1.
Schloss
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Schloss, formerly written Schloß, is the German term for a building similar to a château, palace, or manor house, or what in the British Isles would be known as a stately home or country house. Similarly, in the Scandinavian languages, related Germanic languages, the cognate word slot/slott is normally used for what in English could be either a palace or a castle, in Dutch the word slot is considered to be more archaic. Nowadays one commonly uses paleis or kasteel, like a castle, a Schloss is often surrounded by a moat and is then called a Wasserschloss. Other types include the Stadtschloss, the Jagdschloss and the Lustschloss, sometimes, the medieval Carolingian Kaiserpfalzen are considered as Schlösser already, such as the Palace of Aachen and the Imperial Palace of Goslar. Burg Festung Residenz Media related to Schloss at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
4.
Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine
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Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine was a ruler from the house of Wittelsbach. He was Elector Palatine, Count of Palatinate-Neuburg, and Duke of Jülich, until 1728 Charles III Philip was also Count of Megen. Born in Neuburg an der Donau, Charles Philip was the seventh of 17 children of Philip William, Elector Palatine and Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt. Though Charles Philip became a cleric in Cologne at the age of fourteen, suchlike in 1677 in Salzburg and again in 1679 in Mainz and he then joined the Habsburg war against the Turks 1691-1694 and was promoted imperial field marshal. In 1712 he was appointed Governor of Further Austria in Innsbruck, Charles Philip succeeded his brother Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine on his death in 1716, and he promptly expelled his brothers mistress, Dorothea von Velen, from the electoral palace. In the imperial election a few days later Charles III Philip voted for his Bavarian cousin Prince-Elector Charles Albert, another granddaughter of Charles Philip, Countess Palatine Maria Franziska of Sulzbach, was later married to Count Palatine Frederick Michael of Zweibrücken. Their son Maximilian I Joseph of Palatinate-Zweibrücken became the heir of the Palatinate-Sulzbach line, while in Mannheim, Charles III Philip, and later his successor Charles IV Theodore, put together what was commonly regarded as the finest orchestra in all of Europe. Under the leadership of such as Johann Stamitz and Carlo Grua. Charles Philip married three times, In Berlin on 10 August 1688 he married firstly Princess Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł, dowager margravine of Brandenburg and they had four children, Leopoldine Eleonore Josephine. Elisabeth Auguste Sophie, married on 1717 to her kinsman, the Count Palatine Johann Karl of Sulzbach, in Kraków on 15 December 1701 he married secondly Princess Teresa Lubomirska, heiress of Ostroh. They had two daughters, Theophila Elisabeth Franziska Felicitas, in 1728 he married thirdly Countess Violente Theresia, daughter of Count Philipp-Wilhelm of Thurn and Taxis, and his wife, Countess Marie-Adelheid von Aham zu Wildenau. This childless union was morganatic, as the Augsburg branch of the wealthy Thurn and Taxis family had only been elevated to rank in 1657. But Violente received the title of Princess from Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1733. Media related to Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria
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Charles Theodore reigned as prince-elector and count palatine from 1742, as Duke of Jülich and Berg from 1742 and also as prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria from 1777 to his death. He was a member of the House of Palatinate-Sulzbach, a branch of the House of Wittelsbach, Charles Theodore was of the Wittelsbach house Palatinate-Sulzbach. His father was Johann Christian, who later became Count Palatine of Sulzbach and his mother was Marie-Anne-Henriette-Leopoldine de La Tour dAuvergne, margravine of Bergen op Zoom, a grandniece of Henri de la Tour dAuvergne, Vicomte de Turenne. Charles Theodore was born in Drogenbos near Brussels and educated in Mannheim, Charles Theodore was margrave of Bergen op Zoom from 1728 onwards. As reigning Prince Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore won the hearts of his subjects by founding an academy of science, stocking up the museums collections, when Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria died in 1777, Charles Theodore became also Elector and Duke of Bavaria and moved to Munich. Charles Theodore did not immediately take up his new title and he had several mistresses and many illegitimate children. However, these people could inherit neither the Electorate of Bavaria nor that of the Palatine, Charles Theodore also dreamed of resurrecting the Burgundian Empire of the Middle Ages. On 3 January 1778, shortly after the death of Max Joseph and they were supported by Frederick II of Prussia, and most of the German minor states. The ensuing diplomatic crisis led to the War of the Bavarian Succession, Charles Theodore accepted the Bavarian succession, but agreed that his illegitimate descendants could not inherit