1.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
2.
Bowsprit
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The bowsprit of a sailing vessel is a spar extending forward from the vessels prow. It provides a point for the forestay, allowing the fore-mast to be stepped farther forward on the hull. The word bowsprit is thought to originate from the Middle Low German word bōchsprēt - bōch meaning bow, early ocean-going vessels tended to tilt the bowsprit, also known in centuries past as a boltsprit, at a high angle, and hung one or two square spritsails from yards. Many types of pleasure and work vessels ship bowsprits, generally short in length. Once popular on large and small, even after the popularization of the Bermuda rig. On some modern racing yachts and dinghies, the bowsprit is retractable, the bowsprit on a tall ship may be of considerable length and carry several forestays supporting the foremast. Headsails are stowed by tying onto the bowsprit when not in use, to minimise the risk of bowsprit and crew handling sail on it being buried in large waves, it is normally angled upwards from the horizontal. Some hang gliders use a bowsprit, rather than a spar to spread their wings, the bowsprit is formed by extending the keel tube about a metre beyond the leading edge of the wing. In 1879 a patent in England by F. W. Brearey was filed that taught bowsprit structure for flying machines, in the modern mid-1900s renaissance in hang gliding a Dial Soap TV commercial featured in 1973 a bowsprit cross-sparless hang glider. Other examples of bowsprit hang gliders were exampled in the manufactured by Bautek in the 1980s
3.
Mainsail
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A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel. On a square rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest sail on the main mast. On a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest and often the only sail rigged aft of the main mast, a sail rigged in this position without a boom is generally called a trysail, and is used in extremely heavy weather. Traditional fore-and-aft rigs used a four-sided gaff rigged mainsail, sometimes setting a gaff topsail above it, the modern Bermuda rig uses a triangular mainsail as the only sail aft of the mast, closely coordinated with a jib for sailing upwind. A large overlapping jib or genoa is larger than the mainsail. In downwind conditions a spinnaker replaces the jib, some mainsails are full-batten mainsails, meaning the batten extends all the way from the mast to the leeach of a sail. A partial batten extends from the mast partway to the leech, battens enable the mainsail to project farther away from the mast. However, there is some cost associated with the battens themselves, batten pockets need to be sewn into the sail, and batten cars may be needed to allow the sail to be raised and lowered. A mainsail may be fixed to the boom via slugs, cars, or a bolt-rope, or may be loose-footed, meaning it is attached at the tack. Before Nathanael Greene Herreshoffs invention of tracks and slides in the 1880s. Traditional mainsails were held against the mast by hoops that went the way around the mast. This meant a traditional mainsail could be raised no higher than the first point a rope or wire was required to keep the mast upright
4.
Boom (sailing)
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In sailing, a boom is a spar, along the foot of a fore and aft rigged sail, that greatly improves control of the angle and shape of the sail. The primary action of the boom is to keep the foot of the sail flatter when the angle is away from the centerline of the boat. The boom also serves as an attachment point for more sophisticated control lines, because of the improved sail control it is rare to find a non headsail without a boom. In some modern applications, the sail is rolled up into the boom for storage or reefing, the forward end of the boom attaches to a mast just below the sail, with a joint called the gooseneck. The gooseneck pivots allowing the end of the boom to move freely. The clew of the sail attaches to the end of the boom. The entire foot of the sail may be attached to the boom or just the clew, if the foot is not attached to the boom, the rig is known as loose footed. A boom may be found on small headsails, there the forward end of the boom is attached to the same stay as the sails luff. The control lines on the act in conjunction with the halyard. Two primary sail control lines are attached to every boom, The outhaul runs from the clew of the sail to the end of the boom. Hauling in on the outhaul increases foot tension in the main sail, modern loose footed sails are cut so that the outhaul is also able to pull the clew downwards towards the boom. The sheet is attached midway along the boom or at the free end, the block is typically attached to the boom by means of a bail, which is a U-shaped piece of metal, flattened at the ends to allow attachment with screws or rivets. In smaller boats such as dinghies it is used to control the angle of the sail to the wind on each point of sail. On largest boats this function is assumed by the traveller. Easing the main sheet increases twist and the twist is usually adjusted so that the aft end of the top batten in the main sail runs parallel to the boom. The traveller is a running from one side of the boat to the other upon which sits a car to which the other end of the sheet is attached. Moving the car side to side alters the angle of the boom to the centreline of the boat while minimising the effect on the twist of the sail. A boom will frequently have these additional sail control lines attached, A downhaul may be attached to the boom near the gooseneck to pull the boom down and increase tension on the luff of the sail
5.
Sailing ship
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A modern sailing ship or sailship is any large wind-powered vessel. Traditionally a sailing ship is a vessel that carries three or more masts with square sails on each. Large sailing vessels that are not ship-rigged may be more referred to by their sail rig, such as schooner, barque, brig. There are many different types of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. The crew who sail a ship are called sailors or hands and they take turns to take the watch, the active managers of the ship and her performance for a period. Watches are traditionally four hours long, some sailing ships use traditional ships bells to tell the time and regulate the watch system, with the bell being rung once for every half hour into the watch and rung eight times at watch end. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands, Sailing ships are limited in their maximum size compared to ships with heat engines, so economies of scale are also limited. The heaviest sailing ships never exceeded 14,000 tons displacement, there are many types of sailing ships, mostly distinguished by their rigging, hull, keel, or number and configuration of masts. There are also types of smaller sailboats not listed here. The steam power was used to drive the winches, hoists, a similar ship Kruzenshtern, a very large sailing vessel without mechanical assists, had a crew of 257 men, compared to the Preussen, which required only 48 men. In 2006, automated control had been taken to the point where sails could be operated by one using a central control unit. The DynaRig technology was first developed in the 1960s in Germany by W. Prolls as an alternative for commercial ships to prepare for a possible future energy crisis. The technology is a version of the same type of sail used by the Preussen. The main difference is that the yards do not swing around a fixed mast but are attached to a rotating mast. DynaRig along with extensive computerization was used in the proof-of-concept Maltese Falcon to enable it to be sailed with no crew aloft, as of 2013, with increasing restrictions on use of bunker fuel, attempts were underway to develop hybrid sailing ships using automated sail and alternative fuels. Tall ship Rigging Sail-plan List of large sailing vessels Cruising Shipbuilding, the History of a Ship from Her Cradle to Her Grave, With a Short Account of Modern Steamships and Torpedoes. The sailing-ship, six years of history. Media related to Sailing ships at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Fore-and-aft rig
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A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
7.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
8.
Gaff rig
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
9.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
10.
Shenandoah (schooner)
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The Shenandoah is a 108-foot square topsail schooner built in Maine in 1964. The Shenandoahs design is based on an 1850s ship Joe Lane, Douglas has been the vessels only skipper since her launch in 1964. The Shenandoah required extensive repairs and was dry docked in 2009. It houses 7 crew members, a first-mate, a cook, the ship contains two heads, a main saloon and a galley. Alabama List of schooners The Black Dog Tall Ships
11.
