1.
Scholarly method
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It is the methods that systemically advance the teaching, research, and practice of a given scholarly or academic field of study through rigorous inquiry. Scholarship is noted by its significance to its particular profession, and is creative, can be documented, can be replicated or elaborated, the primary purpose of scholasticism is to find the answer to a question or to resolve a contradiction. It was once known for its application in medieval theology but was eventually applied to classical philosophy. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research, the question of the nature, and indeed the possibility, of sound historical method is raised in the philosophy of history, as a question of epistemology. History guidelines commonly used by historians in their work require external criticism, internal criticism, the empirical method is generally taken to mean the collection of data on which to base a hypothesis or derive a conclusion in science. It is part of the method, but is often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with other methods. The empirical method is not sharply defined and is contrasted with the precision of experiments. The experimental method investigates causal relationships among variables, an experiment is a cornerstone of the empirical approach to acquiring data about the world and is used in both natural sciences and social sciences. An experiment can be used to solve practical problems and to support or negate theoretical assumptions. The scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, to be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, there are numerous examples of ethical concerns, including, Confidentiality of information used, Participants’ anonymity, Consent by participants, Security and benefits to individuals
2.
The Scholar Ship
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Participants from diverse cultural backgrounds came together to create a transnational learning community designed to develop their intercultural competence. The discontinuation of the program was announced in June 2008, Programs aboard the Scholar Ship were 16 weeks in duration. One was run in 2007 and another in 2008, approximately 200 students from 35 countries participated in the inaugural voyage which sailed on September 5,2007. The second voyage embarked from Hong Kong on January 2,2008 and ended in Amsterdam, a consortium of universities contributed to the Scholar Ships programming and were responsible for overseeing the quality of its academic offerings. The Scholar Ships transnational learning community integrated academic, cultural, the courses offered were directly from the college catalogs of the Academic Steward institutions. Postgraduate students had a variety of options to earn postgraduate certificates or continue their studies onshore to earn postgraduate degrees. Postgraduate degrees were awarded by one or more of a group of institutions around the world that accepted credit for postgraduate study aboard the Scholar Ship, postgraduate students selected a Learning Circle in which they pursued their studies throughout the semester. As a result, students learned from local experts and successful practitioners who shared their knowledge, opinions, there was also time for personal exploration, leisure and recreation. The Scholar Ships academic and residential programs were designed to develop intercultural leadership skills. On board, students were immersed in a living environment. The goal was for the student body, faculty and staff to form a learning community. This transnational learning community integrated academic, cultural, and social experiences into the program in a way that sought to enhance personal and professional development, every student belonged to a small residential community group. The Scholar Ship vessel was the MV Oceanic II and she is a 29,000 ton,201 meter ocean liner with 398 staterooms that could accommodate 796 students, faculty and staff. The ship could also accommodate 416 crew members, in September 2007, the Scholar Ship set sail on its 16-week inaugural voyage from Greece to Hong Kong. The itinerary of port stops spanned 4 continents and was developed to provide perspectives on topics explored through onboard academic programs. Greece to Portugal, Embarking from Athens, Greece, the ship made its way through the Mediterranean Sea to arrive at its first port of call, Lisbon, Portugal. Students and staff explored Lisbon via Academic Field Programs that included visits to the University of Lisbon, various museums, Panama, Panama City, Panama was the next port stop for the ship. Students spent time learning about local culture, economic and industrial growth
3.