Bavaria. Austria acquired the Innviertel, a part of Bavaria in the basin of the Inn river, Charles Theodore had only one son with his wife, Countess Elizabeth Augusta of Sulzbach, who died a day after birth. In 1795, he married Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este, Josephs niece, a second proposal to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands in 1784 also failed as Frederick II of Prussia initiated the Fürstenbund. When Charles Theodore died, Bavaria and the Electorate passed to his cousin, Max Joseph, Duke of Zweibrücken, the brother of Charles August. Thomas is the scholar to produce such an analysis. It is more widely understood that Charles Theodore continued the despotic, Charles Theodore never became popular as a ruler in Bavaria according to his critic Lorenz von Westenrieder. He attempted, without success to exchange the ducal lands of Bavaria, for the Austrian Netherlands and a royal crown, after a dispute with Munichs city council, he even moved the electoral residence in 1788 to Mannheim but returned only one year later. In 1785, he appointed the American Loyalist exile Benjamin Thompson as his aide-de-camp, over the next 11 years, Thompson reformed the army and many aspects of the state, rising to high ministerial rank with Charles Theodores backing, and becoming Count von Rumford. Charles Theodore is also known for disbanding Adam Weishaupts order of the Illuminati in 1785, in 1794, the armies of revolutionary France occupied the Duchy of Jülich, in 1795 they invaded the Palatinate, and in 1796 marched towards Bavaria. Charles Theodore begged Francis II for help that would have made Bavaria a puppet state of Austria, when he died of a stroke in Munich in 1799, the population in Munich celebrated for several days
6.
House of Wittelsbach
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The Wittelsbach family is a European royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria. The family also provided two Holy Roman Emperors, one King of the Romans, two Anti-Kings of Bohemia, one King of Hungary, one King of Denmark and Norway, the familys head, since 1996, is Franz, Duke of Bavaria. Berthold, Margrave in Bavaria, was the ancestor of Otto I, Count of Scheyern, whose third son Otto II, the Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle in 1119 for Wittelsbach Castle and the former was given to monks to establish Scheyern Abbey. Duke Ottos son Louis I, Duke of Bavaria acquired also the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1214. On Duke Otto IIs death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them, Henry became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and Louis II Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henrys branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, the Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of Holland, the Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke Meinhard and the following Peace of Schärding - the Tyrol was finally renounced to the Habsburgs in 1369. In 1373 Otto, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the House of Luxembourg, on Duke Alberts death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, William. A younger son, John III, became Bishop of Liège, however, on Williams death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and Williams daughter Jacqueline of Hainaut. This last episode of the Hook and Cod wars finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1432, with the Landshut War of Succession Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch Bavaria-Munich. From 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the County of Kladsko in Bohemia, strictly Catholic by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became leaders of the German Counter-Reformation. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the Prince-electors and Archbishops of Cologne and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely Liège. Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of Regensburg, Freising, Liège, Münster, Hildesheim, Paderborn and Osnabrück, in 1623 under Maximilian I the Bavarian dukes were invested with the electoral dignity and the duchy became the Electorate of Bavaria. His grandson Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria served also as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands and his son Emperor Charles VII was also king of Bohemia. With the death of Charles son Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria the Bavarian branch died out in 1777, the Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918 and succeeded also in Bavaria in 1777. With the Golden Bull of 1356 the Counts Palatine were invested with the electoral dignity, princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as Elector-Archbishops of Mainz and Elector-Archbishops of Trier. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine Wolfgang William of Neuburg, in 1619, the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine became King of Bohemia but was defeated by the Catholic Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the Upper Palatinate had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623, when the Thirty Years War concluded with the Treaty of Münster in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine
7.
