1.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
2.
School uniform
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A school uniform is a uniform worn by students primarily for a school or otherwise educational institution. They are common in primary and secondary schools in various countries, an example of a uniform would be requiring white button-downs and ties for boys and pleated skirts for girls, with both wearing blazers. A uniform can even be as simple as requiring collared shirts, or restricting colour choices, a dress code, on the other hand, is much less restrictive, and focuses on promoting modesty and discouraging anti-social fashion statements, according to Marian Wilde. Examples of a dress code would be not allowing ripped clothing and it is difficult to trace the origins of the uniform as there is no comprehensive written history, but rather a variety of known influences. School uniforms are believed to be a practice which dates to the 16th century in the United Kingdom and it is believed that the Christ Hospital School in London in 1552 was the first school to use a school uniform. Little is known prior to the Archbishop of Canterbury ordered monks to wear a specific form of dress. Despite this example, the roots of the day uniform come mostly from the collegiate uniforms in England. Universities, primary schools and secondary schools used uniforms as a marker of class and status, as early as the sixteenth century, uniforms were utilised and became more specific as various fashion trends became undesirable to the university. Although uniforms can often be considered conservative and old-fashioned, uniforms in recent years have changed as societal dress codes have changed, there are an abundance of theories and empirical studies looking at school uniforms, making statements about their effectiveness. These theories and studies elaborate on the benefits and also the shortcomings of uniform policies, the issue of nature vs. nurture comes into play, as uniforms affect the perceptions of masculinity and femininity, complicate the issue of gender classification and also subdue the sexuality of girls. With uniforms also comes a variety of controversies, pros, cons, there are two main empirical findings that are most often cited in the political rhetoric surrounding the uniform debate. The case study of the Long Beach Unified School District was the study of the first large, in 1994, mandatory school uniforms were implemented for the districts elementary and middle schools as a strategy to address the students behaviour issues. The district simultaneously implemented a study to research the effects of the uniforms on student behavior. The study attributed favourable student behavioral changes and a significant drop in school discipline issues to the uniform policy. Research, on the hand, empirically examined how a school uniform affects attendance, behavior problems, substance abuse. Researchers in this study expected that the direct of uniforms on these outcomes would disappear once the moderating variables were introduced to the equation, if this were to be the case, then arguments proclaiming uniform policies direct effect on said outcomes would be proven false. This study used a nationally representative sample of students, from the results, researchers were able to conclude that students wearing uniforms did not have any significant difference in academic preparedness or proschool attitudes than other students. Researchers also found that student uniforms were not significantly correlated with school commitment variables such as truancy, behaviour, as uniforms have become more normalised, there have also been an increasing number of lawsuits brought against school districts
3.
Student
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A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
4.
Compulsory education
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Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by law. Depending on the country, this education may take place at a school or at home. Compulsory education was not unheard of in ancient times, however instances are generally tied to royal, religious or military organization—substantially different from modern notions of compulsory education. Platos The Republic is credited with having popularized the concept of education in Western intellectual thought. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education, popularization of Platos ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Platos works by Marsilio Ficino, culminating in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, known for his own work on education, Emile, or On Education had said To get an idea of public education. It is not a treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think. In Sparta boys between the age 6 and 7 left their homes and were sent to military school, School courses were harsh and have been described as a brutal training period. Between the age of 18 and 20, Spartan males had to pass a test that consisted of fitness, military ability, a students failure meant a forfeiture of citizenship and political rights. Every parent in Judea since ancient times was required to teach their children at least informally, over the centuries, as cities, towns and villages developed, a class of teachers called Rabbis evolved. The Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 in what is now central Mexico, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of compulsory education. The Protestant Reformation prompted the establishment of compulsory education for boys and girls, first in regions that are now part of Germany, and later in Europe and in the United States. Martin Luthers seminal text An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes called for establishing compulsory schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible by themselves, the Protestant South-West of the Holy Roman Empire soon followed suit. In 1559, the German Duchy Württemberg established an education system for boys. In Scotland, the School Establishment Act of 1616 commanded every parish to establish a school for everyone paid for by parishioners, the Parliament of Scotland confirmed this with the Education Act of 1633 and created a local land-based tax to provide the required funding. The required majority support of parishioners, however, provided a tax evasion loophole which heralded the Education Act of 1646, the turmoil of the age meant that in 1661 there was a temporary reversion to the less compulsory 1633 position. In the United States, following Luther and other Reformers, the Separatist Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, obliged parents to teach their children how to read and write. The 1647 law, in particular, required every town having more than 50 families to hire a teacher, the Puritan zeal for learning was reflected in the early and rapid rise of educational institutions, e. g. Harvard College was founded as early as 1636
5.
Primary school
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A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of education, and is normally available without charge. The term grade school is used in the US though this term may refer to both primary education and secondary education. The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States, in the United States, primary school may refer to a school with grades Kindergarten through second grade or third grade. In these municipalities, the school includes grade three through five or grades four to six
6.