Scholarism
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Scholarism was a Hong Kong pro-democracy student activist group active in the fields of Hong Kongs education policy, political reform and youth policy. It was reported to have 200 members in May 2015, the group was known for its stance on defending the autonomy of Hong Kongs education policy from Beijings unconstitutional interference. It was also the organisation during the 2014 Hong Kong protests. Scholarism ceased functioning in March 2016, core members including Joshua Wong, Oscar Lai and Agnes Chow formed a new political party Demosisto in April. The controversial subject ignored the Tiananmen massacre and tried to present the Communist Party of China in favourable light, the group was one of the few organisations that took part in the protest outside the Central Government Liaison Office after the 1 July March 2012. Fifty members occupied the park beneath the government offices. The protest lasted until September 2012, after rising to prominence during the movement against the Moral and National Education the pro-democracy students remained active in the social and democracy movement in Hong Kong. On 23 June 2013, Scholarism issued a statement which stressed the necessity of civil nomination for the 2017 Chief Executive election, the charter was signed by People Power, League of Social Democrats, Neo Democrats, and Neighbourhood and Workers Service Centre. It was also the day on which Scholarism hosted the class movement for secondary school students. Joshua Wong, leading activist of Scholarism, pronounced the boycott statement. At 10,30 p. m. when the assembly came to the end, Joshua Wong, all of a sudden, called for the crowd to retake the Civic Square, around which fences were built two months earlier. Led by members of HKFS, hundred of protesters climbed across fences, the police surrounded hundreds of protesters, and then further mobilised towards the Civic Square and clashed with the protesters. The police pepper-sprayed them and displayed their batons, in chaos, it was reported a protester was having a heart attack. The police force originally refused to let the medics enter, at 10,52 p. m. police handcuffed and arrested Joshua Wong for forcible entry to government premises, disorderly conduct in public place and unlawful assembly. As visible wounds were found, he was sent to Ruttonjee Hospital for medical inspections before sent to the Central Police station, many people on site were sent to the hospital because of injuries or feeling unwell. The police and protesters fell into stalemate later on, the raid on the Civic Square triggered the massive occupy protest in the following days, as more protesters were called in support of the students being carried away from the Civic Square. At the night of 27 September, HKFS and Scholarism organised another assembly, at 1,30 am,28 September, Benny Tai, co-initiator of the Occupy Central with Love and Peace movement, declared the official launch of the Occupy Central campaign. In the afternoon, as more and more people flooded to Admiralty in support of the students, later, the protesters began to occupy Harcourt Road which police responded by using tear gas, triggering widespread occupations at Admiralty, Mong Kok and Causeway Bay
4.
Scholasticism
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It originated as an outgrowth of and a departure from Christian monastic schools at the earliest European universities. The Scholastic thought is known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to other fields of study. Some of the figures of scholasticism include Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure. Important work in the tradition has been carried on well past Aquinass time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina. The terms scholastic and scholasticism derive from the Latin word scholasticus and the latter from the Greek σχολαστικός, forerunners of Christian scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally science of discourse, and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam. The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages, charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire and these schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning. During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the west except in Ireland, Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena, one of the founders of scholasticism, Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers. The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury and this period saw the beginning of the rediscovery of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the half of that century. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, as these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, at the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities The 13th, the early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe, powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. His work formed the basis of the commentaries that followed
5.
Student
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A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
6.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
7.
FAFSA
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The FAFSA should not be confused with the CSS Profile, which is also required by some colleges. The CSS is a product of the College Board and usually used by colleges to distribute their own institutional funding rather than federal or state. Nearly every student is eligible for some form of financial aid, students who may not be eligible for need-based aid may still be eligible for an unsubsidized Stafford Loan regardless of income or circumstances. S. Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2010 changed the criteria for suspension of eligibility for drug-related offenses, previously, students could lose eligibility for either the possession or sale of a controlled substance during the period of enrollment. SAFRA dropped the penalties for possession of a substance but retained the penalties for sale of a controlled substance. SAFRA increases the suspension to two years for a first offense and indefinite for a second offense, bill and its accompanying Yellow Ribbon program. Beginning with the 2017-2018 academic year, the FAFSA is made available to the public on October 1, the 2016-2017 academic year was the final time the FAFSA was made available on January 1. The US Department of Education made the FAFSA available earlier to more closely align the timing of the financial aid application process with the college application process. Additionally, 2-year old US tax information is used to complete the sections of the FAFSA beginning with the 2017-2018 academic year. Most financial aid is provided on a first-come, first-served basis, students should not engage with FAFSA preparation firms that are not transparent about FAFSA options and their fees upfront, or that promise to obtain scholarships. In addition to demographic and financial information, applicants can list up to ten schools to receive the results of the application once it is processed. However, the US Department of Education changed the FAFSA for the 2016-2017 academic year to prevent schools from having access to other schools that may be listed on the application. After completing the FAFSA, students are presented with a Student Aid Report, the SAR provides a student with their potential eligibility for different types of financial aid, their Expected Family Contribution, and a summary of the data a student provided in the application. Students should carefully review the SAR for errors and make any corrections as necessary, an electronic version of the SAR is made available to the colleges/universities the student includes on the FAFSA. The ISIR is also sent to state agencies that award need-based aid, Federal Student Aid offers several different types of financial aid. A2016 NerdWallet study found that students missed out on $2.7 billion in free federal Pell grants by not completing the FAFSA, the Federal Direct unsubsidized loan also has a fixed interest rate of 4. 29% and accumulates onto the outstanding balance. Federal Perkins Loan – A loan that is like the Stafford but is lent directly by schools that are Title IV-eligible, interest rate is fixed at 5%. The Federal Work-Study Program – A program where students can get part-time work, in most cases, the federal government pays half of a students wage and the school pays the other half
8.