Schwetzingen
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Schwetzingen is a German town situated in the northwest of Baden-Württemberg, around 10 km southwest of Heidelberg and 15 km southeast of Mannheim. Schwetzingen is one of the 5 biggest cities of the Rhein-Neckar-Kreis district, Schwetzingen is located in the Rhine-Neckar-triangle in the plain of the Rhine river, lying west of the Odenwald and in the east of the Rhine. A small stream, the Leimbach, runs through the city before joining the Rhine, the following municipalities, listed clockwise beginning in the north, border on the city limits of Schwetzingen, Mannheim, Plankstadt, Oftersheim, Hockenheim, Ketsch and Brühl. The municipal area of Schwetzingen is completely consolidated with Oftersheim, the limits of Plankstadt are only separated by one street from the limits of Schwetzingen. Schwetzingen was mentioned as Suezzingen for the first time in 766, recorded in the late twelfth-century Codex Aureus of Lorsch, originally it consisted of two settlements, Ober- and Unterschwetzingen, that grew together in the course of the 17th and 18th century. Originally the town belonged to the diocese of Worms, but later passed to the Counts of the Palatinate in the 12th century, the moated castle of Schwetzingen is mentioned for the first time in 1350. It was destroyed in the Thirty Years War and in the following War of the Palatinate Succession, it was rebuilt by count Johann Wilhelm, from 1720 it served temporarily as the residence of the Elector Karl III Philip after he moved away from Heidelberg. Later on it served as a residence of the Elector of the Palatinate. In 1759 Schwetzingen received permission to host markets and was developed into a city through the 18th century. In 1833 Schwetzingen was elevated to city status by Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, the beginning of industrialization in Schwetzingen in the year 1850 made the city an important seat of cigar factories and canneries. Also, the cultivation of asparagus gained importance and has remained one of Schwetzingens claim to fame, for more information visit, www. schwetzingen. de These figures are estimates only, official census results or statistics of the residents registration office. ¹ official census results The local council of Schwetzingen has 26 members since the last elections in June 2009, Arthur Trautmann 1933 –1945, Arthur Stober 1945, Ernst Karl 1945 –1948, Dr. The city flag is white and blue, the lion symbolizes the Palatine Electorate, of which Schwetzingen was a member until 1803. The ring was originally a wheel originating from the seal of an inhabitant who had contacts to the castle of Schwetzingen, Schwetzingen station was opened in 1870 on the Rhine Railway, connecting Mannheim and Karlsruhe. Between 1910 and 1938 there was a tramline connecting Schwetzingen and Ketsch, in Schwetzingen the daily newspaper is the Schwetzinger Zeitung, which is a local newspaper published by the Mannheimer Morgen. In Schwetzingen there is a court, a notarys office, an internal revenue service, a customs office. The city maintains the Hebel-Gymnasium, the Karl-Friedrich-Schimper-Realschule, the Hilda Hauptschule, four schools as well as a special school. Furthermore there are two schools and the Comenius-School for mentally handicapped
8.
Heidelberg
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Heidelberg is a college town situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. At the 2015 census, its population was 156,257, located about 78 km south of Frankfurt, Heidelberg is the fifth-largest city in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Heidelberg is part of the densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, founded in 1386, Heidelberg University is Germanys oldest and one of Europes most reputable universities. A scientific hub in Germany, the city of Heidelberg is home to internationally renowned research facilities adjacent to its university. Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl and the Gaisberg mountains, the Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters, the Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, Heidelberg is on European walking route E1. Alongside the Philosophenweg on the side of the Old Town. There is a population of African rose-ringed parakeets, and a wild population of Siberian swan geese. Heidelberg is an authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. The Rhein-Neckar Triangle became a European metropolitan area in 2005, Heidelberg consists of 15 districts distributed in six sectors of the town. The new district will have approximately 5, 000–6,000 residents, Heidelberg has an oceanic climate, defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the nearby Upper Rhine Plain, Heidelbergs position in the leads to more frequent easterly winds than average. The hillsides of the Odenwald favour clouding and precipitation, the warmest month is July, the coldest is January. Temperatures often rise beyond 30 °C in midsummer, according to the German Meteorological Service, Heidelberg was the warmest place in Germany in 2009
9.