William Falconer
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William Falconer was a Scottish epic poet concerned mainly with life at sea. He also compiled a dictionary of marine matters, the efforts which Falconer made to improve the poem in the subsequent edition which followed the first were not entirely successful. The work gained for him the patronage of the Duke of York and he had himself been one of three survivors of a trading ship on voyage from Alexandria to Venice. In 1751 he wrote and published a poem on the death of Frederick and he had also contributed poems to the Gentlemans Magazine. The poem The Shipwreck was dedicated to the then rear-admiral the Duke of York where the states, From regions where Peruvian billows roar. Falconer was a midshipman on the Royal George for a period of time. In 1767 he was purser of the Swiftsure, in 1769 he published An Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Falconer was purser on the frigate Aurora when it was lost after rounding the Cape of Good Hope on a voyage when it left from London on 20 September 1769, Falconers poems were used by Patrick OBrian in his Aubrey-Maturin series. One of his characters is a nautical poet but his poems are Falconers. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London, J. M. Dent & Sons
12.
Walter William Skeat
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Walter William Skeat, FBA, was the pre-eminent English philologist of his time, and was instrumental in developing English as a higher education subject in the United Kingdom. Skeat was born in London and educated at Kings College School, Highgate School, in 1860 Skeat was ordained an Anglican deacon, married, and became a curate in December 1860 at East Dereham, where he served during the year 1861 and most of 1862. In 1862–1863 he was a curate at Godalming, in October 1864 he returned to Cambridge as a mathematical lecturer, remaining in this capacity until 1871. In 1878 he was elected Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge, Skeat was the founder and only president of the English Dialect Society from 1873 to 1896. The societys purpose was to collect materials for the publication of the English Dialect Dictionary and his son was the anthropologist Walter William Skeat. His grandsons include the noted palaeographer T. C, Skeat and the stained glass painter Francis Skeat. In pure philology, Skeats principal achievement is his Etymological English Dictionary, while preparing the dictionary he wrote hundreds of short articles on word origins for the London-based journal Notes and Queries. He also coined the term ghost word and was an expert in this treacherous. Skeat was also a pioneer of place-name studies, major publications in this field include, A Concise Dictionary of Middle English, in conjunction with A. L. Mayhew A Glossary of Tudor and Stuart Words with A. L. He published an edition of The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1894–97, Skeat edited numerous other works for the Early English Text Society, including the Bruce of John Barbour, Pierce the Ploughmans Crede, and the romances of Havelok the Dane and William of Palerne. For the Scottish Text Society he edited The Kingis Quair, and he published an edition of Chatterton, Skeat also issued an edition of Chaucer in one volume for general readers, and a separate edition of his Treatise on the Astrolabe, with a learned commentary. According to A. J. Wyatt, Skeat was not a great teacher and he left the teaching to those who had learned from him---i. e. Wyatt himself and Israel Gollancz---his teaching was episodic. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Skeat. Works by Walter William Skeat at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Walter William Skeat at Internet Archive A Moeso-Gothic glossary Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection, Walter William Skeat at Find a Grave
13.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
14.
Gloucester, Massachusetts
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Gloucester /ˈɡlɒstər/ is a city on Cape Ann in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States. It is part of Massachusetts North Shore, the population was 28,789 at the 2010 U. S. Census. The boundaries of Gloucester originally included the town of Rockport, in an area dubbed Sandy Bay and that village separated formally on February 27,1840. In 1873, Gloucester was reincorporated as a city, Gloucester was founded at Cape Ann by an expedition called the Dorchester Company of men from Dorchester chartered by James I in 1623. It was one of the first English settlements in what would become the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the first company of pioneers made landing at Half Moon Beach and settled nearby, setting up fishing stages in a field in what is now Stage Fort Park. This settlements existence is proclaimed today by a tablet, affixed to a 50-foot boulder in that park. Life in this first settlement was harsh and it was short-lived, around 1626 the place was abandoned, and the people removed themselves to Naumkeag, where more fertile soil for planting was to be found. The meetinghouse was even disassembled and relocated to the new place of settlement, at some point in the following years – though no record exists – the area was slowly resettled. The town was incorporated in 1642. It is at time that the name Gloucester first appears on tax rolls. This new permanent settlement focused on the Town Green area, an inlet in the marshes at a bend in the Annisquam River and this area is now the site of Grant Circle, a large traffic rotary at which Massachusetts Route 128 mingles with a major city street. Here the first permanent settlers built a house and therefore focused the nexus of their settlement on the Island for nearly 100 years. Unlike other early coastal towns in New England, development in Gloucester was not focused around the harbor as it is today and this is evidenced by the placement of the Town Green nearly two miles from the harbor-front. The Town Green is also where the built the first school. By Massachusetts Bay Colony Law, any town boasting 100 families or more had to provide a public schoolhouse and this requirement was met in 1698, with Thomas Riggs standing as the towns first schoolmaster. The White-Ellery House was erected in 1710 upon the Town Green and it was built at the edge of a marsh for Gloucester’s first settled minister, the Reverend John White. Early industry included subsistence farming and logging, because of the poor soil and rocky hills, Cape Ann was not well suited for farming on a large scale. Small family farms and livestock provided the bulk of the sustenance to the population, Fishing, for which the town is known today, was limited to close-to-shore, with families subsisting on small catches as opposed to the great bounties yielded in later years
15.
Scots language
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Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language which was restricted to most of the Highlands. The language developed during the Middle English period as a distinct entity, although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Broad Scots is at one end of a linguistic continuum. Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish. In the 2011 Scottish census, a question on Scots language ability was featured, native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots or use a dialect name such as the Doric, or the Buchan Claik. The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan, occurs occasionally, especially in Northern Ireland, the term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands, is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form. Scots in Ireland is known in circles as Ulster-Scots or Ullans. Scots is a contraction of Scottis, the Older Scots and northern version of late Old English Scottisc, before the end of the 15th century, English speech in Scotland was known as English, whereas Scottish referred to Gaelic. From 1495 the term Scottis was increasingly used to refer to the Lowland vernacular and Erse, meaning Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland is now usually called Scottish Gaelic. Northumbrian Old English had been established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century and it remained largely confined to this area until the thirteenth century, continuing in common use while Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court. Scots also includes loan words resulting from contact with Gaelic, Early medieval legal documents include a body of Gaelic legal and administrative loans. Contemporary Gaelic loans are mainly for geographical and cultural features, such as ceilidh, loch, from the thirteenth century Early Scots spread further into Scotland via the burghs, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the century. By the sixteenth century Middle Scots had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England, from 1610 to the 1690s during the Plantation of Ulster large numbers of Scots-speaking Lowlanders, some 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, Modern Scots is used to describe the language after 1700 when southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Scots remained the vernacular. In Scotland, Scots is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles, Caithness, Arran, in Ulster it is spoken in the Counties of Down, Antrim, Londonderry and Donegal. Dialects include Insular Scots, Northern Scots, Central Scots, Southern Scots, many speakers are either diglossic and/or able to code-switch along the continuum depending on the situation in which they find themselves
16.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
17.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
18.
Atlantic slave trade
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The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
19.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
20.