Secondary school
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A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages 11 and 16, the systems and terminology remain unique to each country. School building design does not happen in isolation, schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, storage, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the roll of the school. A general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55m2, or more generously 62m2, a general art room for 30 students needs to be 83m2, but 104 m2 for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m2, examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary. The building providing the education has to fulfil the needs of, The students, the teachers, the support staff, the adminstrators. It has to should meet health requirements, minimal functional requirements- such as classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity, textbooks, Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establish building costs. Future plans are audited to ensure that standards are not exceeded. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014 and it said the floor area should be 1050m² +6. 3m²/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7m²/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m², a secondary school, locally may be called high school, junior high school, senior high school. Sweden, gymnasium Switzerland, gymnasium, secondary school, collège or lycée Taiwan, Junior High School, Senior High School, Vocational High School, Military School, in Nigeria, secondary school starts from JSS1 until SSS3. Most students start at the age of 10 or 11 and finish at 16 or 17, Students are required to sit for the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. To progress to university students must obtain at least a credit in Maths, English, in Somalia, secondary school starts from 9th grade until 12th. Students start it when they are around 14 to 15 years of age, Students are required to study Somali and Arabic, with the option of either English or Italian depending on the type of school. Religion, chemistry, physics, biology, physical education, textile, art, design, when secondary school has been completed, students are sent to national training camp before going to either college, or military training. In South Africa, high school begins at grade 8, Students study for five years, at the end of which they write a Matriculation examination
7.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
8.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
9.
Kindergarten
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Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
10.
Vocational school
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In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. Vocational schools were called technical colleges in Australia, and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training, only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as trade colleges. At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate, in Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position, which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the colleges the training is longer. Vocational schools are called colleges in Canada. However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, in Ontario, secondary schools were separated into three streams, technical schools, commercial or business schools, and collegiates. In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities have divided postsecondary education into universities, community colleges, in the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called CEGEPs, but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of school, and then complete three years at a university, to earn an undergraduate degree. In Central and Eastern Europe, an education is represented in forms of vocational technical schools often abbreviated as PTU. Vocational school Vocational school or Vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, in Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be an entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a specialist degree and it could be compared to a trade high school. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU, technicum Technical college is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums provided a level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a vocational institutes, however, Institute Institutes were considered a higher level of education, however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities, the Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths
11.
College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
12.
Christian school
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A Christian school is a school run on Christian principles or by a Christian organization. The nature of Christian schools varies enormously from country to country, according to the religious, educational, over 4 million students, about 1 child in 12, attend religious schools, most of them Christian. There is great variety in the educational and religious philosophies of these schools, the largest system of Christian education in the United States is operated by the Roman Catholic Church. As of 2011, there were 6,841 elementary and secondary schools enrolling about 2.2 million students, most are administered by individual dioceses and parishes. The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod operates the largest Protestant school system in the United States, currently the LCMS operates 1,368 Early Childhood Centers,1,018 elementary schools,102 high schools, ten universities and two seminaries for a total of 2488 schools in the United States. These schools educate more than 280,000 students and are taught by almost 18,000 teachers, the only state without a Lutheran school is Maine. Lutheran schools operated by the LCMS also exist in Hong Kong, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod currently operates 23 high schools. Episcopal schools are far more likely to be independent, with little outside control, many conservative Protestants reserve the term Christian school for schools affiliated with conservative Protestant denominations, excluding Catholic schools in particular. These conservative Protestant Christian schools are run, often in conjunction with a church or a denomination. Some American Christian schools are large and well-funded, while others are small, even though a school may accept no government money, it still must adhere to the state education curriculum, student academic performance standards, and state-mandated standardized testing scores. It is also subject to inspection by government regulators for in-classroom teaching quality and teacher qualifications. Not accepting government money avoids government management of a Christian school, according to the Seventh-day Adventist Church the largest Protestant Christian school system in the world is the Seventh-day Adventist educational system. The Seventh-day Adventist Church has a total of 6,709 educational institutions operating in over 100 countries around the world with over 1.2 million students worldwide. The North American Division Office of Education oversees 1049 schools with 65,000 students in the United States, Canada, another large association of Protestant Christian schools is the Association of Christian Schools International. ACSI serves 5,300 member schools in approximately 100 countries with an enrollment of nearly 1.2 million students, the American Association of Christian Schools, founded in 1972, brings together many conservative Protestant Christian schools. Members subscribe to a Statement of Faith based on biblical literalism, creationism, AACS member schools enroll over 100,000 students. The AACS has a lobbying program in Washington. Another association of Protestant Christian schools is Christian Schools International, with approximately 500 schools and 100,000 students, one movement among Christian schools in the US is the return to the traditional subjects and form of education known as classical education
13.
Madrasa
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Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious. The word is variously transliterated madrasah, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, in the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. In countries like India, not all students in madrasas are Muslims, the word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S to learn, study, through the wazn مفعل, mafʻal, meaning a place where something is done. Therefore, madrasah literally means a place where learning and studying take place, for example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة, the Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning, the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. However, in English, the term usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir, sharīʻah, hadiths, mantiq, in the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, people of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study, a good number of the ḥuffāẓ are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes, an important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students, however, they study separately from the men, the term Islamic education means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same, because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. The first institute of education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher. After Hijrah the madrasa of Suffa was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque, ubada ibn as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students. In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Quran, The Hadith, faraiz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, there were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of nabuwwat to the first portion of the Umaiya caliphate and it was founded by Fāṭimah al-Fihrī, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihrī. This was later followed by the establishment of al-Azhar in 959 in Cairo, niẓām al-Mulk, who would later be murdered by the Assassins, created a system of state madaris in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century
14.