Mannheim
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Mannheim is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe. Mannheim is among the twenty largest cities in Germany, with a 2015 population of approximately 305,000 inhabitants, the city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germanys eighth-largest metropolitan region. Mannheim is located at the confluence of the Rhine and the Neckar in the corner of Baden-Württemberg. The Rhine separates Mannheim from the city of Ludwigshafen, just to the west of it in Rhineland-Palatinate, Mannheim is downstream along the Neckar from the city of Heidelberg. Mannheim is unusual among German cities in that its streets and avenues are laid out in a grid pattern, the eighteenth century Mannheim Palace, former home of the Prince-elector of the Palatinate, now houses the University of Mannheim. In addition, Mannheims SAP Arena is not only the home of the German ice hockey record champions the Adler Mannheim, but also the well-known handball team, the Rhein-Neckar Löwen. According to the Forbes magazine, Mannheim is known for its exceptional power and was ranked 11th among the Top 15 of the most inventive cities worldwide. The New Economy Magazine elected Mannheim under the 20 cities that best represent the world of tomorrow emphasizing Mannheims positive economic, since 2014, Mannheim has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and holds the title of UNESCO City of Music. Mannheim is a Smart City the citys electrical grid is installed with a Power-line communication network, the citys tourism slogan is Leben. The civic symbol of Mannheim is der Wasserturm, a Romanesque water tower completed in 1886 that rises to 60 metres above the highest point of the art nouveau area Friedrichsplatz, Mannheim is the starting and finishing point of the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. The name of the city was first recorded as Mannenheim in a transaction in 766. The name is interpreted as the home of Manno, a form of a Germanic name such as Hartmann or Hermann. Mannheim remained a mere village throughout the Middle Ages, in 1606, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine started building the fortress of Friedrichsburg and the adjacent city centre with its grid of streets and avenues. On January 24,1607, Frederick IV gave Mannheim the status of a city, Mannheim was mostly levelled during the Thirty Years War around 1622 by the forces of Johan Tillys troops. After being rebuilt, it was severely damaged by the French Army in 1689 during the Nine Years War. During the eighteenth century, Mannheim was the home of the Mannheim School of classical music composers, Mannheim was said to have one of the best court orchestras in Europe under the leadership of the conductor Carlo Grua. The royal court of the Palatinate left Mannheim in 1778, two decades later, in 1802, Mannheim was removed from the Palatinate and given to the Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1819, Norwich Duff wrote of Mannheim, In 1819, the climate crisis of 1816-17 caused famine and the death of many horses in Mannheim
10.
Schlosstheater Schwetzingen
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Schlosstheater Schwetzingen is a court theater in Schwetzingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The historic building, opened in 1753, is part of Schloss Schwetzingen and it is also called Hoftheater, Hofoper, and Comoedienhaus. The frequently applied name Rokokotheater is misleading, because it shows also neoclassical elements, Karl Theodor, the Pfalzgraf who resided in Mannheim, had the theater built for his summer residence in Schwetzingen in 1752 to the plans of court architect Nicolas de Pigage. It was opened on 15 June 1753, presenting Ignaz Holzbauers opera Il figlio delle selve, the theater could then be considered a rococo creation, but was expanded with early neoclassical tendencies. While it first had no boxes, it was enlarged in 1762 and it is the oldest surviving Rangtheater in Europe. The Mozart family visited the theater in 1763 and saw a play, when Karl Theodor succeeded Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria as Elector of Bavaria in 1777, the court had to move to Munich and the theater lost its importance. Its original stage machinery was preserved into the 20th century, but it was replaced by facilities in the 1950s. As part of the Residenz in the Schwetzingen Castle, it first belonged to the Electors, the theater is a fitting location for operas and plays from the Baroque and classical period. Voltaires Lorphelin de la Chine was premiered in 1755, his tragedy Olimpie was premiered in 1762, staged by Cosimo Alessandro Collini. Francesca Lebrun, the sister of Franz Danzi, a singer of the Mannheim Opera, performed, for example. Since 1952 the theater has been the venue of the Schwetzinger Festspiele. Holzbauers Il figlio delle selve, which had opened the theater in 1753, was performed 250 years later in 2003, from 1969 the theater has been a venue of the Mozartfest, an annual festival in fall organized by the association Mozartgesellschaft Schwetzingen. Silke Leopold, Bärbel Pelker, Hofoper in Schwetzingen, universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2004, ISBN 3-8253-1524-X Rolf Dieter Opel, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Schwetzingen und Mannheim. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 3-8253-7082-8 Hans Joachim Scholderer, Schlosstheater Ludwigsburg
11.
Schwetzingen Festival
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The Schwetzingen Festival is an early summer festival of opera and other classical music presented each year from May to early June in Schwetzingen, Germany. In 1952 the broadcaster Süddeutscher Rundfunk founded the festival in the Schwetzingen area and it is located in a beautiful 250-year-old palace and park, Schwetzingen Castle, near the famous city of Heidelberg. The main venue is the historic Schlosstheater Schwetzingen, nowadays, the successor organization is the Südwestrundfunk and it organises a large number of international concerts and music theatre events every year. One of the characteristics is the world premiere of a new opera, as well as at least one rediscovered opera from former centuries. Concerts have featured artists such as Gidon Kremer, Jorge Bolet and Cecilia Bartoli. Singers of the caliber of Barbara Hendricks, Fritz Wunderlich and Teresa Berganza have performed at the festival as beginners and have all gone on to major careers, list of opera festivals Schwetzinger SWR Festspiele website
12.