Uniformed services of the United States
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Department of Defense is set by DOD Directive 1005.8 and is not dependent on the date of creation by the U. S. Congress. United States Coast Guard,4 August 1790 Note, The U. S. Coast Guard was a part of the U. S. Department of Transportation from 1967 to 2002. Prior to 1967, it was a part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps,4 January 1889 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps,22 May 1917. The NOAA Corps was created as the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps, the ESSA Corps became the NOAA Corps as a component of NOAA when ESSA was abolished and NOAA simultaneously was created on 3 October 1970. Under all three names, the Corps has been an element of the Department of Commerce throughout its existence, the seven uniformed services are defined by 10 U. S. C. §101, The five uniformed services make up the United States Armed Forces are defined in the previous clause 10 U. S. C. §101, The term armed forces means the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, five of the uniformed services make up the U. S. Armed Forces, four of which are within the U. S. Department of Defense, the Coast Guard is part of the Department of Homeland Security and has both military and law enforcement duties. Title 14 states that the Coast Guard is part of the military at all times, during a declared state of war, however, the President or Congress may direct that the Coast Guard operate as part of the Navy. Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces are all members of the military, the National Guard was first formed in the Colony of Virginia in 1607 and is the oldest uniformed military force founded in the New World. The National Guard can also be mobilized by the President to operate under Federal authority through Title 10, however, in Federal service command and control of National Guard organizations will fall under the designated Geographic or Functional Combatant Commander. The National Guard of the United States serves as a component for both the Army and the Air Force and can be called up for federal active duty in times of war or national emergencies. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps is a branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is the personnel system of the United States Public Health Service. Commissioned officers of NOAA and PHS wear uniforms that are derived from U. S. Navy uniforms, except that the devices, buttons. Uniformed officers of NOAA and PHS are paid on the scale as members of the armed services with respective rank. Additionally, PHS Officers are covered by the Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Act, furthermore, all seven uniformed services are subject to the provisions of 10 USC1408, the Uniformed Services Former Spouses Protection Act. PHS and NOAA consist of commissioned officers only and have no warrant ranks or enlisted ranks, Commissioned officers of the PHS and NOAA may be militarized by the President
9.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
10.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
11.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
12.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
13.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
14.
NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps
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The NOAA Corps is the smallest of the U. S. The NOAA Corps is the smallest of the seven uniformed services of the United States Government and it has over 300 commissioned officers, but no enlisted or warrant officer ranks. The NOAA Corps today provides a cadre of professionals trained in engineering, earth sciences, oceanography, meteorology, fisheries science, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps traces its roots to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Coast and Geodetic Surveys predecessor, the United States Survey of the Coast – renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836 – was founded in 1807 under President Thomas Jefferson. Until the American Civil War, the Coast Survey was manned by civilian personnel working with United States Army and United States Navy officers. During the Civil War, Army officers were withdrawn from Coast Survey duty, never to return, while all, with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the Navy again withdrew all of its officers from Coast and Geodetic Survey assignments. They returned after the war ended in August 1898, but the system of U. S, from July 1900, the Coast and Geodetic Survey continued as an entirely civilian-manned organization until after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. Before World War I ended in November 1918, over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officers had served in the U. S. Army, the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps returned to peacetime scientific pursuits after the war. Its first flag officer was Rear Admiral Raymond S. Patton, when the United States entered World War II in December 1941, the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps again suspended its peacetime activities to support the war effort, often seeing front-line service. Over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey officers were transferred to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Louis, Missouri. Three officers who remained in Coast and Geodetic Survey service were killed during the war, following the establishment of the ESSA, Rear Admiral H. Arnold Karo was promoted to admiral in order to help lead the agency. Tison, Jr. was the first director of the ESSA Corps, the ESSA was reorganized and expanded to become the new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 3,1970. As a result, the ESSA Corps was redesignated the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren was appointed as the first director of the new NOAA Corps. In 1972, the NOAA Corps became the first uniformed service of the U. S. Government to recruit women on the basis as men. On June 1,2012, the NOAA research vessel RV Gloria Michelle, on January 2,2014, Michael S. The NOAA Corps uses the same commissioned officer ranks as the U. S. Navy, while the grade of admiral has been established as a rank in the NOAA Corps, the rank has not been authorized for use by the United States Congress. Current NOAA Corps ranks rise from ensign to admiral, pay grades O-1 through O-9 respectively
15.
