the many years ago. KUPO 19PIN Website Official Socapex Website Official CEEP Website Official P3 Lighting connectors web-site SES19 pin connector web-site
30.
Stage pin connector
–
A stage pin connector, also known as a grounded stage pin or grounded pin connector, is a standard cable type for theatrical lighting in North America and in many countries in the theatre world. Stage pin connectors are used for conducting dimmed power from a dimmer to stage lighting instruments. The first stage pin connectors had two cylindrical pins, one for line and one for neutral, arranged symmetrically in a rectangular housing. The housing was milled from a block of fiberglass or bakelite which may have been impregnated with asbestos for fire resistance. Later connectors use molded plastic or machined phenolic resin laminate housings and these two-pin connectors were not polarized, and thus the line and neutral conductors could be exchanged depending on which way the connectors were mated. Two-pin connectors may still be found on equipment and are often saved by electricians for wiring ungrounded fixtures. The ground pin is situated between the line and neutral pins and closer to the latter and this asymmetrical configuration effectively polarizes the connector ensuring that the line and neutral conductors are not exchanged in a properly wired installation. The ground pin is longer than the other two, ensuring that the safety ground connection is made first when making a connection. A special tool called a pin splitter may be used to expand this slit. A knife may be used to the effect, but this technique risks both personal injury, damage to the connector, or ruining of the knife blade. For these reasons, a screwdriver is often used as an impromptu pin splitter. Care must be taken when repairing or building these larger connectors, because ground is on the pin and neutral is in the middle. Most extension cables made with 20 A stage pin connectors use 12/3 type SOOW or SJOOW cable which has three individually insulated 12 awg stranded conductors inside a larger jacket, the internal insulation is usually colored black, white and green. This cable configuration can safely handle the full 20 ampere rating of the connector, the designation SOOW or SJOOW refers to the cables insulation construction and type. SJ— and S— are both most severe service cordage, however, older cable made using natural rubber is susceptible to dry-rotting, particularly in the heat generated by lighting equipment. This can cause the insulation to fail and expose or short circuit the conductors leading to shock or fire hazard if old cable is not inspected regularly, some stage pin extension cables may be constructed from cable with six or more conductors. This cable can be fitted with multiple stage-pin connectors at either end enabling the single cable to carry multiple independent output channels of dimmed power. Each channel or circuit should have its own line, ground, the cables integrally connected to lighting instruments may use 3-conductor SJOOW or SOOW cable or individual high-temperature wires inside of a fiberglass sleeve
31.
Theatrical smoke and fog
–
Theatrical smoke and fog, also known as special effect smoke, fog or haze, is a category of atmospheric effects used in the entertainment industry. These atmospheric effects are used for creating effects, to make lighting and lighting effects visible. If an individual is at an entertainment venue and beams of light are visible cutting across the room, theatrical smoke and fog are indispensable in creating visible mid-air laser effects to entertain audiences. Common popular applications for theatrical fog include environmental testing as well as emergency personnel, militaries have historically used smoke and fog to mask troop movements in training and combat, the techniques of which are technologically similar to those used in theatre and film. There are generally 4 types of fog effects used in entertainment applications, smoke, fog, haze, Smoke is differentiated from other atmospheric effects in that it is composed of solid particles released during combustion, rather than the liquid droplets that fog or haze are composed of. Fog is created by pumping one of a variety of different glycol or glycol/water mixtures into a heat exchanger and heating until the fluid vapourizes, devices specifically manufactured for this purpose are referred to as a fog machines. For theatrical purposes the pesticide is typically replaced with glycol, glycol/water mixtures and this technique is similar to the smoke generators used by militaries to create smoke screens, and is generally only used outdoors due to the volume of fog produced and the petroleum fuel required. Low-lying fog effects can be created by combining a fog machine with another device designed specifically for this purpose, the result is a relatively thick fog that stays within a few feet of the ground. As the fog warms, or is agitated, it rises and dissipates, several manufacturers of theatrical fog fluid have developed specially formulated mixtures specifically designed to be used with CO2, intended to provide thicker, more consistent fog effects. Although these chilling devices do not use carbon dioxide, the specially formulated fog fluid does create denser fog than regular fog fluid, Haze effects refer to creating an unobtrusive, homogeneous cloud intended primarily to reveal lighting beams, such as light fingers in a rock concert. This effect is produced using a machine, typically done in one of two ways. One technique uses oil, atomized via a spray pump powered either by electricity or compressed CO2. Another technique for creating haze uses a mixture to create haze in a process nearly identical to that for creating fog effects. In either case the fluid used is referred to as haze fluid, glycol/water haze fluid is sometimes referred to as water based haze to avoid ambiguity. Smaller volumes of haze can also be generated from aerosol canisters containing mineral oil under pressure, liquid carbon dioxide, stored in compressed cylinders, is used in conjunction with theatrical fog machines to produce low-lying fog effects. When liquid CO2 is used to chill theatrical fog, the result is a fog that stays within a few feet of the ground. As the fog warms, or is agitated, it rises and dissipates, several manufacturers of theatrical fog fluid have developed specially formulated mixtures specifically designed to be used with CO2, intended to provide thicker, more consistent fog effects. Effect duration is determined by the cycle of the theatrical fog machine
32.