Moated castle
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A water castle is a castle or stately home whose site is entirely surrounded by water-filled moats or natural waterbodies such as island castles in a river or offshore. Topographically water castles are a type of lowland castle, forde-Johnston describes it as a castle in which water plays a prominent part in the defences. In all cases, water is used as an obstacle to hinder an attacker and that apart, an abundant supply of water was also an advantage during a siege. Such a castle usually had one entrance, which was via a drawbridge. To some extent these water castles had a fortress-like character, the characteristic moats thus lost their original security function, but were retained in some cases as an element of landscaping. Today, in monument conservation circles, they are described as burdensome. As a result, many moats around castles in Germany have been drained, or more rarely filled, especially since the 1960s
13.
Nicolas de Pigage
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Nicolas de Pigage was a French builder. In 1743 he began his studies at the École Militaire, changing to the Académie Royale dArchitecture after only one year studying under Jacques-François Blondel, elector Karl Theodor summoned him to his court in Mannheim and in 1752 he became the Oberbaudirector. Under his supervision, Schloss Benrath was built in 1755 to 1773 in Düsseldorf-Benrath, in 1762 he became the Head-Gardener of the gardens around the castle. De Pigage contributed to the erection of the residency in Mannheim and he led the construction of the eastern wing of the Mannheimer Schloss. He was the architect of the Karlstor and of a mansion called Pflege Schönau, Pigage conducted many joint projects with Franz Wilhelm Rabaliatti but they were also in competition with each other. Hans Leopold Zollner, Nicolas de Pigage, sein Leben und Werk, in, Badische Heimat, Bd
14.
Mannheim Palace
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Mannheim Palace is a large Baroque palace in Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It was originally the residence of the Prince-electors of the Electorate of the Palatinate of the House of Wittelsbach. Part of the palace is used by the University of Mannheim, the State of Baden-Württemberg offers tours of parts of the reconstructed and restored Baroque palace, which features tapestries, furniture, paintings, porcelain and silverware. The actual palace dates from the 18th century, when Elector Karl III Philip had confessional controversies with the inhabitants of his capital Heidelberg, he decided to make Mannheim the Palatinates new capital in 1720. Karl Philip decided to construct a new palace as his residence on the site of the old Friedrichsburg and it was part of a general trend among the German princes to create grand new residences in that era. Construction was commenced solemnly on June 2,1720, the first administrative institutions began using the palace in 1725, but Karl Philip was able to transfer his court to the new residence only in 1731. Construction was not completed until 1760, Karl Philip died in 1742 and was succeeded by a distant relative, the young Karl Theodor. During his reign, the palace and the city of Mannheim saw their zenith, the glamour of the Electors court and Mannheims then famous cultural life lasted until 1778, when Karl Theodor became Elector of Bavaria by inheritance and he moved his court to Munich. Although Mannheim kept the title of “residence”, the palace was used merely as accommodation for several administrative bodies, things worsened further during the Napoleonic Wars, when Mannheim was besieged. During Napoleons reorganization of Germany, the Electorate of the Palatinate was split up and Mannheim became part of the Grand Duchy of Baden, some glamour returned to Mannheim Palace when Stéphanie de Beauharnais, the consort of Grand Duke Karl of Baden, resided here after 1806. For most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the palace served no purpose, being used as a representative building. In World War II, the palace was bombed and partly destroyed. Many people supported demolishing it after the war to create space for a modern city architecture. These plans came to nothing and the palace was reconstructed, the college expanded its subjects program in 1967, thus gaining “university” status. The site of the palace is impressive, although the construction of roads, to the southwest, it faces the Rhine and Ludwigshafen. To the northeast the palace presents its 450 m long front to the Mannheim city centre, by surrounding an area of 6 hectare the castle is one of Europes biggest Palaces and the second biggest one in barock style, second only after Versailles. Thereby and for reasons of prestige the architects made sure that Mannheim Palace has one more window than Versailles, the Breite Straße runs from the palace to Mannheims central square, the Paradeplatz. The central part of the palace is the Mittelbau with its representative halls, today, the Mittelbau holds university library halls and the Rittersaal hall
15.