Miss America
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Miss America refers to both The Miss America Organization and The Miss America Foundation. The competition is a pageant that is held annually and is open to women from the United States between the ages of 17 and 24. Originating in 1921 as a bathing beauty revue, the contest is now judged on competitors talent performances, Miss America travels about 20,000 miles a month, changing her location every 24 to 48 hours, touring the nation and promoting her particular platform of interest. The winner is crowned by the previous years titleholder, the current titleholder, Miss America 2017, is Miss Arkansas 2016, Savvy Shields, who was crowned on September 11,2016, by her predecessor Betty Cantrell. The origins of the Miss America pageant lie in a 1920 event entitled The Fall Frolic, three hundred and fifty men pushed the chairs. However, the attractions were the young maidens who sat in the rolling chairs, headed by a Miss Ernestine Cremona. The event was so successful that The Businessmens League planned to repeat it the year as a beauty pageant or a bathers revue. Thus, newspapers as far west as Pittsburgh and as far south as Washington, the winners would participate in the Atlantic City contest. If the local newspaper would pay for the wardrobe, the Atlantic City Businessmens League would pay for the contestants travel to compete in the Inter-City Beauty Contest. Herb Test, a newspaperman coined the term for the winner as, on September 8,1921,100,000 people gathered at the Boardwalk to watch the contestants from Washington, D. C. Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Ocean City, Camden, Newark, New York, the 16-year-old winner from Washington, D. C. Margaret Gorman, was crowned the Golden Mermaid and won $100. With its revival in 1933, 15-year-old Marian Bergeron won, prompting future contestants to be between the ages of 18 to 26, in 1935, Lenora Slaughter was hired to re-invent the pageant and served for 32 years as its Director. By 1938, a talent section was added to the competition, in 1940, the title officially became The Miss America Pageant and the pageant was held in Atlantic Citys Convention Hall. In 1944, compensation for Miss America switched from furs and movie contracts to college scholarships, an idea generally credited to Jean Bartel, Miss America 1943. During the early years of the pageant, under the directorship of Lenora Slaughter, it became segregated via rule number seven that stated, contestants must be of good health, rule number seven was abolished in 1950. Although there were Native American, Latina, and Asian-American contestants, in 1970, however, Cheryl Browne, Miss Iowa 1970, competed as the first African-American contestant in the Miss America 1971 pageant. She also participated in one of the last USO-Miss America tours in Vietnam, a decade later in 1983, Miss New York 1983, Vanessa Williams, faced discrimination in response to her win and later resigned under pressure due to a scandal involving nude photographs. Two years later at the Miss America 2016 pageant, Miss America CEO Sam Haskell apologized to Vanessa Williams for what was said to her during the events of 1984, the contest that year was won by Mary Katherine Campbell and again in 1923
16.
Organization
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An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means organ, a hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers, such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs. Organizations may also operate in secret and/or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, the study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages, juries are used in athletic contests, book awards. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury, in the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables. Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions, condorcets jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote. The problem is that if the member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice. Parliamentary procedure, such as Roberts Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in discussions without reaching decisions. Bad parts of the organization starve, everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired. Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on in ecology and it is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous. The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this article from The Guardian. This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies, one hierarchy is functional and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is executive and tries to get projects completed using the experts, projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema. As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines. A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization, so one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle, a book that introduced hierarchiology, the broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, From a functional perspective, from an institutional perspective, an organization is viewed as a purposeful structure within a social context
17.
The Good Schools Guide
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The Good Schools Guide is a guide to British schools. The guide is compiled by a team of editors, which according to the official website comprises some 50 editors, writers, researchers and contributors, mostly parents, since the first edition in 1986, the Guide has been republished 20 times. The chief editor is Ralph Lucas, an offshoot is the Good Schools Guide Education Consultants - a service for finding schools and offering educational or other advice to parents on a consultancy basis. The consultants are The Guide writers and other experts, the Times Educational Supplement stated that the Guide is. untroubled by the sensibilities of schools and. Cavalier in the face of squawks from those it has offended, the Daily Telegraph reviewed the guide in the following terms, Unique among the many guides available, it sets out to give frank answers to the questions every parent asks. Similarly, the Financial Times called the Guide One of the best aids for parents. informative, the FT has also described the Guide as one of Britains leading guides to schools. The GSGI is aimed at British parents who are living abroad, the GSGI is also mostly written and edited by expatriates. The GSG also publishes Uni in the USA, a guide to universities abroad written by, official website Good Schools Guide International official website Uni in the USA official website Good Schools Guide Advice Service official website
18.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
19.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
20.