Blockade runner
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A blockade runner is usually a lighter-weight ship used for evading a naval blockade of a port or strait, as opposed to confronting the blockaders to break the blockade. Very often blockade running is done in order to transport cargo, in other cases the blockade runners would carry mail in an attempt to communicate with the outside world. Blockade runners are often the fastest ships available, and come lightly armed and armored and their operations are quite risky since blockading fleets would not hesitate to fire on them. However, the profits from a successful blockade run are tremendous. Although having modus operandi similar to that of smugglers, blockade-runners are often operated by states navies as part of the regular fleet, notable users of blockade runners include the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War and Germany during the World Wars. Blockade runners have always been considered enemy combatants by the party and have been fired upon or captured when detected. Blockade runners are often the subject of press coverage when they reach port, there were numerous blockades and attempts at blockade running during the Peloponnesian War. With his fleet blockaded, Leon of Salamis dispatched blockade runners to seek reinforcements from Athens, during the Punic Wars, the Carthaginian Empire attempted to get around Roman blockades of its ports and strongholds. Twelve major ports and approximately 3,500 miles of coastline along the Confederate States were patrolled by some 500 ships that were commissioned by the Union government. Great Britain played a role on the blockade running business, as they had huge investments in the south and were the recipients of many commodities exported goods. Great Britain also had control over many of the ports in the Caribbean, as well as Atlantic ports off the East Coast of the United States, such as the Bahamas. Among the more notable of these vessels was the CSS Advance that completed more than 20 successful runs through the Union blockade before being captured. These vessels also served to import badly needed supplies, especially firearms, the blockade played a major role in the Unions victory over the Confederate states. By the end of the Civil War the Union Navy had captured more than 1,100 blockade runners and had destroyed or run aground another 355 vessels, during the Great Cretan Revolt, Greek blockade runners supplied the Christians revolting against the Turkish rule during this time. Names of the include, Arkadion, Hydra, Panhellenion, and Enosis. During World War I the Central Powers, most notably Germany, were blockaded by the Entente Powers, in particular the North Sea blockade made it nearly impossible for surface ships to leave Germany for the then neutral United States and other locations. The blockade was run with cargo submarines, also called merchant submarines, Deutschland and Bremen, the Marie successfully ran the British North Sea blockade and docked, heavily damaged, in Batavia, Dutch East Indies on May 13,1916. In 1918 Germany tried unsuccessfully to supply their forces in Africa by sending Zeppelin LZ104, on the outbreak of war, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade against Germany
21.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
22.
Chesapeake Bay
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It is the largest estuary in North America. With its northern portion in Maryland and the part in Virginia. More than 150 major rivers and streams flow into the bays 64, 299-square-mile drainage basin, the bay is approximately 200 miles long from its northern headwaters in the Susquehanna River to its outlet in the Atlantic Ocean. It is 2.8 miles wide at its narrowest and 30 miles at its widest, total shoreline including tributaries is 11,684 miles, circumnavigating a surface area of 4,479 square miles. Average depth is 21 feet, reaching a maximum of 174 feet, the bay is spanned twice, in Maryland by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge from Sandy Point to Kent Island and in Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel connecting Virginia Beach to Cape Charles. Known for both its beauty and bounty, the bay became emptier, with crabs, oysters. Recent restoration efforts begun in the 1990s have been ongoing and show potential for growth of the oyster population. The health of the Chesapeake Bay improved in 2015, marking three years of gains over the past four years, according to a new report by the University of Maryland, the word Chesepiooc is an Algonquian word referring to a village at a big river. It is the seventh oldest surviving English place-name in the U. S. first applied as Chesepiook by explorers heading north from the Roanoke Colony into a Chesapeake tributary in 1585 or 1586. The name may refer to the Chesepian or Chesapeake people. They occupied an area which is now the Norfolk, Portsmouth, Chesapeake, in 2005, Algonquian linguist Blair Rudes helped to dispel one of the areas most widely held beliefs, that Chesapeake means something like great shellfish bay. The name might actually have meant something like great water, or it might have just referred to a location at the bays mouth. In addition, the name is almost always prefixed by the in usage by local residents, The Chesapeake, The Chesapeake Bay, the Chesapeake Bay is an estuary to the North Atlantic, lying between the Delmarva Peninsula to the east and the North American mainland to the west. It is the ria, or drowned valley, of the Susquehanna River and it is not a fjord, because the Laurentide Ice Sheet never reached as far south as the northernmost point on the bay. The large rivers entering the bay from the west have broad mouths and are extensions of the ria for miles up the course of each river. The bay was formed starting about 10,000 years ago when rising sea levels at the end of the last ice age flooded the Susquehanna River valley. Parts of the bay, especially the Calvert County, Maryland and these cliffs, generally known as Calvert Cliffs, are famous for their fossils, especially fossilized shark teeth which are commonly found washed up on the beaches next to the cliffs. Scientists Cliffs is a community in Calvert County named for the desire to create a retreat for scientists when the community was founded in 1935
23.
Baltimore Clipper
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Baltimore Clipper is the colloquial name for fast sailing ships built on the mid-Atlantic seaboard of the United States of America, especially at the port of Baltimore, Maryland. The name is most commonly applied to two-masted schooners and brigantines and these vessels may also be referred to as Baltimore Flyers. Baltimore clippers were first built as small, fast sailing vessels for trade around the coastlines of the United States and their hull-lines tended to be very sharp, with a V-shaped cross-section below the waterline and strongly raked stem, stern posts, and masts. They were especially suited to moving low-density, high value cargoes such as slaves. Similar vessels were built as privateers during the War of Independence and the War of 1812, the famous yacht America, derived from the lines of a New York pilot boat, was conceptually not far removed from the Baltimore clipper. Many such vessels went to Australia during the Australian gold rush, or after being seized as slavers and she was believed to have been built in the 1790s. The search for speed under sail, 1700-1855
24.
Bugeye
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The bugeye is a type of sailboat developed in the Chesapeake Bay for oyster dredging. The predecessor of the skipjack, it was superseded by the latter as oyster harvests dropped, between 1820 and 1865, the state of Maryland banned the practice of dredging for oysters. In the latter year, the law was relaxed, the use of power remained banned, however. As long as dredging for oysters in the Chesapeake was prohibited, in 1854 the Maryland legislature permitted the use of dredges in the waters of Somerset County, Maryland, expanding the use of dredges to the rest of the Bay following the Civil War. Opening the Chesapeake to oyster dredging after the Civil War created a need for larger, the log canoes had none of these disadvantages, but were too small to successfully haul dredges. The result was the development during the 1870s and 1880s of the brogan, in brogans, the open hull of the log canoe was decked, with hatches covering holds created by subdividing the hull with bulkheads. Brogans typically used the same plan as the log canoes of the Tilghman Island region. By the early 1880s, or possibly earlier, the first bugeyes were being built. Like the earlier brogan, the bugeye was two-masted, with leg-of-mutton mainsail, foresail. By modern standards, this rig would be described as a ketch rig, as with the earlier brogans and the log canoes, the masts were sharply raked, although they were set up with stays and shrouds. Unlike the brogan, however, the mainmast was raked only slightly more sharply than the foremast.4 A bowsprit with trailboards was inevitably used, the hull was beamy and shallow, with no chine. Initially it was chunked from logs, in the manner of the log canoe, the usual form was double-ended, with a sharp stern, and most such boats had a heavy beam called the duck tail projecting a short distance from the stern in order to protect the rudder. To increase deck space a patent stern was installed after 1893, all log bugeyes were sharp-sterned, but some frame versions had round sterns, a very few had a square transom. The freeboard was invariably low, the better to lift the dredges onto the deck, due to the wide, flat bottom, a centerboard was provided. Early boats used a tiller for steering, but as patent steering gear became available, besides the raked, paired masts, the other distinctive feature of the bugeye is the mounting of the bowsprit. This was mounted between paired hawsepieces and knightheads, and terminated in a vertical post called the samson post. The hawsepieces projected above the deck and, with the prominent hawseholes, are possibly to be the origin of the name bugeye. In the center of the ship sat the windlass for the dredge lines, early winders were simple hand-cranked spools, eventually equipped with devices to prevent injuries when the dredge caught on an obstruction
25.