Schloss Benrath
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Schloss Benrath is a Baroque-style maison de plaisance in Benrath, which is now a borough of Düsseldorf. It was erected for the Elector Palatine Charles Theodor and his wife, Countess Palatine Elisabeth Auguste of Sulzbach, by his garden, construction began in 1755 and was completed in 1770. The ensemble at Benrath has been proposed for designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the main building, the central corps de logis, for the Elector Palatine and his wife is flanked by two arched symmetrical wings, the maisons de cavalière, which originally housed the servants. They partially surround a circular pond, the Schlossweiher, in the north, on the southside lies a long rectangular pond, the Spiegelweiher. From the predescant castle, which stood formerly in the mid of the long pond on the southside of the palace, is conserved only one of the servant wings. The main building corps de logis is a museum with guided tours, sometimes music concerts are also performed. The two wings house two museums since 2002, the Museum for European Garden Art in the east wing and the Museum of Natural History in the west wing and it is surrounded by a baroque square hunting park with two crossing diagonal alleys and a circular alley. Schloss Benrath official website Official website
16.
Orangery
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The orangery provided a luxurious extension of the normal range and season of woody plants, extending the protection which had long been afforded by the warmth offered from a masonry fruit wall. As imported citrus fruit, pineapples, and other tender fruit became generally available and much cheaper, the orangery originated from the Renaissance gardens of Italy, when glass-making technology enabled sufficient expanses of clear glass to be produced. This soon created a situation where orangeries became symbols of status among the wealthy, the glazed roof, which afforded sunlight to plants that were not dormant, was a development of the early 19th century. The 1617 Orangerie at the Palace of the Louvre inspired imitations that culminated in Europes largest orangery, notable for his 1851 design of the Crystal Palace, his great conservatory at Chatsworth House was an orangery and glass house of monumental proportions. The orangery, however, was not just a greenhouse but a symbol of prestige and wealth, owners would conduct their guests there on tours of the garden to admire not only the fruits within but also the architecture without. Often the orangery would contain fountains, grottos, and an area in which to entertain in inclement weather, as early as 1545, an orangery was built in Padua, Italy. The first orangeries were practical and not as ornamental as they later became, most had no heating other than open fires. In England, John Parkinson introduced the orangery to the readers of his Paradisus in Sole, the building of orangeries became most widely fashionable after the end of the Eighty Years War in 1648. Orangeries were generally built facing south to take advantage of the possible light, and were constructed using brick or stone bases, brick or stone pillars. Insulation at these times was one of the biggest concerns for the building of these orangeries, straw became the material used. An early example of the type of construction can be seen at Kensington Palace, domestic orangeries also typically feature a roof lantern. The first examples were basic constructions and could be removed during summer, notably not only noblemen but also wealthy merchants, e. g. those of Nuremberg, used to cultivate citrus plants in orangeries. This became further influenced by the demand for beautiful exotic plants in the garden. This created the demand in garden design for the wealthy to have their own exotic private gardens. This in turn created the need for orangeries to be constructed using even better techniques such as underfloor heating, creating microclimates for the propagation of more and more exotic plants for the private gardens that were becoming creations of beauty all around Europe. At a length of 28 metres, it was the largest glasshouse in Britain when it was built, although designed as an arcade with end pavilions to winter oranges, the light levels under its solid roof were too low for it to be successful. The orangery at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, was designed in 1761 by Sir William Chambers, the orangery at Margam Park, Wales, was built between 1787 and 1793 to house a large collection of orange, lemon, and citron trees inherited by Thomas Mansel Talbot. The original house has been razed, but the surviving orangery, an orangery dating from about 1700 is at Kenwood House in London, and a slightly earlier one at Montacute
17.