Place of worship
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A building constructed or used for this purpose is sometimes called a house of worship. Temples, churches, and mosques are examples of structures created for worship, a monastery, particularly for Buddhists, may serve both to house those belonging to religious orders and as a place of worship for visitors. These international laws of war bar firing upon or from a religious building, a Mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni jurisprudence for a place of worship to be considered a masjid, many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, in varying styles of architecture. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents, the mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat as well as a center for information, education, social welfare, and dispute settlement. The imam leads the congregation in prayer and its original meaning is to refer to the body of believers, or the body of Christ. The word church is used to refer to a Christian place of worship by some Christian denominations, including Anglicans, instead, these groups use words such as Hall to identify their places of worship or any building in use by them for the purpose of assembly. Basilica Cathedral or minster Chapel – Presbyterian Church of Wales, and some other denominations, in Catholicism and Anglicanism, some smaller and private places of worship are called chapels. Normal worship services are held in meeting houses while Mormon temples are reserved for special ordinances. Temple – French Protestants Protestant denominations installed in France in the modern era use the word temple. Orthodox temple – Orthodox Christianity an Orthodox temple is a place of worship with base shaped like Greek cross and their multi-congregation events are typically held at a meeting place termed Assembly Hall of Jehovahs Witnesses. Some Jewish congregations use the Yiddish term shul to describe their place of worship or Beyt Knesset meaning house of assembly, hof – Norse Paganism Jinja – Shinto Gurdwara – Sikhism Daoguan – Taoism Fire temple - All Zoroastrian temples fall into the Fire temple category. Atash Behram Agyari Dadgah Nhà thờ họ, historically speaking Vietnamese people venerate their ancestors, as they somehow still exist among them. However, there is a diversity of religions in Vietnam, Christianity, Buddhism
21.
Theology
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
22.
Chamber of commerce
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A chamber of commerce is a form of business network, for example, a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community, local businesses are members, and they elect a board of directors or executive council to set policy for the chamber. The board or council then hires a President, CEO or Executive Director, plus staffing appropriate to size, the first chamber of commerce was founded in 1599 in Marseille, France. Another official chamber of commerce would follow 65 years later, probably in Bruges, however, Hull Chamber of Commerce is the UKs oldest, followed by those of Leeds and of Belfast in Northern Ireland. As a non-governmental institution, a chamber of commerce has no role in the writing and passage of laws. It may however, lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses, membership in an individual chamber can range from a few dozen to well over 800,000, as is the case with the Paris Île-de-France Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Some chamber organizations in China report even larger membership numbers, Chambers of commerce can range in scope from individual neighborhoods within a city or town up to an international chamber of commerce. In addition, Chambers represent the interests of businesses, while the BBB represents both the interests of businesses and the general public, some Chambers are partially funded by local government, others are non-profit, and some are a combination of the two. Chambers of commerce also can include economic development corporations or groups as well as tourism, some chambers have joined state, national and even international bodies. Currently, there are about 13,000 chambers registered in the official Worldchambers Network registry, and this network is informal, with each local chamber incorporated and operating separately, rather than as a chapter of a national or state chamber. Chambers of commerce in the United States can be considered community, city, regional, state, city Chambers work on the local level to bring the business community together to develop strong local networks, which can result in a business-to-business exchange. In most cases, city Chambers work with their government, such as their mayor, their city council. There are also bilateral chambers of commerce that link the business environments of two countries, community chambers of commerce have started in the UK and later spread to in the US, becoming city chambers of commerce as the communities developed and became larger. Community chambers of commerce are smaller and most have a limits on numbers of members, city chambers of commerce have a long history in the US. The Charleston Chamber of Commerce is one of the oldest, dating back to colonial 1773 and that same year, Bostons Chamber of Commerce organized a seminal tax protest, The Boston Tea Party. In 2005 there were 2,800 chambers of commerce in the United States and 102 chambers representing U. S. businesses overseas. State chambers of commerce are much different from local and regional chambers of commerce, as work on state. State Chambers work with their Governor, state representatives, state senators, US congressional leaders, understanding the National or International need for understanding and information is the key service that these level of chambers of commerce provide
23.
School
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A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word
24.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
25.