Pungy
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The pungy /ˈpʌŋɡi/ is a type of schooner developed in and peculiar to the Chesapeake Bay region. The name is believed to derive from the Pungoteague region of Accomack County, Virginia, in form, the pungy is a two-masted gaff-rigged schooner with a main topsail but no square-rigged sails. The masts are tall and raked, and there is a bowsprit on the clipper bow, the deck is flush, with a log rail. The hull is framed and has a vee profile, one peculiar detail of the pungy is its traditional paint scheme of green and pink, the origin of which is unknown. The pungy, like the Baltimore clipper, evolved from the pilot schooner and its principal usage was to haul freight, particularly perishables. It was capable of travel and was used, for instance. It was also used for a time to dredge for oysters, the last pungies were built in the 1880s, and the types use died out in the first half of the twentieth century. A replica, the Lady Maryland, was built in 1985–1986 and continues to serve as a floating classroom for The Living Classrooms Foundation
26.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
27.
Golden Age of Piracy
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The Golden Age of Piracy is a common designation given to usually one or more outbursts of piracy in the maritime history of the early modern period. The modern conception of pirates as depicted in culture is derived largely, although not always accurately. The colonial powers at the time fought with pirates and engaged in several notable battles. Powell uses the only once. Its golden age may be said to have extended from about 1650 to about 1720, Pirate historians of the first half of the 20th century occasionally adopted Fiskes term Golden Age, without necessarily following his beginning and ending dates for it. This idea starkly contradicted Fiske, who had denied that such Elizabethan figures as Drake were pirates. Of recent definitions, Pringle appears to have the widest range, as early as 1924, Philip Gosse described piracy as being at its height from 1680 until 1730. Bottings definition was followed by Frank Sherry in 1986. In a 1989 academic article, Professor Marcus Rediker defined the Golden Age as lasting only from 1716 to 1726, angus Konstam in 1998, reckoned the era as lasting from 1700 until 1730. David Cordingly, in his influential 1994 work Under the Black Flag, defined the age of piracy as lasting from the 1650s to around 1725. Rediker, in 2004, described the most complex definition of the Golden Age to date, most of these pirates were of Welsh, English, Dutch and French origin. This involved considerable seaborne trade, and an economic improvement. The buccaneers migration from Hispaniolas mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources, the growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand dOgeron and these conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith. A number of factors caused Anglo-American pirates, some of whom had cut their teeth during the buccaneering period, the fall of Britains Stuart period had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in 1692 further reduced the Caribbeans attractions by destroying the pirates chief market for fenced plunder. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted, at the same time, Englands less-favored colonies, including Bermuda, New York, and Rhode Island, had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts. This set the stage for the piracies of Thomas Tew, Henry Every, Robert Culliford
28.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
29.
Galleon
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Another possible origin is the Old French word galie meaning galley, also from Byzantine Greek galea. The galea was a warship of the Byzantine navy, and its name may be related to the Greek word galeos, the term was originally given to certain types of war galleys in the Middle Ages. The Annali Genovesi mentions galleons of 80,64 and 60 oars, used for battle and on missions of exploration and it is very likely that the galleons and galliots mentioned in the accounts of the crusades were the same vessels. In the early 16th century, the Venetian galleoni was a new class of galley used to hunt down pirates in the Mediterranean. In Portugal at least, Portuguese carracks were very large ships for their time, while galleons were mostly under 500 tons. One of the largest and most famous of Portuguese galleons was the São João Baptista, there are disputes about its origins and development but each Atlantic sea power built types suited to its needs, while constantly learning from their rivals. It was the captains of the Spanish navy, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and Álvaro de Bazán, the galleon was powered entirely by wind, using sails carried on three or four masts, with a lateen sail continuing to be used on the last masts. They were used in military and trade applications, most famously in the Spanish treasure fleet, and the Manila Galleons. While carracks played the role in early global explorations, galleons also played a part in the 16th and 17th centuries. In fact, galleons were so versatile that a vessel may have been refitted for wartime and peacetime roles several times during its lifespan. The galleon was the prototype of all square-rigged ships with three or more masts for over two and a half centuries, including the later full-rigged ship, Galleons were constructed from oak, pine and various hardwoods for hull and decking. The expenses involved in construction were enormous. Hundreds of expert tradesmen worked day and night for months before a galleon was seaworthy, to cover the expense, galleons were often funded by groups of wealthy businessmen who pooled resources for a new ship. Therefore, most galleons were originally consigned for trade, although those captured by rival states were usually put into military service, the most common gun used aboard a galleon was the demi-culverin, although gun sizes up to demi-cannon were possible. Galleons were a class of blue water sailing ship that combined the easy-to-maneuver fore-and-aft rig of smaller shipping with the rig of late middle ages cargo vessels. On average with three masts, in larger galleons, a fourth mast was added, usually another lateen-rigged mizzen, the oldest known scale drawings in England are in a manuscript called Fragments of Ancient Shipwrightry made in about 1586 by Mathew Baker, a master-shipwright. This manuscript, held at the Pepysian Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge, provides a reference for the size. Based on these plans, the Science Museum, London has built a 1,48 scale model ship that is an exemplar of galleons of this era
30.
William III of England
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It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
31.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
32.
Royal yacht
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A royal yacht is a ship used by a monarch or a royal family. If the monarch is an emperor the proper term is imperial yacht, most of them are financed by the government of the country of which the monarch is head. The royal yacht is most often manned by personnel from the navy and used by the monarch, some royal yachts have been/are small vessels only used for short trips on rivers or in calm waters, but others have been/are large seaworthy ships. Depending on how the term is defined royal yachts date back to the days of antiquity with royal barges on the Nile in ancient Egypt, later the Vikings produced royal vessels. They followed the pattern of longships although highly decorated and fitted with purple sails, in England, Henry V sold off the royal yachts to clear the Crowns debts. The next royal vessels in England were built in the Tudor period with Henry VIII using a vessel in 1520 that was depicted as having cloth of gold sails, james I had Disdain, a ship in miniature, built for his son Prince Henry. Disdain was significant in that she allowed for pleasure cruising and as a result can be seen as a move away from royal ships as warships. The first ships to qualify as royal yachts were those owned by Charles II of England Scotland and Ireland. The first was gift from the Dutch but later yachts were commissioned and this established a tradition of royal yachts in Britain that was later copied by other royal families of Europe. Through the 19th century royal yachts got larger as they became a symbol of national wealth. World War I brought this trend to an end and the families that survived found it harder to justify the cost with the result that there are only three royal yachts left in use in Europe. For the most part royal yachts have been superseded by the use of warships in this role, in addition most monarchies with a railway system employ a special set of royal carriages. Most monarchies also employ aircraft as a mode of transportation. The Danish royal family have had several royal yachts, two of them have been named Dannebrog. HMDY Sophia Amalia HMDY Elephanten HMDY Kiel HDMY Ægir HMDY Slesvig HDMS Jylland – a frigate which served as a yacht on occasion. HDMY Dannebrog HDMY Dannebrog Dubai is the yacht of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, ruler of Dubai. Completed in 2006, she is the third largest yacht currently in service at 524 feet long and she came to world media attention when she sailed out to welcome the retired ocean liner, RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 to Dubai in November 2008. Another personal yacht of the Sheikh, is the 40-metre Alloya, mahroussa was built for Ismail Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt
33.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
34.