Formal garden
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A formal garden is a garden with a clear structure, geometric shapes and in most cases a symmetrical layout. Its origin goes back to the gardens which are located in the areas of Western Asia and are protected by walls. The style of a garden is reflected in the Persian Gardens in Iran. It has found its continuation in the Italian Gardens from the Renaissance and has culminated in the French Gardens from the Baroque period, through its design, the garden conveys a sense of established order and transparency to the observer. In garden design, the garden is said to be the opposite to the landscape garden, which follows nature. A typical feature of formal gardens is the axial and symmetrical arrangement of pathways, both of these elements are typically enclosed, for example with low box hedges or flower borders. The garden itself is surrounded by green walls, for instance walls covered in climbing plants. The area that has created by this procedure is again divided by hedges, espaliers. The enclosed areas of the different parts are structured by means of low elements and this creates an atmosphere of clarity and straightness and thus also a certain degree of simplicity. The center of the garden is often accentuated by a round, oval or square structural element, the footpaths are covered with materials like brick, bluestone or paving stone. Alternatively, the paths can be covered with scattered gravel or colored glass chippings and their straight lines create visual axes. At the end of these axes, eye-catching elements, such as sculptures, ornamental ponds, fountains, however, formal gardens that contain these elements lose their simplistic design in part and are no longer easy to care for. Most of the plants in a formal garden need pruning only once a year and this occasion is mostly used for topiary. In larger formal gardens, usually there are hedge mazes, which are constructed by means of topiary and these mazes include archways, hidden resting places and cul-de-sacs. Usually, low plants and flowers harmonize well are planted in the flower beds. However, the criterion is not the bloom but rather the shape. Therefore, ornamental plants are often selected for the beds. The type of lawn that can be found in a formal garden, examples Mark Laird, Hugh Palmer, The Formal Garden
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English landscape garden
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The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. The work of Lancelot Capability Brown was particularly influential, by the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a influence on the form of the public parks. These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture and these gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur. William Kent was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian style architecture to England and his gardens were designed to complement the Palladian architecture of the houses he built. He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions, Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river, for the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature. Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished, the patron was General Dormer, who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of gardens, including a grotto of Venus, on the slope along the river Cherwell, finally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama. Stowe, in Buckinghamshire, was a more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, bridgemans design included an octagonal lake and a Rotunda designed by Vanbrugh. In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and it became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent. Stourhead, in Wiltshire, created by banker Henry Hoare, was one of the first picturesque gardens, Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside and he created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a designer to that of a poet or composer. Here I put a comma, there, when its necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis, there I end it with a period, the most important were, Petworth in 1752, Chatsworth in 1761, Bowood in 1763, Blenheim Palace in 1764. Humphry Repton was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, to help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced Red Books with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show before and after views
19.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
20.
Parterre
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A parterre is a formal garden constructed on a level substrate, consisting of plant beds, typically in symmetrical patterns, which are separated and connected by paths. The borders of the plant beds may be formed with stone or tightly pruned hedging, the paths are constituted with gravel or turf grass. French parterres originated in the gardens of the French Renaissance of the 15th century, later, during the 17th century Baroque era, they became more elaborate and stylised. The French parterre reached its greatest development at the Palace of Versailles, claude Mollet, the founder of a dynasty of nurserymen-designers that lasted into the 18th century, developed the parterre in France. His inspiration in developing the 16th-century patterned compartimens, i. e. C, clipped boxwood met with resistance from horticultural patrons for its naughtie smell as the herbalist Gervase Markham described it. By the 1630s, elaborate parterres de broderie appeared at Wilton House in Wilton, England that were so magnificent that they were engraved, which engraving is the only remaining trace of them. Parterres de pelouse or parterres de gazon denominate cutwork parterres of low growing herbs, e. g. camomile, the separation of plant beds of a pareterre is denominated an alley of compartiment. Parterre gardens lost favour in the 18th century and were superseded by naturalistic English landscape gardens, level substrates and a raised vantage point from which to view the design were required, and so the parterre was revived in a modified style. At Kensington Palace the planting of the parterres was by Henry Wise, whose nursery was nearby at Brompton, subsidiary wings have subsidiary parterres, with no attempt at overall integration. To either side, walls with busts on herm pedestals backed by young trees screen the parterre from the garden spaces. Formal baroque patterns have given way to symmetrical paired free scrolling rococo arabesques, little attempt seems to have been made to fit the framework to the shape of the parterre. Beyond paired basins have central jets of water, in the UK, modern parterres exist at Trereife Park in Penzance, at Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfriesshire and at Bodysgallen Hall near Llandudno. Examples can also be found in the Republic of Ireland, such as at Birr Castle, sentinel pyramids of yew stand at the corners. Some early knot gardens have been covered over by lawn or other landscaping, an example of this phenomenon is the early 17th-century garden of Muchalls Castle in Scotland. At Charlecote Park in Warwickshire the original parterre from the 1700s has been recreated on the terrace overlooking the river, making of a modern parterre This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chambers, Ephraim, ed. article name needed. Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, james and John Knapton, et al
21.