SAT
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The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. The SAT is owned and published by the College Board, a private and it is developed and administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service. The test is intended to assess students readiness for college, on March 5,2014, the College Board announced that a redesigned version of the SAT would be administered for the first time in 2016. Scores on the SAT range from 400 to 1600, combining test results from two 800-point sections, mathematics, and critical reading and writing. Taking the SAT, or its competitor, the ACT, is required for entry to many. The SAT is typically taken by high school juniors and seniors, the College Board states that the SAT measures literacy and writing skills that are needed for academic success in college. They state that the SAT assesses how well the test takers analyze, however, the test is administered under a tight time limit to help produce a range of scores. Various studies conducted over the lifetime of the SAT show a significant increase in correlation of high school grades. A large independent validity study on the SATs ability to predict college freshman GPA was performed by the University of California, the results of this study found how well various predictor variables could explain the variance in college freshman GPA. When high school GPA and the SAT I were combined, they explained 20. 8% of the variance in college freshman GPA, when high school GPA and the SAT II were combined, they explained 22. 2% of the variance in college freshman GPA. When SAT I was added to the combination of high school GPA and SAT II, SAT scores are intended to supplement the secondary school record and help admission officers put local data—such as course work, grades, and class rank—in a national perspective. However, independent research has shown that high school GPA is better than the SAT at predicting college grades regardless of school type or quality. SAT consists of three sections, Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing. Each section receives a score on the scale of 200–800, all scores are multiples of 10. Total scores are calculated by adding up scores of the three sections, each major section is divided into three parts. There are 10 sub-sections, including an additional 25-minute experimental or equating section that may be in any of the three major sections, the experimental section is used to normalize questions for future administrations of the SAT and does not count toward the final score. The test contains 3 hours and 45 minutes of actual timed sections, most administrations run for about four, the questions range from easy, medium, and hard depending on the scoring from the experimental sections. Easier questions typically appear closer to the beginning of the section while harder questions are toward the end in certain sections and this is not true for every section but it is the rule of thumb mainly for math, grammar, and the 19 sentence-completions in the reading sections
26.
Tuition centre
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Tuition centre is a special term for private educational institutions, they are especially abundant and ubiquitous in Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, The Middle East and Singapore. In Indonesia, they are known as Bimbingan Belajar or bimbel in short, many school teachers earn their supplementary income through tuition centres and agencies. Some teachers advertise their tuition classes and coach those who attend their classes on how to tackle examination questions and their focus is primarily rote learning. Some teachers earn up to RM10,000 or S$8,000 by giving private tuition, notwithstanding, there is a huge, and still growing trend, among local parents who send their kids to tuition. Tuition centres are a competitive business in Singapore. There are an estimated 2000 tuition centres in Singapore alone, in-home tutoring College tuition Homeschooling Tuition agency Education in Malaysia Education in Singapore
27.
Disability
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Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
28.
Fulbright Program
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The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. It is one of the most prestigious scholarships in the world, the Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education and it operates in over 160 countries around the world. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an appropriation from the U. S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from governments, foundations, corporations. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers, in countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the U. S. Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began, fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes, eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes. In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U. S. government war property to international exchange between the U. S. and other countries. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and it was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be. If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace. On August 1,1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis, each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U. S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were Cuba in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations. The Fulbright Program works two ways, U. S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country, citizens may come to the U. S. Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees fields of study span the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences. Student Program offers fellowships for U. S. graduating seniors, graduate students, young professionals and artists to research, study, the Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young professionals and artists from abroad to conduct research and study in the United States. Some scholarships are renewed after the year of study. This program is currently on hiatus, the Fulbright-mtvU Fellowships award up to four U. S. students the opportunity to study the power of music as a cultural force abroad. Fellows conduct research for one year on projects of their own design about a chosen musical aspect