Hawza
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A Hawza or ḥawza ʻilmiyya is a seminary where Shia Muslim clerics are trained. Several senior Grand Ayatollahs constitute the hawza, the institutions in Najaf, Iraq and Qom, Iran, are the preeminent seminary centers for the training of Shia clergymen. Hawza Ilmiyya in Najaf, Iraq was established in 430 AH by Shaykh al-Tusi, at present Ayatollah Sistani heads Hawza Ilmiyya Najaf, which includes three other Ayatollahs - Mohammad Ishaq Al-Fayyad, Mohammad Saeed Al-Hakim and Bashir al-Najafi. The famous teachers of that era included Mulla Sadra and Shaykh Bahai, the modern Qom hawza was revitalized by Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi and Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi and is barely a century old. There are nearly three hundred thousand clerics in Iran’s seminaries, there are also a number of womens hawza, mostly located in Iran. Already in the early 1800s, the Salehiyya madrasa in Qazvin ran a section where several lady mujtahids were trained. In Qom, the earliest seminary for women was established by grand ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari who in 1973 added a section to his hawza Dar al-Tabligh. Next, the Haghani school opened a wing in 1974/75. Outside Qom, womens seminaries included Maktab-e Fatema of Fasa, Maktab-e Zahra of Shiraz, Maktab-e Fatimah of Isfahan, Zahra-i Athar of Tehran, after the 1979 revolution in Iran, the state began to centralize the womens hawza system. The womens seminaries in Qom were centralized into one large school, in Khorasan with its clerical center of Mashhad, the womens maktabs came under the aegis of the state-run Centre for Management of Women’s Seminaries of Khorasan. In the rest of the country, womens seminaries were integrated into the Centre for Management of Women’s Seminaries, since the mid-1990s the latter center has established more than 300 seminaries across Iran. Hawza students begin their studies by learning fiqh, kalam, hadith, tafsir, philosophy, natural, once these studies have been completed, they may begin preparation to become a mujtahid by studying advanced old textbooks known as sath, and research courses known as kharij. To be a one has to excel in the advanced levels of the Hawza including Muqaddimmaat, Sotooh, Sotooh Ulya, Uloom ukhra
15.
Yeshiva
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Yeshiva is a Jewish institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts, primarily the Talmud and Torah study. Study is usually done through daily shiurim and in pairs called ḥavrutas. Ḥavruta-style learning is one of the features of the yeshiva. In the United States and Israel, the different levels of education have different names. In Israel, elementary-school students are enrolled in a Talmud Torah or cheder, post-bar mitzvah-age students learn in a yeshiva ketana, a kollel is a yeshiva for married men. It is common for a kollel to pay a stipend to its students. Students of Lithuanian and Hasidic yeshiva gedolas usually learn in yeshiva until they get married, historically, yeshivas were attended by males only. Today, all non-Orthodox and a few Modern Orthodox yeshivas are open to females, although there are separate schools for Orthodox women and girls, yeshivas for women do not follow the same structure or curriculum as the traditional yeshiva for boys and men. Alternate spellings and names include yeshivah (/jəˈʃiːvɑː/, Hebrew, ישיבה, sitting, metivta and mesivta, Beth midrash, Talmudical Academy, Rabbinical Academy, the word yeshiva, lit. sitting, is applied to the activity of learning in class, and hence to a learning session. The Mishnah tractate Megillah mentions the law that a town can only be called a city if it supports ten men to make up the required quorum for communal prayers. Likewise, every beth din was attended by a number of pupils up to three times the size of the court and these might be indications of the historicity of the classical yeshiva. As indicated by the Talmud, adults generally took off two months a year, Elul and Adar, the preceding the pilgrimage festivals of Sukkot and Pesach. The rest of the year they worked, the Geonic period takes its name from Gaon, the title bestowed on the heads of the three yeshivas in existence from the third to the thirteenth century. The Geonim acted as the principals of their individual yeshivot, and as spiritual leaders, the yeshiva conducted all official business in the name of its Gaon, and all correspondence to or from the yeshiva was addressed directly to the Gaon. Throughout the Geonic Period there were three yeshivot, there was however, no requirement for this, and each community could choose to associate with any of the yeshivot. The yeshiva served as the highest educational institution for the Rabbis of this period, in addition to this, the yeshiva wielded immense power as the principal body for interpreting Jewish law. In this regard, the community saw the Gaon of a yeshiva as the highest judge on all matters of Jewish law, each yeshiva ruled differently on matters of ritual and law, the other yeshivot accepted these divisions, and all three ranked as equally orthodox. The yeshiva also served as an authority, in conjunction with local communities
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Military education and training
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Military education and training is a process which intends to establish and improve the capabilities of military personnel in their respective roles. Military education can be voluntary or compulsory duty, before any person gets authorization to operate technical equipment or be on the battlefield, they must take a medical and often a physical examination. If passed, they may begin primary training, the primary training is recruit training. Recruit training attempts to teach the basic information and training in techniques necessary to be a service member. To achieve this, service members are drilled physically, technically and psychologically, the drill instructor has the task of making the service members fit for military use. After finishing basic training, many service members undergo advanced training more in line with their chosen or assigned specialties, in advanced training, military technology and equipment is often taught. Many large countries have several military academies, one for branch of the service. However, academy graduates usually rank as officers, and as such have many options besides civilian work in their major subject, higher-ranking officers also have further educational opportunities. Resocialization is an important aspect of inducting a civilian into a military, resocialization as a sociological concept deals with the process of mentally and emotionally re-training a person so they can operate in an environment other than what they are accustomed to. Successful resocialization into a total institution involves changes to an individuals personality, key examples include the process of resocializing new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers – or, in other words, as members of a cohesive unit. Another example is the process, in which those who have become accustomed to such roles return to society after military discharge. Resocialization from the life of a soldier to a civilian member of society often involves difficulties because of soldiers have seen. In the transition from civilian to soldier, the individual is trained to follow the command of his superiors. In some cases commands would go against certain natural aversions of the based on ones moral and ethical principles. While leaders effectively train their soldiers to accomplish the goal of battle preparedness, the evident psychological problems in post-combat situations may pose a threat to public safety because of the conditioning of individuals who might be made unstable because of their actions
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Business school