Stage lighting instrument
–
Stage lighting instruments are used in stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions, concerts, and other performances taking place in live performance venues. They are also used to light television studios and sound stages, many stagecraft terms vary between the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, lighting fixtures are often called instruments or units, in the UK, they are called lanterns or luminaires. This article mainly uses terms common to the United States, see the picture at top right for the physical location of most components. It comprises all of the exterior of the fixture except for the lens or opening, the housing may be designed with specific elements that help reduce heat and increase the efficiency of a lamp. Older instruments were made from rolled and machined steel or aluminum, with the advent of the Source Four, many lighting instruments are being made from die cast metal. Die casting allows for one single, light-weight body that is economical to produce. Some instruments are made from plastic, such as the Selecon Pacific, the opening of samad is the gap in the housing from where the beam of light is intended to come. Many fixtures use a lens to help control the beam of light, though some, such as border or cyclorama lights, the lens and the reflector, along with other beam-altering devices are both considered part of the optics system. The reflector affects the quality and directionality of the light output, a reflector is located behind or around the light source in such a way as to direct more light towards the lens or opening. Each unit has a reflector, used in conjunction with the lens to create the desired effect. An ellipsoidal reflector has a set at one focus point of an ellipsoid-shaped reflector that bounces the light. This focuses the beam of light into a tight beam, ellipsoidal reflectors often are used for tight, focusable spots, although they can be used for floodlights, such as in scoops. A parabolic reflector has a set at the focus point of a parabola-shaped reflector that bounces the light in parallel beams away from the reflector. There is no point at which the light converges, so the light is unfocusable, parabolic reflectors are used for lights intended to provide an unfocused wash, such as PAR cans. Reflectors can also be used to reduce or eliminate unwanted thermal emission. Incandescent lamps produce light through heating of the filament, while arc lamps produce light through the heating, in either case, this heat is also emitted from the lamp as infrared light. The thermal energy is projected onto the stage with the visible light
33.
Beam projector
–
A beam projector is a lenseless stage lighting instrument with very little beam spread. The primary reflector is a reflector and the secondary reflector is a spherical reflector. The result is a shaft of light that cannot be easily controlled or modified. Beam projectors are used to create a godspot effect. The beam projector no longer is used to the extent that it once was, as newer fixtures, a similar effect can be produced using ETC Source Four PAR fixtures with a clear lens. A snoot/top hat can be added to control spill
34.
Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight
–
The optics of an ERS instrument are roughly similar to those of a 35 mm slide projector. There are many types of ERS that are designed for the applications found in the entertainment industry. ERS instruments come in all shapes and sizes, each particular model of ERS has its own set of characteristics. Generally, ERS instruments are the most varied and utilized type of stage lighting instrument, ERS may also be referred to as Profile Spotlights because the beam can be shaped to the profile of an object. Ellipsoidal reflectors are used for their strong, well-defined light and their versatility, leko and Source Four are brand names which are often, but inaccurately, used to refer to any sort of ellipsoidal. Characteristics of a typical ellipsoidal lighting unit include, An ellipsoidal reflector An adjustable lens tube containing the lens or lens train. Adjusting the tube by pushing it further in or pulling it out of the unit allows changes to the focus of the beam of light projected by the unit. This results from changing the distance between the reflector and the lens train, Zoom ERS instruments can vary the size of beam as well as the focus One or two Plano-Convex lenses within the lens tube to create the lens train. The Plano-Convex lenses, named for having one side and one convex side, have their convex sides facing each other within the tube. Most modern units include two slots that allow for combining different accessories A series of four shutters mounted at the focal point of the unit. These allow for precise shaping and sizing of the beam as lines. Additionally, an iris may be present to size the beam circularly, the filament of the lamp is at one focal point of the ellipsoidal reflector and the gate with the shutters and gobo are at the other focal point. Ellipsoidals are supplied with a certain size lens or lenses that determines the field angle, field angle is the angle of the beam of light where it reaches 10% of the intensity of the center of the beam. Most manufacturers now use field angle to indicate the fixtures spread typically in this series, older fixtures are described by the width of the lens x focal length of the instrument. For example, a 6x9 ellipsoidal would have a 6 diameter lens, 6x9 Instruments have a field angle of approximately 37°. 6x12 instruments have an angle of approximately 27°. As the field angle narrows, the instrument can be used further from the stage, variable focus instruments with two lenses that move in and out from the lamp housing are also available, allowing the user to manually adjust to the desired focal length within a certain range. Ellipsoidals can be used for any job but their function is to illuminate a specific proximity
35.
Fresnel lantern
–
A Fresnel lantern is a common lantern used in theatre, which employs a Fresnel lens to wash light over an area of the stage. The lens produces a wider, soft-edged beam of light, which is used for back light. The distinctive lens has an appearance instead of the full or smooth appearance of other lenses. This allows the lens to have a greater curvature than would otherwise be practical. The lens focuses the light by tilting each ring of glass slightly more towards the center as the distance is increased from the center of the lens. If the glass were completely flat, this would cause a pattern of circles of light. This pattern of small bumps helps to break up the passing through the lens. This means that the intensity of the light is consistent across the spread of the beam of light, the stepped lens design causes less heat buildup than a plano-convex lens of the same angle. These lenses are named after their inventor, Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who developed the lens initially for use in lighthouses. Theatrical Fresnels are typically made in 8,6 or 3 inch varieties, referring to the diameter of the lens, the 3-inch variety is referred to as an inkie. Fresnel lenses can operate close to the source and are very cheap to produce, so the lanterns tend to be small. In film lighting, a greater range of lens and lamp sizes are produced and used. The reflector effectively doubles the output of the fixture, as all light that is emitted backwards into the reflector is reflected back through the filament of the lamp. As with most lighting fixtures, the lamp and reflector cannot move independently and it is this unit that is moved back and forth inside the lamp to focus the light. This is done by a slider on the bottom of the lantern, the lamps are almost always mounted base down, i. e. with the bulb standing upwards. Burning these lamps upside down will shorten lamp life significantly, the degree to which the lamp may be focused is limited by the length of the housing. To reduce the width of the beam, the lamp and reflector are moved back from the lens. However, the back in the housing the lamp is placed
36.