Essex, Massachusetts
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Essex is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts,26 miles north of Boston. The population was 3,504 at the 2010 census, the central village areas of Essex and South Essex make up the census-designated place of Essex. Essex was incorporated as a town in 1819 and it was previously a part of the town of Ipswich and was then called Chebacco Parish. The first European settlers arrived in 1634, at that time, the land formed part of an area inhabited by Native Americans of the Agawam tribe. The name Chebacco is Agawam in origin and refers to a lake whose waters extend into neighboring Hamilton. Conomo Point, the easternmost part of the town, is named for the Sagamore or Chief of the Agawams, Masconomo, early on, Chebacco Parish lobbied for status as an independent town, asking for permission to build a meeting house. In colonial times, the existence of a house in a settlement conferred de facto autonomy. It is reported that a woman, Madam Varney, assembled the towns women. Jeremiah Shepard was a minister at the church in Chebacco Parish from 1678 to 1680 and he was succeeded by John Wise, who was pastor of Chebacco Parish from 1680 to his death in 1725. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 15.9 square miles, of which 14.0 square miles is land and 2.0 square miles. The town does not have any access to Ipswich Bay. The central part of Essex lies on land that surrounds the Essex River. Essex River feeds Essex Bay, along with Castle Neck River and several creeks, including Walker Creek, Hardys Creek, the land that makes up the limits of the town is close to sea level, with a few low hills dotting the landscape. Chebacco Lake and the surrounding wetlands make up most of the part of the town. Essexs population has increased at a rate over the last quarter century, so it still maintains a certain rural quality with abundant forested areas, wetlands. There are several protected areas within town, including the Allyn-Cox Reservation, a portion of Crane Wildlife Refuge, the Stavros Reservation, the Crane Wildlife Refuge covers several of the islands in Essex Bay, including Choate Island. Essex is bordered by Hamilton to the west, Manchester-by-the-Sea to the south, Gloucester to the east, Essex is located 11 miles northeast of Salem and 33 miles northeast of Boston. Though not accessible directly by a highway, Route 128 clips the corner of town, with exits located in neighboring Manchester-by-the-Sea
35.
Bath, Maine
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Bath is a city in Sagadahoc County, Maine, in the United States. The population was 8,514 at the 2010 census, and 8,357 as of 2013 and it is the county seat of Sagadahoc County, Which includes one city and 10 towns. The city is popular with tourists, many drawn by its 19th-century architecture and it is home to the Bath Iron Works and Heritage Days Festival, held annually on the Fourth of July weekend. It is commonly known as The City of Ships, Bath is part of the metropolitan statistical area of Greater Portland. Abenaki Indians called the area Sagadahoc, meaning mouth of big river and it was a reference to the Kennebec River, which Samuel de Champlain explored in 1605. Popham Colony was established in 1607 downstream, together with Fort St George, the settlement failed due to harsh weather and lack of leadership, but the colonists built the New Worlds first oceangoing vessel constructed by English shipwrights, the Virginia of Sagadahoc. It provided passage back to England, most of Bath, Maine, was settled by travelers from Bath, England. The next settlement at Sagadahoc was about 1660, when the land was taken from an Indian sagamore known as Robinhood, incorporated as part of Georgetown in 1753, Bath was set off and incorporated as a town on February 17,1781. It was named by the postmaster, Dummer Sewell, after Bath in Somerset, in 1844, a portion of the town was set off to create West Bath. On June 14,1847, Bath was incorporated as a city, Land was annexed from West Bath in 1855. Several industries developed in the city, including lumber, iron and brass, with trade in ice, but Bath is renowned for shipbuilding, which began here in 1743 when Jonathan Philbrook and his sons built 2 vessels. Since then, roughly 5,000 vessels have been launched in the area, Bath became the nations fifth largest seaport by the mid-19th century, producing clipper ships that sailed to ports around the world. The last commercial enterprise to build ships in the city was the Percy & Small Shipyard. But the most famous shipyard is the Bath Iron Works, founded in 1884 by Thomas W. Hyde who also became the manager of it in 1888. It has built hundreds of wooden and steel vessels, mostly warships for the U. S. Navy, during World War II, Bath Iron Works launched a new ship an average of every 17 days. The shipyard is a regional employer, and operates today as a division of the General Dynamics Corporation. The city is noted for its Federal, Greek Revival, and Italianate architecture, including the 1858 Custom House, Bath is sister city to Shariki in Japan, where the locally-built full rigged ship Cheseborough was wrecked in 1889. Scenes from the movies Message in a Bottle and The Man Without a Face were filmed in the city, Bath is located at 43°54′59″N 69°49′21″W
36.
Wyoming (schooner)
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Wyoming was a wooden six-masted schooner, the largest wooden schooner ever built. It was built and completed in 1909 by the firm of Percy & Small in Bath, Maine. Wyoming was also one of the largest wooden ships built,450 ft from jib-boom tip to spanker boom tip. Because of its length and wood construction, Wyoming tended to flex in heavy seas. Wyoming had to use pumps to keep its hold relatively free of water, in March 1924, it foundered in heavy seas and sank with the loss of all hands. Wyoming was 329.5 feet long and 50 ft 1 in wide and it had a volume of 373,054 cubic feet, that is, a gross register tonnage of 3730.54. After subtracting the volume consumed by the helm and crew quarters and other areas not suitable for cargo, she had a capacity of 303,621 cubic feet. It could carry 6,000 long tons of coal, Wyoming was built of yellow pine with 6 planking and there were 90 diagonal iron cross-bracings on each side. Wyoming was equipped with a Hyde anchor windlass and a steam engine to raise and lower sails, haul lines. The steam engine was not used to power the ship, and it was named for the state of Wyoming because Wyoming Governor Bryant Butler Brooks was one of the investors in the ship, which cost $175,000 in 1909 dollars. Another Percy & Small-built schooner, the five-masted Governor Brooks, was named after Brooks, launched at the Shipyard of Percy & Small with its masts stepped. First master, Captain Angus McLeod of Somerville, Massachusetts, maiden voyage to Newport News, Virginia 1916 – In Charter of International Paper Co.1917 – April. Sold to France & Canada Steamship Co. for about $350,000, by 1 October 1919, it had earned more than twice that amount, and its owners chartered it to load coal at Norfolk for Genoa at $23.50 per ton. 1921 – Sold to Captain A. W. Frost & Co,1924 – Left Norfolk, Virginia, under command of Captain Charles Glaesel, for St John, New Brunswick, with a cargo of coal. Captain H. Publicover on the Cora F. Cressey weighed anchor at dusk, Wyoming is believed to have foundered east of the Pollock Rip Lightship and the entire crew of 14 was lost. 2003 - Wyoming wreck located near Monomoy Island by American Underwater Search and my Favorite Exhibit by Bill Gruener, Maine Maritime Museum
37.