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Rhodes Scholarship
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The Rhodes Scholarship, named for the British mining magnate and South African politician Cecil John Rhodes, is an international postgraduate award for students to study at the University of Oxford. It is widely considered to be one of the worlds most prestigious scholarships, established in 1902, it was the first large-scale programme of international scholarships, inspiring the creation of a great many other awards in other countries. With the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race, since its creation, controversy has surrounded both its former exclusion of women, and Rhodes Anglo-supremacist beliefs and legacy of colonialism. As of 2016, there have been 7,776 scholars since the programmes inception, more than 4,700 are still living. The Rhodes Scholarships are administered and awarded by the Rhodes Trust, which was established in 1902 under the terms and conditions of the will of Cecil John Rhodes, Rhodes motivation in establishing the scholarship is reflected in his will. Stead noted that it him to the world as the first distinguished British statesman whose Imperialism was that of Race, with the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race. With this motivation in mind, the legacy originally provided for scholarships for the British colonies and these three were chosen because it was thought that a good understanding between England, Germany and the United States of America will secure the peace of the world. In 1925, the Commonwealth Fund Fellowships were established to reciprocate the Rhodes Scholarships by enabling British graduates to study in the United States and it also cooperates with universities in China, BLCC for example. BLCC offers high-level scholarships for students who aim to study Chinese in Beijing. In 1953, the Parliament of the United Kingdom created the Marshall Scholarship as an alternative to the Rhodes Scholarship that would serve as a living gift to the United States. For at least its first 75 years, Rhodes Scholars usually studied for a second Bachelor of Arts degree, while that remains an option, more recent scholars usually study for an advanced degree. In recognition of the centenary of the foundation of the Rhodes Trust in 2003 and these were John Brademas, Bob Hawke, Rex Nettleford and David R. Woods. During the centenary celebrations, the foundation of the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was also marked, Cecil Rhodes wished current scholars and Rhodes alumni to have opportunities of meeting and discussing their experiences and prospects. Each countrys scholarship varies in its selectivity, in the United States, in 2014, there were 857 university-endorsed applicants for the Americans Rhodes scholarship, of whom 3. 7% were ultimately elected. In Canada between 1997-2002, there were an average of 234 university-endorsed applicants annually for 11 scholarships, for a rate of 4. 7%. An early change was the elimination of the scholarships for Germany during the First, no German scholars were chosen from 1914 to 1929, nor from 1940 to 1969. Rhodess bequest was whittled down considerably in the first decades after his death, a change occurred in 1929, when an Act of Parliament established a fund separate from the original proceeds of Rhodess will and made it possible to expand the number of scholarships. Between 1993 and 1995, scholarships were extended to countries in the European Community
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Gates Cambridge Scholarship
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The awardees are given funding for postgraduate study at the University for the duration of the degree. The award includes all costs and a maintenance allowance, currently £13,300. Scholars are also able to access funds for conferences, have exclusive use of recreational and social facilities. The first scholars arrived at Cambridge in October 2001, and the Scholarship celebrated its 10th anniversary in July 2010, the Gates Scholarships are similar in structure to Oxford Universitys Rhodes Scholarships, although the Gates Scholarships are much younger and are awarded through a more centralized process. Their duration is also flexible, as the Rhodes and Marshall Scholarships generally only last for two years. 7% of Rhodes applicants,3. 7% of Mitchell applicants, and 3. 2% of Marshall applicants. However, the international Gates Scholarships are far more competitive, applicants from any country other than the United Kingdom are eligible for the scholarships. In the first 13 years of the program,1236 individuals from 95 different countries have been awarded scholarships, by statute, approximately 40% of scholars are intended for citizens of the United States. Other common countries of citizenship have been Germany, India, Canada, Australia, the Cambridge Gates Trust aims to maintain about 200 Scholars in residence at any time, and 90 Gates Scholars are elected each year from a pool of over 4500 applicants. Although the Trust does not set a minimum GPA, the average GPA of Gates Scholars as of 2011 is 3.93, with a range of GPAs from 3.7 to 4.0. The Cambridge Gates Scholars stand together as a demonstration of the vision of Bill & Melinda Gates to help bring about a new global belief that every life has equal value. We are determined to join their fight to build a future for everyone. In 2002, the Gates Scholars self-organized and elected a student committee titled The Gates Scholars Council, the Council aims to represent the Gates Scholars at Cambridge and to build a scholar community interwoven into the fabric of the University. The scholarship is known for its strong academic and social community at Cambridge. In 2005, the once again self-organized to create the Gates Scholars Alumni Association. This association aims to build upon the friendships and contacts that were first made at Cambridge and it is an active and growing organization, with members dispersed all over the world. In 2014, through donation and collaboration this community of Gates Millennium Scholars cofounded and successfully launched GatesScholars. com | Think Tank. Gates opening for the leaders of tomorrow, official website Bloomberg news coverage and comparison with Rhodes Scholarship Coverage in the Harvard Crimson