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A business school is a university-level institution that confers degrees in business administration or management. Such a school can also be known as school of management, school of administration, or, colloquially. There are several forms of schools, including a school of business, business administration. Most of the university business schools consist of faculties, colleges, or departments within the university, in North America, a business school is often understood to be a university program that offers a graduate Master of Business Administration degrees and/or undergraduate Bachelors degrees. In Europe and Asia, some universities teach only business, privately owned business school which is not affiliated with any university. 1759 – The Aula do Comércio in Lisbon was the first institution to specialise in the teaching of accounting in the world and it provided a model for development of similar government-sponsored schools across Europe, and closed in 1844. Therefore the Aula do Comércio paved the way for schools to start. 1819 – The worlds first business school, ESCP Europe was in Paris and it is the oldest business school in the world and now has campuses in Berlin, London, Madrid, Paris, Torino, and Warsaw. 1855 - The Institut Supérieur de Commerce dAnvers and the Institut Saint-Ignace - École Spéciale de Commerce et dIndustrie were founded in the year in the city of Antwerp. After getting university status in 1965 and after almost 150 years of business education,1857 – The worlds first public business school, Budapest Business School was founded in Budapest in Austria-Hungary as the first business school in Central Europe. 1868 – The Ca Foscari University was founded in Venice and it is the oldest business school in Italy and one of the oldest in the world. 1871 – The Rouen Business School which has merged with Reims Management School under the name of NEOMA Business School, Rouen Business School is the second oldest French business school. 1871 - The ESC Le Havre was created, created the same year than Rouen Business School it is also the second oldest French business school. 1881 – The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania is the United States first business school,1898 – The University of St. Gallen established the first university in Switzerland teaching business and economics. 1900 - The first graduate school of business in the United States, the school conferred the first advanced degree in business, specifically, a Master of Science in Commercial Sciences, the predecessor to the MBA. 1902 - The Birmingham Business School of University of Birmingham is the United Kingdoms first business school, established as the School of Commerce in Birmingham, United Kingdom. 1906 - The McGill School of Commerce was founded as part of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada,1906 – The Warsaw School of Economics was established as the first university in Poland dedicated to teaching commerce and economics. 1908 - Harvard Business School was founded at Harvard University and it was the first program in the world to offer the Master of Business Administration degree
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Homeschooling
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Homeschooling, also known as home education, is the education of children inside the home. Home education is conducted by a parent or tutor. Many families that start out with a formal structure at home often switch to less formal ways of imparting education outside of school. Homeschooling is the commonly used in North America, whereas home education is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe. Before the introduction of school attendance laws, most childhood education was imparted by the family or community. In several countries homeschooling, in the sense, is considered to be an alternative to attending public or private schools and is a legal option for parents. In other nations, homeschooling is considered illegal or restricted to conditions, as noted in the Homeschooling international status. According to the US National Household Education Surveys, about three percent of all children in the US were homeschooled in the 2011 and 2012 school year, and as of 2016, there are about 2.3 million home-schooled students in the United States. The studies found that of children,83 percent were White,5 percent were Black,7 percent were Hispanic. For much of history and in cultures, enlisting professional teachers was an option available only to the elite social classes. Thus, until recently, the vast majority of people, especially during early childhood, were educated by family members, family friends. The earliest public schools in modern Western culture were established in the early 16th century in the German states of Gotha and Thuringia. However, even in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal schooling, meaning they were homeschooled, tutored, in the middle colonies, the educational situation varied when comparing New York with New England until the 1850s. Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries, since the early-, native Americans, who traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, vigorously resisted compulsory education in the United States. Rushdoony was frequently called as a witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association in court cases. During this time, American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement. This research included independent studies by researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on early childhood education. They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness, the Moores published their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically
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Educational technology
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Educational technology refers to the use of both physical hardware and educational theoretics. It encompasses several domains, including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and, Technology in education and education technology are two different concepts which deal with the use of technological tools and innovative educational strategies respectively. Educational technology is not restricted to high technology, Education technology is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended or online learning. However, modern educational technology is an important part of society today. Each of these terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. In practice, as technology has advanced, the narrowly defined terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. Initially, virtual learning as defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world. In practice, an education course refers to any instructional course in which all. As a further example, ubiquitous learning emphasizes an omnipresent learning milieu, smart learning is a component of the smart city concept. Helping people learn in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of early tools. Various types of abacus have been used, writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. From their introduction, books and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education, from the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs for classroom or home use. The first all multiple choice, large-scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence, further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945, slide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw use from the late 1950s. Stanfords Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from early experiments. In 1971, Ivan Illich published an influential book called, Deschooling Society. By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries, in computer-based training or computer-based learning, the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations
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History of education
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The systematic provision of learning techniques to most children, such as literacy, has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training for priests, bureaucrats and specialists, starting in about 3500 B. C. various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B. C. oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B. C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC and this script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script. In China, the oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 B. C. in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century B. C. in Chinese civilization, in school the children were not allowed to scribble. They were not to write slanted or sloppy charterers. C, vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface. In what became Mesopotamia, the logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, Most boys were taught their fathers trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade. Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples, there arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers. Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the texts and explanations of obscure words. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works of literary fiction