America's Cup
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The Americas Cup, affectionately known as the Auld Mug, is a trophy awarded to the winner of the Americas Cup match races between two sailing yachts. The timing of each match is determined by an agreement between the defender and the challenger, the Americas Cup is the oldest international sporting trophy. The ewer was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in England, any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup, the history and prestige associated with the Americas Cup attracts not only the worlds top sailors and yacht designers but also the involvement of wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test not only of sailing skill and boat and sail design, from the first defense of the cup in 1870 through the twentieth defense in 1967, there was always only one challenger. Since 1983, Louis Vuitton has sponsored the Louis Vuitton Cup as a prize for the winner of the challenger selection series, early matches for the cup were raced between yachts 65–90 ft on the waterline owned by wealthy sportsmen. This culminated with the J-Class regattas of the 1930s, after a long legal battle, the 2010 Americas Cup was raced in 90 ft lwl multihull yachts in a best of three deed of gift match in Valencia, Spain. The victorious Golden Gate Yacht Club then elected to race the 34th Americas Cup in AC72 foiling, Golden Gate Yacht Club successfully defended the cup. The 35th Americas Cup match was announced to be sailed in 50 ft foiling catamarans, the history of the Americas Cup has included legal battles and disputes over rule changes including most recently over the rule changes for the 2017 Americas Cup. It was originally known as the R. Y. S, £100 Cup, standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or sovereigns in value. The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the 100 Guinea Cup by the America syndicate, today, the trophy is officially known as the Americas Cup after the 1851 winning yacht, and is affectionately called the Auld Mug by the sailing community. It is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed for it, the syndicate contracted with pilot boat designer George Steers for a 101 ft schooner, which was christened America and launched on 3 May 1851. On 22 August 1851, America raced against 15 yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron in the Clubs annual 53-nautical-mile regatta around the Isle of Wight, America won, finishing 8 minutes ahead of the closest rival. Apocryphally, Queen Victoria, who was watching at the line, was reported to have asked who was second. No challenge to race for the Cup was issued until British railway tycoon James Lloyd Ashburys topsail schooner Cambria beat the Yankee schooner Sappho in the Solent in 1868. This success encouraged the Royal Thames Yacht Club in believing that the cup could be back home. Ashbury entered Cambria in the NYYC Queens Cup race in New York City on 8 August against a fleet of seventeen schooners, the Cambria only placed eighth, behind the aging America in fourth place and Franklin Osgoods Magic in the fleets lead. Trying again, Ashbury offered a match race challenge for October 1871
38.
Cutter (boat)
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A cutter is typically a small, but in some cases a medium-sized, watercraft designed for speed rather than for capacity. Traditionally a cutter sailing vessel is a small single-masted boat, fore-and-aft rigged, the cutters mast may be set farther back than on a sloop. In modern usage, a cutter can be either a small- or medium-sized vessel whose occupants exercise official authority, examples are harbor pilots cutters and cutters of the U. S. Coast Guard or UK Border Force. Cutters can also be a small boat serving a one to ferry passengers or light stores between larger boats and the shore. This type of cutter may be powered by oars, sails or a motor, the cutter is one of several types of sailboats. Traditionally the sloop rig was a rig with a single mast located forward of 70% of the length of the sailplan, in this traditional definition a sloop could have multiple jibs on a fixed bowsprit. Cutters had a rig with a single mast more centrally located, which could vary from 50% to 70% of the length of the sailplan, with multiple headsails, a mast located aft of 50% would be considered a mast aft rig. Somewhere in the 1950s or 1960s there was a shift in these definitions such that a sloop only flew one headsail, in this modern idiom, a cutter is a sailing vessel with more than one head sail and one mast. Cutters carry a staysail directly in front of the mast, set from the forestay, a traditional vessel would also normally have a bowsprit to carry one or more jibs from its end via jibstay on travelers. In modern vessels the jib may be set from a permanent stay fixed to the end of a fixed bowsprit, or directly to the stem fitting of the bow itself. In these cases, that may be referred to as the forestay, and the inner one, a sloop carries only one head sail, called either the foresail or jib. These could be managed without the need for crews, winches, or complex tackles, making the cutter especially suitable for pilot, customs. For example, a pilot cutter may only have two people on board for its outward trip—the pilot to be delivered to a ship and an assistant who had to sail the cutter back to port single-handed. The cutter sailing rig became so ubiquitous for these tasks that the modern-day motorised vessels now engaged in these duties are known as cutters, the open cutter carried aboard naval vessels in the 18th Century was rowed by pairs of men sitting side-by-side on benches. The cutter, with its transom, was broader in proportion compared to the longboat, the Watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th Century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th & 18th Centuries. The modern Waterman’s Cutter is based on drawings of these boats and they are 34 feet long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s, watermen’s Cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals’ Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas, in addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions
39.
Scow
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A scow, in the original sense, is a flat-bottomed boat with a blunt bow, often used to haul bulk freight, cf. barge. The etymology of the word is from the Dutch schouwe, meaning such a boat, Sailing scows have significant advantages over the traditional deep keel sailing vessels that were common at the time the sailing scow was popular. The cost of this shallow water advantage was the loss of the seaworthiness of flat bottomed scow boats in open water, the squared off shape and simple lines of a scow make it a popular choice for simple home-built boats made from plywood. Phil Bolger and Jim Michalak, for example, have designed a number of sailing scows, and the PD Racer. Generally these designs are created to minimize waste when using standard 4-foot by 8-foot sheets of plywood, the scow hull is also the basis for the Shantyboat or, on the Chesapeake, the Ark, a cabin houseboat once common on American rivers. The ark was used as housing by Chesapeake watermen, who followed, for example. See also the Thames sailing barge and the Norfolk wherry, two British equivalents to the scow schooner, the Thames sailing barges, while used for similar tasks, used significantly different hull shapes and rigging. The term scow is used in and around the west Solent for a class of sailing dinghy. Various towns and villages claim their own variants, they are all around 11 feet in length and share a lug sail, pivoting centre board, small foredeck and a square transom with a transom hung rudder. Originally an American design, also used widely in New Zealand, scow schooners had a broad, shallow hull, and used centreboards, bilgeboards or leeboards rather than a deep keel. The broad hull gave them stability, and the retractable foils allowed them to even heavy loads of cargo in waters far too shallow for keelboats to enter. The squared off bow and stern allowed the maximum amount of cargo to be carried in the hull, the smallest sailing scows were sloop rigged, but otherwise similar in design. The scow sloop eventually evolved into the inland lake scow, a type of fast racing boat, the American scow design was copied and modified in New Zealand by early immigrant settlers to Auckland in the 1870s. He commissioned a shipbuilder, one Septimus Meiklejohn to construct a small flat-bottomed sailing barge named the Lake Erie which was built at Omaha. The Lake Erie was 60 feet 6 inches in length, seventeen feet 3 inches in breadth and had a draught of three feet 4 inches. This one small craft spawned a fleet of sailing scows that were to become associated with the gum trade. Scows came in all manner of shape and sizes and all manner of sailing rigs and they were designed for hard work and heavy haulage and they did their job remarkably well. They took cattle north from the stockyards of Auckland and returned with a cargo of logs, sacks of kauri gum, shingle, firewood
40.
Grand Banks of Newfoundland
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The Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus south-east of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are shallow, ranging from 50 to 300 feet in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the waters of the Gulf Stream here. The mixing of waters and the shape of the ocean bottom lifts nutrients to the surface. These conditions helped to create one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, fish species include Atlantic cod, swordfish, haddock and capelin, shellfish include scallop and lobster. The area also supports colonies of seabirds such as northern gannets, shearwaters and sea ducks and various sea mammals such as seals, dolphins. In addition to the effects on nutrients, the mixing of the cold and it is also noted for its proximity to the sinking of the RMS Titanic and thus the launching point of Titanic shipwreck expeditions. The Grand Banks were extensively glaciated during the last glacial maximum, by approximately 13,000 years ago, the majority of the ice had melted, leaving the Grand Banks exposed as several islands extending for hundreds of kilometers. It is believed that sea levels submerged these around 8,000 years ago. Within a few years of Cabots voyage the existence of fishing grounds on the Grand Banks became generally known in Europe, ships from France and Portugal were first to fish there, followed by those from Spain while ships from England were scarce in the early years. This soon changed especially after Bernard Drakes devastating raid in 1585 which virtually wiped out the Spanish and these fish stocks thus became important for the early economies of eastern Canada and New England. Canadas EEZ currently occupies the majority of the Grand Banks except for the lucrative nose, the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave the United States shared rights to fish in these waters, but that section of the Treaty is no longer in force. Once this aspect of UNCLOS is ratified, Canada will presumably control these remaining parts of Grand Banks which are outside of its EEZ jurisdiction. Semi-fictional depictions of working on the Grand Banks can be found in Rudyard Kiplings novel Captains Courageous. The Grand Banks are also portrayed in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October
41.