Intelligent lighting
–
Intelligent lighting refers to stage lighting that has automated or mechanical abilities beyond those of traditional, stationary illumination. Although the most advanced intelligent lights can produce complex effects. For this reason, intelligent lighting is known as automated lighting, moving lights or moving heads. There are many patents dating back from 1906, with Edmond Sohlberg of Kansas City, the lantern used a carbon-arc bulb and was operated not by motors or any form of electronics, but by cords that were operated manually to control pan, tilt and zoom. 1925 saw the first use of motors to move the fixture. In 1936 US patent number 2,054,224 was granted to a device, with which the pan. From this point on until 1969, various other inventors made similar lights and improved on the technology, during this period, Century Lighting started retailing such units specially made to order, retrofitted onto any of their existing lanterns up to 750 W to control pan and tilt. George Izenour made the breakthrough in 1969 with the first ever fixture to use a mirror on the end of an ellipsoidal to redirect the beam of light remotely. This lamp was known as the Mac-Spot In Bristol in 1968, progress was also being made. Peter Wynne Wilson refers to the use of 1 kW profiles, the fixtures also had an iris, a multiple coloured gel wheel. These lights were fitted with mirrors and made for an impressive light show for a Pink Floyd Gig in London. Another fixture known as the Cycklops was also used for music in the USA, with only pan, tilt, and color functions, and at 1.2 m long and weighing in at 97 kg including the ballast, they were heavy and cumbersome. These units were designed more for replacing the ever unreliable local spotlight operators, in 1978 a Dallas, Texas-based lighting and sound company called Showco began developing a lighting fixture that changed color by rotating dichroic filters. During its development, the decided to add motors to motorize pan. They demonstrated the fixture for the band Genesis in a barn in England in 1980, the band decided to financially back the project. Showco spun off their lighting project into a company called Vari-Lite, and it also used one of the first lighting desks with a digital core and this enabled lighting states to be programmed in. Genesis was later to order 55 Vari-lites to use in their chain of gigs across the UK. In 1986 Vari-Lite introduced a new series of lighting fixtures and control consoles and they referred to the new system as their Series 200, with the new lights designated VL-2 Spot Luminaire, and VL-3 Wash Luminaire
37.
Parabolic aluminized reflector light
–
A parabolic aluminized reflector lamp is a type of electric lamp that is widely used in commercial, residential, and transportation illumination. Usage includes locomotive headlamps, aircraft landing lights, and residential and commercial recessed lights and they are identical in principle to sealed beam automobile headlights. This article covers only their use in stage lighting, the lamps and their fixtures are widely used in theatre, concerts and motion picture production when a substantial amount of flat lighting is required for a scene. In situations where sunlight or other light is available, a white foam reflector is often used to accomplish the same effect as a PAR array. PAR lights possess a lens and reflector that are parts of the lamp. A notable exception is ETCs Source Four PAR, which uses the same halogen lamp as their Source Four ERS, in this case, the lens is a separate piece from the lamp. The relative position of lamp and lens remains unalterable, in PAR 64s, Raylite reflectors and two pin base lamps are often used as a cheaper alternative as the lamp is replaced but the reflector remains. Lamps such as the 500 watt A1/244 can be as much as half the price of the sealed beam units, par 64s also often run at 120 V, in two-pair series channels, with a y Splitter at the dimmer. Narrow, medium and wide Raylite reflectors are quite readily available, the sealed beam lamp produces an intense oval pool of light with unfocused edges. The only focus adjustment is a knob that allows the unit to be rotated within its casing. With some models this control is via the mogul ceramic connector which connects directly to the Mogul prongs of the lamp, with the SourceFour PAR, the interchangeable lens is what is rotated. Therefore, the diameter of the spot is defined by the aluminium reflector. The type of lamp includes extra-wide flood, wide flood, medium flood, narrow spot and these types of instruments come in varying diameters, the most common being designated PAR56 and PAR64. The number indicates the diameter of the housing in eighths of an inch, PAR lights are often used in theatrical or live music shows. Commonly they are used to generate colours by fitting them with colored sheets called gels, the cans are arranged into rows of different colours and identical rows placed on different sides of the stage. Due to their affordability, they are ideal for colour washes in several different colours, if used cleverly, par cans can provide low budget productions with good effects. The glass envelope or bulb of all incandescent lamps is measured in eighths of an inch, thus a PAR64 is, nominally,64 eighths of an inch in diameter. The approximate nominal lamp bell diameter in inches can be found by dividing the PAR size by 8, for example, a PAR30 lamp is approximately 3.75 inches in diameter
38.