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Plato
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Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
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Mosaic
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A mosaic is a piece of art or image made from the assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It is often used in art or as interior decoration. Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square, pieces of stone or glass of different colors, some, especially floor mosaics, are made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called pebble mosaics. Others are made of other materials, mosaics have a long history, starting in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. Pebble mosaics were made in Tiryns in Mycenean Greece, mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times, Early Christian basilicas from the 4th century onwards were decorated with wall and ceiling mosaics. Mosaic fell out of fashion in the Renaissance, though artists like Raphael continued to practise the old technique, Roman and Byzantine influence led Jews to decorate 5th and 6th century synagogues in the Middle East with floor mosaics. Mosaic was widely used on buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islams first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Mosaic went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, modern mosaics are made by professional artists, street artists, and as a popular craft. Many materials other than stone and ceramic tesserae may be employed, including shells, glass. The earliest known examples of made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra, Mesopotamia. They consist of pieces of colored stones, shells and ivory, excavations at Susa and Chogha Zanbil show evidence of the first glazed tiles, dating from around 1500 BC. However, mosaic patterns were not used until the times of Sassanid Empire, mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders. Pliny the Elder mentions the artist Sosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the left on a floor after a feast. Both of these themes were widely copied, most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire, no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across North Africa, in such as Carthage. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting, often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which was laid on site, there was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work. In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover surfaces of walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built 64 AD
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Pompeii
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Pompeii was an ancient Roman town-city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m of volcanic ash. Researchers believe that the town was founded in the seventh or sixth century BC by the Osci or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, by the time of its destruction,160 years later, its population was estimated at 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an amphitheatre, gymnasium, and a port. The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash, the site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748. The objects that lay beneath the city have been preserved for centuries because of the lack of air and these artefacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies and this allowed archaeologists to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died. Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years, today it has UNESCO World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year. Pompeii in Latin is a second declension plural, the ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River. Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast, Pompeii is about 8 km away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts and it was a major city in the region of Campania. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of bone, pottery shards. Carbon dating has placed the oldest of these layers from the 8th–6th centuries BC, the other two strata are separated either by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorized that the layers of the sediment were created by large landslides. The town was founded around the 7th-6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans and it had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, in the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it, the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town
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Classical antiquity
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It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia. Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer, and continues through the emergence of Christianity and it ends with the dissolution of classical culture at the close of Late Antiquity, blending into the Early Middle Ages. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many disparate cultures, Classical antiquity may refer also to an idealised vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poes words, the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome. The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of art, philosophy, society. The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place before the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse, the 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, in the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean, carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. The Etruscans had established control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21,753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth and it was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, the people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretias kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, summoned the Senate and had Superbus, after Superbus expulsion, the Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government in 509 BC. In fact the Latin word Rex meaning King became a dirty and hated throughout the Republic. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras. Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC
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Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
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Academy
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Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
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Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
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Education in ancient Rome