Bluenose
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Bluenose was a fishing and racing schooner built in 1921 in Nova Scotia, Canada. Nicknamed the Queen of the North Atlantic, she was commemorated by a replica, Bluenose II. The name Bluenose originated as a nickname for Nova Scotians from as early as the late 18th century, designed by William Roué, the vessel was intended for both fishing and racing duties. Intended to compete with American schooners for speed, the design that Roué originally drafted in Fall 1920 had a length of 36.6 metres which was 2.4 metres too long for the competition. Sent back to redesign the schooner, Roué produced a revised outline, the accepted revisal placed the inside ballast on top of the keel to ensure that it was as low as possible, improving the overall speed of the vessel. One further alteration to the design took place during construction. The bow was raised by.5 metres to more room in the forecastle for the crew to eat. The alteration was approved of by Roué, the change in increased the sheer in the vessels bow, giving the schooner a unique appearance. The design that was accepted and later built was a combination of the designs of both Nova Scotian and American shipbuilders had been constructing for the North Atlantic fishing fleet. The vessel was constructed of Nova Scotian pine, spruce, birch and oak, Bluenose had a displacement of 258 tonnes and was 43.6 metres long overall and 34.1 metres at the waterline. The vessel had a beam of 8.2 metres and a draught of 4.85 metres, the schooner carried 930 square metres of sail. Bluenoses mainmast reached 38.4 metres above deck and the schooners foremast reached 31.3 metres and her mainboom was 24.7 metres and the schooners foreboom was 9.9 metres. The vessel had a crew of 20 and her hull was painted black, the vessel cost $35,000 to build. Bluenose was constructed by Smith and Rhuland in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, the schooners keel was laid in 1920. The Governor General the Duke of Devonshire drove a spike into the timber during the keel-laying ceremony. She was launched on 26 March 1921, and christened by Audrey Smith, Bluenose was completed in April 1921 and performed her sea trials out of Lunenburg. On 15 April, the departed to fish for the first time. Bluenose, being a Lunenburg schooner, used the dory trawl method, Lunenburg schooners carried eight dories, each manned by two members of the crew, called dorymen
42.
America (yacht)
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America was a 19th-century racing yacht and first winner of the Americas Cup international sailing trophy. The Royal Yacht Squadrons One Hundred Sovereign Cup or £100 Cup, mistakenly known in America as the One Hundred Guinea Cup, on August 22,1851, America won the Royal Yacht Squadrons 53-mile regatta around the Isle of Wight by eighteen minutes. The purpose of this visit was twofold, to show off U. S. shipbuilding skill, Stevens employed the services of the shipyard of William Brown and his chief designer, George Steers. America was designed by James Rich Steers and George Steers, traditional cod-head-and-mackerel-tail design gave boats a blunt bow and a sharp stern with the widest point placed one-third of the length aft of the bow. George Steers pilot boat designs, however, had a concave clipper-bow with the beam of the vessel at midships, as a result, his schooner-rigged pilot boats were among the fastest and most seaworthy of their day. They had to be seaworthy, for they had to inbound and outbound vessels in any kind of weather. These vessels also had to be fast, for harbor pilots competed with each other for business, in addition to pilot boats, Steers designed and built 17 yachts, some which were favourites with the New York Yacht Club. America was captained by Richard Brown who was also a member of the Sandy Hook Pilots group renowned worldwide for their expertise in manoeuvering the shoals around New York Harbor. They were all extremely skilled racers as a result of impromptu races between pilots to ships in need of pilot services, Brown had sailed aboard a pilot boat designed by George Steers, of whom he was a personal friend. He chose as first mate Nelson Comstock, a newcomer to yacht racing. Crewed by Brown and eight sailors, with George Steers, his older brother James, and James son George as passengers, America left New York on June 21. They were joined there by Commodore Stevens, after drydocking and repainting America left for Cowes, Isle of Wight, on July 30. While there the crew would enjoy the hospitality of the Royal Yacht Squadron while Stevens searched for someone who would race against his yacht, the British yachting community had been following the construction of America with interest and maybe some trepidation. When America showed up on the Solent on July 31 there was one yacht, Laverock, the accounts of the race are contradictory, a British newspaper said Laverock held her own, however, Stevens later reported that America beat her handily. Whatever the outcome, it seemed to have discouraged other British yachtsmen from challenging America to a match and she never raced until the last day of the Royal Yacht Squadrons annual members-only regatta for which Queen Victoria customarily donated the prize. Because of Americas presence, a provision was made to open to all nations a race of 53 miles round the Isle of Wight. The race was held on August 22,1851, with a 10,00 AM start for a line of seven schooners, America had a slow start due to a fouled anchor and was well behind when she finally got under way. Within half an hour however, she was in 5th place, the eastern shoals of the Isle of Wight are called the Nab Rocks
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Atlantic (yacht)
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The Atlantic was built in 1903 by Townsend and Downey shipyard, and designed by William Gardner, for Wilson Marshall. The three-masted schooner was skippered by Charlie Barr and it set the record for fastest transatlantic passage by a monohull in the 1905 Kaisers Cup race, the record remained unbroken for nearly 100 years. Her speed and elegance have made her the subject of a book, in 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany proposed a race across the North Atlantic and put forward a solid gold cup to be presented to the winner. Eleven boats including the Kaisers yacht Hamburg and the schooner Atlantic skippered by Charlie Barr took part, the competitors encountered strong winds and gales which ensured a fast passage time and all eleven boats finished the race. Atlantic won, breaking the record with a time of 12 days,4 hours,1 minute and 19 seconds. The record stood for 75 years until broken by Eric Tabarly sailing the trimaran Paul Ricard, however Atlantics monohull record stood for nearly 100 years until was broken in 1997 by the yacht Nicorette completing the crossing in 11 days 13 hours 22 minutes. In January 1919 she was assigned to the 5th Naval District and she was decommissioned on 11 June 1919 at the Norfolk Navy Yard in Portsmouth, Virginia. She was sold to an owner on 24 July 1919. Atlantic was acquired by the Coast Guard and commissioned on 1 April 1941 and she was assigned hull number WIX-271. She was assigned to Coast Guard Headquarters but was stationed at the United States Coast Guard Academy in New London and she was decommissioned on 27 October 1947 and sold to a private owner on 10 September 1948. Atlantic deteriorated and sank at the dock in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1982, the wreckage was removed for the installation of a floating dry dock at Metro Machine Shipyard. Her rudder is located at the Museum of Yachting in Newport, the initial launch took place in March 2008, and the schooner was completed in June 2010. Michael Vedder designed and built the interior of the Atlantic replica
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Chestertown, Maryland
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Chestertown is a town in Kent County, Maryland, United States. The population was 5,252 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Kent County. Founded in 1706, Chestertown rose in stature when it was named one of the English colony of Marylands six Royal Ports of Entry, the shipping boom that followed this designation made the town at the navigable head of the Chester River wealthy. In the mid-eighteenth century, Chestertown trailed only Annapolis and was considered Marylands second leading port, a burgeoning merchant class infused riches into the town, reflected in the many brick mansions and townhouses that sprung up along the waterfront. Another area in which Chestertown is second only to Annapolis is in its number of existing eighteenth century homes, as of the 1790 census, Chestertown was the geographical center of population of the United States. Chestertown was incorporated in 1805, and was named for the Chester River. Airy Hill, the Bernice J.25, Grand Army of the Republic, Thornton, Washington College, Middle, East and West Halls, Chestertown is located at 39°13′10″N 76°4′6″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 2.91 square miles. As of the first US Census in 1790, Chestertown was the center of the nations population. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and cool, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chestertown has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2010, there were 5,252 people,1,971 households, the population density was 2,020.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 2,361 housing units at a density of 908.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 74. 2% White,20. 4% African American,0. 3% Native American,1. 8% Asian,1. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 2% of the population. 42. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 22. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.65. The median age in the town was 34.9 years. 12. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,28. 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,16. 4% were from 25 to 44,19. 1% were from 45 to 64, and 23. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 43. 1% male and 56. 9% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,746 people,1,891 households, and 945 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,818.1 people per square mile, there were 2,164 housing units at an average density of 829.0 per square mile