Scoop (theater)
–
In stage lighting, an ellipsoidal reflector floodlight, better known as a scoop, is a large, simple lighting fixture with a dome-like reflector, large high-wattage lamp and no lens. It consists almost entirely of a lamp in the center of a big curved metal dome that acts as a reflector, the result is a wide, soft-edged pool of light good for general lighting. However, since scoop lights do not have a mechanism for cutting down the size of their beam, many theaters use scoop lights for worklights, rehearsals, non-performance times, and certain performance times. Scoops can be used to mimic the effect of a striplight to illuminate a cyclorama and they are easy to set up and take down, are relatively inexpensive, typically have long lamp life. When used as worklights, scoop lights frequently dont require the use of the board to operate. Scoop lights are used for flooding a stage with downlight. However, fresnel lanterns are more used for this task. Most scoops use a PS52 mogul screw incandescent lamp
39.
Spotlight (theatre lighting)
–
A spotlight is a powerful stage lighting instrument which projects a bright beam of light onto a performance space. Spotlights are controlled by an operator who tracks actors around the stage. Spotlights are most commonly used in concerts, musicals and large scale presentations where highlighting a specific, mobile, spotlights are sometimes located overhead on catwalks. In some theatres, they may also be located in the booth or purposely built spot booths in addition to the catwalk. Spotlights may be arranged in a variety of patterns for coverage, for example, they are aimed at the stage in front of them in theaters, located to the back or rear. This location can become due to fan noise or any communication by headset communication from the spot operator speaking into his headset microphone. In circus and sports, spotlights may be arranged around the facility covering both sides and the ends, in a concert setting, they may be in a position Front of House, while other positions may have the spotlight upstage used as back or top light. Some concerts use truss spots on a truss downstage but closer than catwalk spots in an amphitheater style catwalk layout, in other places, spot locations are at the mercy of the architect who designed the space. Characteristics of a typical spotlight include, A strong light source, a lens which can be manually focused. A manual device to change the intensity of the beam, especially when an HID source which can not be dimmed, is used. An iris to adjust the size of the spot/angle of the beam, a color magazine or boomerang consisting of several gel frames which can be swung in front of the beam. Some sort of sight to assist in aiming is sometimes added onto the lamp by the operator. Some spotlights can be fitted with colourchangers to colour the beam or gobo holders to create a variety of effects, most spotlights can be fitted with colour gels. Perhaps the best known brand of spotlight is the Super Trouper by Strong Entertainment Lighting, other well known spotlights include the Altspot line by Altman Lighting and Aramis and Ivanhoe lines by Robert Juliat
40.
Stage management
–
Stage management is the practice of organizing and coordinating a theatrical production. It encompasses a variety of activities, including organizing the production, Stage management is a sub-discipline of stagecraft. Stage managers may use a Stage Managers book to help organize the production, a stage manager is one who has overall responsibility for stage management and the smooth execution of a production. Between the Renaissance and the 16th century, actors and playwrights took upon themselves the handling of finances, general directorial duties, and stage management. Stage management first emerged as a role in the 17th century during Shakespeares and Molières time. This was the first time a person other than actors and playwright was hired to direct or manage the stage, many playwrights, directors and actors had as their first job in the theatre work as an assistant stage manager. One is very aware that everything depends on the delivery of the cue at exactly the right microsecond. One stands there, knees bent, breathing heavily. The responsibilities and duties of stage management vary depending on the setting of a production, most broadly, it is the stage managers responsibility to ensure that the directors artistic choices are realized in actual performance. As the lighting, sound, and set change cues are developed, the stage manager maintains a prompt book, sometimes called the book or the bible, which contains all cues, technical notes, blocking and other information pertinent to the show. Stage managers are responsible for helping establish a shows rehearsal schedule, the stage manager typically documents each rehearsal in a rehearsal report. Once the house opens for a performance, the stage manager controls all aspects of the performance by calling the cues for all transitions and acting as communications hub for the cast and crew. After a show opens, the manager is also responsible for calling brush-up, put in. The stage manager ensures that lighting and sound cues are acted upon at the time by issuing verbal standby. Each cue call begins with the word standby to indicate that an action is imminent and, in response, occasionally, after a long pause or break in the productions action, the stage manager will give a warning cue. This warns the technicians that the cue is approaching. At the appropriate time, the manager will prompt immediate execution of the action by saying go. In the United States, Stage Manager is a title that may be applied to anyone who performs stage management functions