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Education in Ancient Rome progressed from an informal, familial system of education in the early Republic to a tuition-based system during the late Republic and the Empire. The Roman education system was based on the Greek system –, due to the extent of Romes power, the methodology and curriculum used in Rome was copied in its provinces, and thereby proved the basis for education systems throughout later Western civilization. Organized education remained relatively rare, and there are few primary sources or accounts of the Roman educational process until the 2nd century AD, at the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students, very little that could be described as public education existed. Both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together, in a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that memory … not only exists even in small children, a Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from primary school to secondary school and then to college. They were generally exempted from studies during the days which formed a kind of weekend on every eighth day of the year. Prior to the 3rd century BC, in the 3rd century B. C. a Greek captive from Tarentum named Livius Andronicus was sold as a slave and employed as a tutor for his masters children. The new educational system began to more on the one encountered by the Romans with the prominent Greek. It was becoming an educational system. The situation of the Greeks was ideal for the foundation of education as they were the possessors of the great works of Homer, Hesiod. The absence of a method of education from Roman life was due to the fact that Rome was bereft of any national literature. The military arts were all that Rome could afford to spend time studying, when not waging war, the Romans devoted what time remained to agriculture. The concern of Rome was that of survival, whether through defense or dominion and it was not until the appearance of Ennius, the father of Roman poetry, that any sort of national literature surfaced. While the Romans adopted many aspects of Greek education, two areas in particular were viewed as trifle, music and athletics, music to the Greeks was fundamental to their educational system and tied directly to the Greek paideia. Mousike encompassed all those areas supervised by the Muses, comparable to todays liberal arts, the area that many Romans considered unimportant equates to our modern definition of music. The Romans did not share this view but did, however, adopt one area of mousike, athletics, to the Greeks, was the means to obtaining a healthy and beautiful body, which was an end in and of itself and further promoted their love of competition. The Romans, though, did not share this stance either, the Romans, on the other hand, tended to be more practically minded when it came to what they taught their children
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History of India
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Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period and this civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Civilisation extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas, in one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th, from the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Southern India saw the rise of imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, the early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced. The 15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism, in the 16th century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually covered most of India. From the late 18th century to the century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. James Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations and this periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, according to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The ancient history of the region some of South Asias oldest settlements. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, early Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent is represented by the Bhirrana findings in Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, the Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India
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Gurukula
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Gurukula is a type of residential school in India with pupils living near the guru, often in the same house. Before British rule, they served as South Asias primary educational institution, the guru-shishya tradition is a hallowed one in Hinduism and appears in other religious groups in India, such as Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The word gurukula is a contraction of the Sanskrit guru and kula, typically, a guru does not receive any fees from the shishya studying with him. At the end of his studies, a shishya offers the guru dakshina before leaving the gurukula or ashram. The gurudakshina is a gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks to the guru, which may be monetary. While living in a gurukula the students had to be away from home, Gurukula have existed since the ancient age. Upanishads mention many gurukula, including that of guru Drona at Gurugram, Yajnavalkya, bhrigu Valli, the famous discourse on Brahman, is mentioned to have taken place in Guru Varunis gurukula. Vedic school of thought prescribes an initiation to all individuals before the age of 8 or latest by 12, from initiation until the age of 25 all individuals are prescribed to be students and to remain unmarried. The gurukula were supported by public donation and this was followed by the many following Vedic thoughts making gurukula one of the earliest forms of public school offices. By the colonial era the system was declining in India. Arya Samajs The Dayand Anglo-Vedic education system is an educational organisation in India that runs several gurukuls as well as 900+ schools, 75+ colleges. In 1948, Shastriji Maharaj Dharamjivan das Swami followed suit and initiated first Swaminarayan Gurukul in Rajkot in Gujarat state of India, recently several gurukula have begun, driven by a desire to uphold tradition. An example of new schools include the Ananda Marga Gurukula. Another examples of gurukuls in India are Gurukul Kishangarh Ghasera, Gurukul Kaalba, yoga Guru Baba Ramdev had studied in Gurukul Kaalba. Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi, follows the gurukula system, education in India History of education in the Indian subcontinent Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya Uchi-deshi, similar system in Japan
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History of China
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Written records of the history of China can be found from as early as 1500 BC under the Shang dynasty. Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian and the Bamboo Annals describe a Xia dynasty, with thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the worlds oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. Much of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during the Zhou dynasty. This is one of multiple periods of failed statehood in Chinese history, between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China, in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang united the warring kingdoms and created for himself the title of emperor of the Qin dynasty. Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly, in the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite, the Scholar-officials. Young men were selected through difficult examinations and were well-versed in calligraphy and philosophy. What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago, recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, the excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923–27, fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125, 000–80,000 BC have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan. The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC, Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago, farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in Ningxia,3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and these pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols were the earliest Chinese writing system. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site, The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a ancient city. The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986, Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings
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History of education in China