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Sail plan
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A sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship. Alternatively, as a term of art, it refers to the way such vessels are rigged as discussed below, the combinations shown in a sail plan almost always include three configurations, A light air sail plan. Over most of the Earth, most of the time, the force is Force 1 or less. Thus a sail plan should include a set of huge, lightweight sails that will keep the ship underway in light breezes and this is the set of sails that are changed rapidly in variable conditions. They are much stronger than the light air sails, but still lightweight, an economical sail in this set will include several sets of reefing ties, so the area of the sail can be reduced in a stronger wind. This is the set of small, very rugged sails flown in a gale, to keep the vessel under way. In all sail plans, the attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching, broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the force on each sail plan against a range of loads. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing, fore-and-aft rig features flat sails that run fore and aft. These types of sails are the easiest to manage, because they often do not need to be relaid when the ship changes course, Bermuda rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig with a triangular mainsail. Gaff rig features fore-and-aft sails shaped like a triangle minus its point, the top of the sail tends to twist away from the wind reducing its efficiency when close-hauled. However, due to the gaff on the top edge of the sail the centre of effort is typically lower, square rig features sails set square to the mast from a yard, a spar running transversely in relation to the hull. In ships built using designs of the square rig, sailors would have to climb the rigging. In a modern square rigged design the crew can furl and unfurl sails by remote control from the deck, lateen rig features a triangular sail set on a long yard, mounted at an angle on the mast and running in a fore-and-aft direction. This is one of the lowest drag sails, each form of rig requires its own type of sails. Among them are, A staysail is a piece of cloth that has one or two attached to a stay, that is, one of the ropes or wires that helps hold the mast in place. A staysail was classically attached to the stay with wooden or steel hoops, sailors would test the hoops by climbing on them
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Gaff rigged
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
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Trapezoid
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The parallel sides are called the bases of the trapezoid and the other two sides are called the legs or the lateral sides. A scalene trapezoid is a trapezoid with no sides of equal measure, the first recorded use of the Greek word translated trapezoid was by Marinus Proclus in his Commentary on the first book of Euclids Elements. This article uses the term trapezoid in the sense that is current in the United States, in many other languages using a word derived from the Greek for this figure, the form closest to trapezium is used. A right trapezoid has two adjacent right angles, right trapezoids are used in the trapezoidal rule for estimating areas under a curve. An acute trapezoid has two adjacent acute angles on its longer base edge, while an obtuse trapezoid has one acute, an acute trapezoid is also an isosceles trapezoid, if its sides have the same length, and the base angles have the same measure. An obtuse trapezoid with two pairs of sides is a parallelogram. A parallelogram has central 2-fold rotational symmetry, a Saccheri quadrilateral is similar to a trapezoid in the hyperbolic plane, with two adjacent right angles, while it is a rectangle in the Euclidean plane. A Lambert quadrilateral in the plane has 3 right angles. A tangential trapezoid is a trapezoid that has an incircle, there is some disagreement whether parallelograms, which have two pairs of parallel sides, should be regarded as trapezoids. Some define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral having one pair of parallel sides. Others define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel sides, the latter definition is consistent with its uses in higher mathematics such as calculus. The former definition would make such concepts as the trapezoidal approximation to a definite integral ill-defined and this article uses the inclusive definition and considers parallelograms as special cases of a trapezoid. This is also advocated in the taxonomy of quadrilaterals, under the inclusive definition, all parallelograms are trapezoids. Rectangles have mirror symmetry on mid-edges, rhombuses have mirror symmetry on vertices, while squares have mirror symmetry on both mid-edges and vertices. Four lengths a, c, b, d can constitute the sides of a non-parallelogram trapezoid with a and b parallel only when | d − c | < | b − a | < d + c. The quadrilateral is a parallelogram when d − c = b − a =0, the angle between a side and a diagonal is equal to the angle between the opposite side and the same diagonal. The diagonals cut each other in mutually the same ratio, the diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one opposite pair are similar. The diagonals cut the quadrilateral into four triangles of which one pair have equal areas
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Forces on sails
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Similar principles in a rotating frame of reference apply to wind mill sails and wind turbine blades, which are also wind-driven. They are differentiated from forces on wings, and propeller blades, kites also power certain sailing craft, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article. Forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind—the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, for apparent wind angles aligned with the entry point of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. For apparent wind angles behind the sail, lift diminishes and drag increases as the predominant component of propulsion, because of limitations on speed through the water, displacement sailboats generally derive power from sails generating lift on points of sail that include close-hauled through broad reach. This knowledge is applied to the design of sails in such a manner that sailors can adjust sails to the strength, the combination of a sailing crafts speed and direction with respect to the wind, together with wind strength, generate an apparent wind velocity. A component of this lift pushes the craft crosswise to its course, which is resisted by a sailboats keel, an important component of lift is directed forward in the direction of travel and propels the craft. To understand forces and velocities, discussed here, one must understand what is meant by a vector, velocity, denoted as boldface in this article, is an example of a vector, because it implies both direction and speed. The corresponding speed, denoted as italics in this article is a scalar value, likewise, a force vector, F, denotes direction and strength, whereas its corresponding scalar denotes strength alone. Graphically, each vector is represented with an arrow that shows direction, vectors of consistent units may be added and subtracted, graphically, by positioning tips and tails of the arrows, representing the input variables and drawing the resulting derived vector. Pressure differences result from is the force per unit area on the sail from the air passing around it. The lift force results from the pressure on the windward surface of the sail being higher than the average pressure on the leeward side. These pressure differences arise in conjunction with the air flow. To generate lift, a sail must present an angle of attack between the line of the sail and the apparent wind velocity. Angle of attack is a function of both the point of sail and how the sail is adjusted with respect to the apparent wind. As the lift generated by a sail increases, so does lift-induced drag, sails with the apparent wind behind them operate in a stalled condition
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"Schooner". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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