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Marshall Scholarship
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The Marshall Scholarship is a postgraduate scholarship for intellectually distinguished young Americans their countrys future leaders to study at any university in the United Kingdom. Created by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1953 as a gift to the United States in recognition of the generosity of Secretary of State George C. 2% in 2015. The program was also the first major co-educational British graduate scholarship, currently, there are over 1,900 Marshall Scholar alumni. These scholarships point the way to the continuation and growth of the understanding which found its necessity in the struggle of the war years. The published objectives of the Marshall Scholarships are outlined as follows, To enable intellectually distinguished young Americans, their countrys future leaders, to help scholars gain an understanding and appreciation of contemporary Britain. To contribute to the advancement of knowledge in science, technology, the humanities and social sciences, to motivate scholars to act as ambassadors from the USA to the UK and vice versa throughout their lives thus strengthening British American understanding. To promote the personal and academic fulfilment of each scholar, ray Dolby, Thomas L. Friedman, and former President of Duke University Nannerl Keohane. The number of scholars was increased to 30 in 1973,40 in 1991, in 2010, the Commission decided to offer a limited number of one year awards. Prospective applicants must first be endorsed by their universities to apply, the selection process is then coordinated through the eight major British embassy/consulate regions in the United States. Each committee then interviews each of the regional finalists prior to making the decisions on the years awards. In 2014, 16% of university-endorsed applicants received an interview, Marshall Scholars are talented, independent and wide-ranging in their interests, and their time as Scholars will enhance their intellectual and personal growth. Their direct engagement with Britain through its best academic programmes will contribute to their personal success. In appointing Scholars the selectors will look for distinction of intellect, preference will be given to candidates who display a potential to make a significant contribution to their own society. Selectors will also look for motivation and seriousness of purpose. Between 900 and 1000 students are typically endorsed to apply for the Marshall Scholarship annually, with 979 applying in 2014, in 2015,3. 2% of university-endorsed applicants to the Marshall Scholarship were elected. The Marshall selection committees place an emphasis on academic achievement and potential. Successful applicants, however, typically have much higher GPAs, more than half of applicants have perfect academic records, winners from Harvard University have had average GPAs of 3.92, and Stanford University recommends that applicants have a GPA of 3.8 or above. In comparison, winners of the Rhodes Scholarship from Harvard have had an average GPA of 3.8
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Salon (website)
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Salon is an American news and opinion website created by David Talbot in 1995 and owned by Salon Media Group. It focuses on U. S. politics, culture, Salons headquarters is located at 870 Market Street San Francisco, California. As of June 2013, its editor-in-chief is David Daley, after previous editor-in-chief Kerry Lauerman stepped down to partner with Larer Ventures on a new startup, lauermans predecessor Joan Walsh stepped down from that position in November 2010 but remained as editor at large. Salon covers a variety of topics, according to the senior contributing writer for the American Journalism Review, Paul Farhi, Salon offers provocative political commentary and lots of sex. In 2008, Salon launched the interactive initiative Open Salon, a social content site/blog network for its readers, originally a curated site with some of its content being featured on Salon, it fell into editorial neglect and was closed in March 2015. Responding to the question, How far do you go with the sensibility to get readers. Former Salon. com editor-in-chief David Talbot said, Is Salon more tabloid-like, yeah, weve made no secret of that. Ive said all along that our formula here is that were a smart tabloid, David Talbot founded Salon and became its original editor-in-chief. He has served stints as CEO, most recently replacing Richard Gingras who left to join Google as head of news products in July 2011. As of May,2016, the companys CEO is Jordan Hoffner, the magazine was founded by the Examiners former arts and features editor David Talbot and launched in November 1995. In its early days readers noticed a specifically Northern California flavor, in an interview in 1996, Talbott agreed, We swim in the soup of San Francisco. There are a lot of odd fish weve plucked out of the Bay here, time magazine named it one of the Best Web Site of 1996. Salon purchased the virtual community The WELL in April 1999, Salon Premium, a pay-to-view content subscription was introduced on April 25,2001. The service signed over 130,000 subscribers and staved off discontinuation of services, on October 9,2003, Michael ODonnell, the chief executive and president of Salon Media Group, said he was leaving the company after seven years because it was time for a change. When he left, Salon. com had accrued $83.6 million in losses since its inception, David Talbot, Salons chairman and editor-in-chief at the time, became the new chief executive. Elizabeth Betsy Hambrecht, then Salons chief financial officer, became the president, in July 2008, Salon launched Open Salon, a social content site and curated blog network. It was nominated for a 2009 National Magazine Award. in the category best interactive feature, on March 9,2015, Salon announced it would be closing Open Salon after six years of hosting a community of writers and bloggers. On June 10,2011, Salon closed its online chat board Table Talk without stating a reason for ending that section of the site
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