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The history of education in China began with the birth of Chinese civilization. Nobles often set up the establishments for their offspring. Establishment of the civil service examinations was instrumental in transition from the aristocratic to meritocratic government, Education was also seen a symbol of power, the educated often earned significantly greater income. The schools to teach the youth nobles were divided into lower and upper, the government founded five national schools to educate Six Arts of junior nobles. It depended on the education of the person, not the government, at that time, numerous different schools enrolled the students. The most famous one was the Confucianism and its leader Confucius was seen as the founder of education for the masses, one of his sayings was Provide education for all people without discrimination. Another was Teach according to the students ability, the different schools were often organized into political entities to gain social influence. The most strict system of education belonged to Mohists, rival scholars were invited to courts, governmental sponsorship led to the development of the first Chinese academies. Importance of education and respect to the teachers was stressed in the Annals of Lü Buwei, emperor Wu of Han favored Confucianism and made it as the national educational doctrine. In 124 BC, The Origins of Statecraft in China was set up to turn out civil servant for the state, the traditional Chinese attitude towards education followed Menciuss advice that Those who labor with their minds govern others, those who labor with their strength are governed by others. Students selected to gain a government post upon mastering a classic, by 25 CE, the Taixue had an enrollment of 30,000 students,7,000 faculty,240 buildings, and 1,850 rooms. Confucian scholars set up their private schools as well, meanwhile, art school Pear Garden appeared in early 8th century, and in 1178 national military school was set up. Imperial examination began at 605, which required the competitors to pass their local cutting score before the examination in the capital. White Deer Grotto Academy and Donglin Academy were their models, the invention of Paper and Movable type greatly boosted the educational industry. Education during the Qing dynasty was dominated by provincial academies, which did not charge tuition fees and they were dedicated to the pursuit of independent study of the classics and literature, rather than to the preparation for governance, as was the case with imperial academies. Professors rarely lectured students, instead offering advice and criticizing research, in response, the Qing embarked on a self-strengthening movement, founding the Tongwen Guan in 1861, which hired foreign teachers to teach European languages, mathematics, astronomy and chemistry. In 1898, Peking University was founded, with a based on the Japanese system. In 1905, the examinations were abolished
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Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
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Soldier
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A soldier is one who fights as part of an organised, land-based armed force. A soldier can be a person, a non-commissioned officer. The word soldier derives from the Middle English word soudeour, from Old French soudeer or soudeour, meaning mercenary, from soudee, meaning shillings worth or wage, from sou or soud, the word is also related to the Medieval Latin soldarius, meaning soldier. These words ultimately derive from the Late Latin word solidus, referring to an Ancient Roman coin used in the Byzantine Empire. In most armed forces use of the soldier has taken on a more general meaning due to the increasing specialization of military occupations that require different areas of knowledge. In many countries soldiers serving in specific occupations are referred to by other than their occupational name. For example, military personnel in the British Army are known as red caps because of the colour of their caps. Infantry are sometimes called grunts or squaddies, while US Army artillery crews, or gunners, are referred to as redlegs. U. S. soldiers are often called G. I. s, members of the Marine Corps are typically referred to as marines rather than soldiers. In the United States, the term warfighter is often used to refer collectively to all whose job it is to do the actual fighting, the army has not completely phased out this terminology and still uses warfighter in various contexts such as the Project Manager Warfighter Information Network-Tactical. French Marine Infantry are called marsouins because of their amphibious role, Military units in most armies have nicknames of this type, arising either from items of distinctive uniform, some historical connotation or rivalry between branches or regiments. Some soldiers, such as conscripts or draftees, serve a limited term. Others choose to serve until retirement, then receive a pension. In the United States, military members can retire after 20 years, in other countries, the term of service is 30 years, hence the term 30-year man. Airman Marine Military use of children Seaman Media related to Soldier at Wikimedia Commons
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Cathedral school
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Cathedral schools began in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education, some of them ultimately evolving into medieval universities. Throughout the Middle Ages and beyond, they were complemented by the monastic schools, some of these early cathedral schools, and more recent foundations, continued into modern times. In the later Roman Empire, as Roman municipal education declined, the earliest evidence of a school established in this manner is in Visigothic Spain at the Second Council of Toledo in 527. During and after the mission of St Augustine to the Southern British and this group of schools forms the oldest schools continuously operating. A significant function of schools was to provide boy trebles for the choirs, evolving into choir schools. Speyer was renowned for supplying the Holy Roman Empire with diplomats, the court of Henry I of England, himself an early example of a literate king, was closely tied to the cathedral school of Laon. Cathedral schools were mostly oriented around the academic welfare of the nobilitys children, because it was intended to train them for careers in the church, girls were excluded from the schools. Later on, many lay students who were not necessarily interested in seeking a career in the wanted to enroll. Demand arose for schools to government, state, and other Church affairs. The schools, accepted fewer than 100 students, pupils had to demonstrate substantial intelligence and be able to handle a demanding academic course load. Considering that books were expensive, students were in the practice of memorizing their teachers lectures. Cathedral schools at this time were run by a group of ministers. Then there was the major, which taught older students. These would later become secondary schools, the subjects taught at cathedral schools ranged from literature to mathematics. These topics were called the seven liberal arts, grammar, astronomy, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, in grammar classes, students were trained to read, write and speak Latin which was the universal language in Europe at the time. Astronomy was necessary for calculating dates and times, rhetoric was a major component of a vocal education. Logic consisted of discovering the art of solving problems. Students read stories and poems in Latin by authors such as Cicero, much as in the present day, cathedral schools were split into elementary and higher schools with different curricula
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Early Middle Ages
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The Early Middle Ages marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE. The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Early Middle Ages largely overlap with Late Antiquity. The term Late Antiquity is used to emphasize elements of continuity with the Roman Empire, the period saw a continuation of trends begun during late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, and increased immigration. The period has been labelled the Dark Ages, a characterization highlighting the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time, especially in Northwestern Europe. However, the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to survive, many of these trends were reversed later in the period. In 800 the title of emperor was revived in Western Europe by Charlemagne, whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure, Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system, which introduced such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plow. Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe, although Northern Europe was greatly affected by the Viking expansion, starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including urbanization, seaborne commerce, and population. Archaeologists have identified only 40 percent as many Mediterranean shipwrecks from the 3rd century as from the first, estimates of the population of the Roman Empire during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 percent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the Dark Ages Cold Period, Early in the 3rd century Germanic peoples migrated south from Scandinavia and reached the Black Sea, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local Sarmatians. In Dacia and on the north of the Black Sea the Goths. The arrival of the Huns in 372–375 ended the history of these kingdoms, the Huns, a confederation of central Asian tribes, founded an empire with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy. They had mastered the art of shooting composite recurve bows from horseback. The Goths sought refuge in Roman territory, agreeing to enter the Empire as unarmed settlers, however many bribed the Danube border-guards into allowing them to bring their weapons. The discipline and organization of a Roman legion made it a fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empires taxable income, in the Gothic War, the Goths revolted and confronted the main Roman army in the Battle of Adrianople. The general decline in discipline also led to the use of smaller shields, not wanting to share the glory, Eastern Emperor Valens ordered an attack on the Therving infantry under Fritigern without waiting for Western Emperor Gratian, who was on the way with reinforcements
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The King's School, Canterbury
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The Kings School is a British co-educational independent school for both day and boarding pupils in the English city of Canterbury in Kent. It is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and the Eton Group and it is held to be the oldest continuously operating school in the world, having been founded in 597 AD. This is based on the fact that St Augustine founded an abbey where it is known that teaching took place, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the school remained a grammar school. During the Victorian era the school began to establish itself as a public school, the school evacuated to Cornwall following the outbreak of World War II and received a new Royal Charter at the end of the war. Girls were admitted for the first time when the form became coeducational during the 1970s. In 1990, the school became fully coeducational, the school is also the oldest charity in the UK. In 2011, the school was subject to its latest regular, in summary, the inspection team praised the pastoral care system, the high academic achievements of all its pupils — irrespective of their age, aptitude or ability — and the happiness of the pupils. According to the Good Schools Guide the school is Highly successful, the Guide also stated that You need to be creative, academically able and hard-working, as everything moves fast here. There are 16 houses at Kings,13 boarding and 3 day, most are named after past headmasters or people of interest in the schools history, with the exception of School House, The Grange and Carlyon. The Houses of the School are, School House, founded 1860 The Grange, founded 1928, reopened 2007 Walpole, named after the novelist Sir Hugh Walpole Meister Omers, founded 1936. Named after the poet and dramatist Christopher Marlowe Luxmoore, founded 1945, named after Sir Arthur Fairfax Coryndon Luxmoore, Lord Justice of Appeal Galpins, founded 1952. Named after The Reverend Arthur Galpin, Headmaster from 1897-1910, named after Thomas Linacre, founder of the Royal College of Physicians Broughton, founded 1976. Named after William Broughton, the first Bishop of Australia Tradescant, named after John Tradescant, the distinguished gardener and collector Mitchinsons, founded 1982. Named after John Mitchinson, Headmaster 1859-73 and co-founder of the Headmasters Conference Jervis, named after Douglas Jervis OKS Harvey, founded 1996. Named after William Harvey Bailey, first founded 1990, named after Henry Bailey, second warden of St Augustines College between 1850 and 1875 and an honorary Canon of the Cathedral Carlyon, founded 2005. Named after evacuation of the School to Carlyon Bay in Cornwall during the Second World War Lady Kingsdown House, founded 2015. A new pavilion was opened by David Gower on 17 September 2005 Blackfriars The Cleary Foundation donated the refectory of the 13th-century friary by the Marlowe Theatre as an art school and gallery. Built as a synagogue in 1847–8 by architect Hezekiah Marshall, the Old Synagogue is used as a hall by the music department
38.
St Peter's School, York
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St Peters School is a co-educational independent boarding and day school, in the English City of York, with extensive grounds on the banks of the River Ouse. Founded by St Paulinus of York in AD627 and it is the third oldest school in the UK and the fourth oldest in the world. It is part of the York Boarding Schools Group, founded in the English city of York by St Paulinus of York in the year AD627, the school was originally based at York Minster. An early headmaster Alcuin, went on to be Chancellor to the Emperor Charlemagne and it is the third oldest school in the UK and the fourth oldest in the world. For most of its history, the school has been a school and only admitted its first girls into the sixth form in 1976. In 1987 it became fully coeducational, the school has a large campus near to the centre of the city of York, stretching to the banks of the River Ouse. The main front of the faces along Bootham, this is the oldest part of the site and comprises the Memorial Hall, Alcuin Library and Chapel. Behind here is the Scott Block, Old Science Building, New Science Building, Shepherd Rooms, The Grove, the Music School, the Dame Judi Dench Drama Centre, Hope House, and Queens Building are also located along the top of the Campus. Boarding Houses Wentworth and Rise border the campus, while Linton, Dronfield. In the 2000s the school expanded its site under Headmaster Andrew Trotman to include the new campus, formally the site of Queen Annes. The move was not without its challenges, including the distance between the old and new sites and the dissection of a public footpath. In September 2001, St Olaves, the school, moved from the White House, Chilman Building. The pre-prep, Clifton Prep moved from its original 19th-century building on The Avenue to occupy the buildings used by St Olaves. The Lower Campus now contains St Olaves prep school and the senior school Biology, in 2006 St Peters School closed a public footpath running through the school grounds using The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. This was hotly disputed by local people, St Peters offers a continuity of education from the Clifton Pre-preparatory School, to St Olaves School and through to St Peters School. The school has a history of academic achievement across all age ranges. The curriculum is broad from an age, offering a solid grounding in the sciences as well as in English. Language-learning is also encouraged from an age, so too the teaching of Latin, compulsory for the first four years of study and also offered at GCSE
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Thetford Grammar School
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Thetford Grammar School is an independent co-educational school in Thetford, Norfolk, England. The school might date back to the 7th century, which would make it one of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom, the school website conjectures its origin traces back to 631, and through its Roll of Headmasters to 1114. The Independent Schools Inspectorate assert in their 2012 report that The school was founded in the 10th Century. It appears to have ceased from around 1496 until its refoundation from the will of Sir Richard Fulmerston in 1566, the refoundation was confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1610. Part of the school is built on the site of a thirteenth-century Dominican Friary, which was built on, and incorporated parts of, the Norman cathedral. This building, now known as Old School, comprised the entire school for about 300 years, the school developed rapidly in the 1880s, and in 1888 Thetford Grammar School for Girls was built alongside the existing Grammar School. The school became a Voluntary controlled school in 1944, and remained in the sector until 1981 when it regained its independent status. The original boys school and the grammar school merged in 1975 to form a new coeducational school
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