Dezallier d'Argenville
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The family of Dezallier dArgenville produced two writers and connoisseurs in the course of the 18th century. The majority of the illustrations were by Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond, as its title suggests, the treatise is composed of two parts, the theoretical principles of the art of fine gardening and its practical applications. The second part applies the principles in earth works, terraces and stairs, the work went through thirteen editions in France, where the English mode of landscape design scarcely made itself known before the French Revolution. Dezailler dArgenville was called upon to edit or contribute more than 600 entries in the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond dAlembert, La Conchyliologie, ou Traité sur la nature des coquillages 1757 etc. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in March 1750, beyond his success in the fields of gardening and natural history, Dezallier d’Argenville was a print collector. It also describes ‘good prints by le Clerc, Picart, Hollar, Royn de Hoog, at least six further editions appeared before the Revolution. At least one further edition appeared before the Revolution, further works were Dénombrement de tous les fossiles de France and LOryctologie ou Traité des pierres, des minéraux et autres fossiles. He compiled also the Vies des Fameux Architectes Depuis la renaissance des Arts in two volumes,1787, of which the second was devoted to sculptors, an abridged edition was often reprinted. A facsimile was published in Geneva 1972 and he also wrote a Dictionnaire du jardinage, relatif à la théorie. Et à la pratique de cet art and a Manuel du jardinier ou journal de son travail distribué par mois, Laissus, D. Pullins, Dezallier dArgenvilles Recueils of Costume Prints Rediscovered, Print Quarterly, Vol. XXXIII, No. Dezallier dArgenville La Théorie et la pratique du jardinage at Gallica La Théorie et la pratique du jardinage at Gallica Abrégé de la vie des plus fameux peintres at Gallica
22.
Folly
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18th century English gardens and French landscape gardening often featured mock Roman temples, symbolising classical virtues. Other 18th century garden follies represented Chinese temples, Egyptian pyramids, ruined abbeys, or Tatar tents, sometimes they represented rustic villages, mills, and cottages to symbolise rural virtues. Many follies, particularly during times of famine, such as the Irish potato famine, were built as a form of relief, to provide employment for peasants. The concept of the folly is subjective and it has suggested that the definition of a folly lies in the eyes of the beholder. Typical characteristics include, They have no other than as an ornament. Often they have some of the appearance of a building constructed for a purpose, such as a castle or tower. Equally, if they have a purpose, it may be disguised and they are buildings, or parts of buildings. Thus they are distinguished from other garden ornaments such as sculpture, follies are deliberately built as ornaments. They are often eccentric in design or construction and this is not strictly necessary, however, it is common for these structures to call attention to themselves through unusual details or form. There is often an element of fakery in their construction, the canonical example of this is the sham ruin, a folly which pretends to be the remains of an old building but which was in fact constructed in that state. They were built or commissioned for pleasure, follies began as decorative accents on the great estates of the late 16th century and early 17th century but they flourished especially in the two centuries which followed. Many estates had ruins of houses and Roman villas, others, lacking such buildings. However, very few follies are completely without a practical purpose, apart from their decorative aspect, many originally had a use which was lost later, such as hunting towers. Follies are misunderstood structures, according to The Folly Fellowship, a charity that exists to celebrate the history and they were usually in the form of Roman temples, ruined Gothic abbeys, or Egyptian pyramids. In France they sometimes took the form of romantic farmhouses, mills and cottages, sometimes they were copied from landscape paintings by painters such as Claude Lorrain and Hubert Robert. Often, they had symbolic importance, illustrating the virtues of ancient Rome, later in the 18th century, the follies became more exotic, representing other parts of the world, including Chinese pagodas, Japanese bridges, and Tatar tents. The Irish Potato Famine of 1845-49 led to the building of several follies, the society of the day held that reward without labour was misguided. However, to hire the needy for work on useful projects would deprive existing workers of their jobs, thus, construction projects termed famine follies came to be built
23.
Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell
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Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell was a German landscape gardener from Weilburg an der Lahn. He is regarded as the founder of the English gardens in Germany and his manner of grouping and choice of plants is still used to an extent in German landscaping today. Sckell was trained in the Court Market Garden in Schwetzingen near Mannheim and worked after his apprenticeship in Bruchsal, Paris, from 1773 to 1777, he was in England busying himself with English-style gardening. He then transformed the garden of Nymphenburg Park into a more scenic arrangement. As a landscape gardener, Sckell was also responsible for beginning the gardens at Biebrich and Oppenweiler. In 1808, Sckell received the title Knight of Sckell, which added the von to his name and he died in 1823 in Munich as a Court Garden Director, and was buried in the Alter Südfriedhof there. A monument in the Englischer Garten was erected in his honor, the House of Sckell The information in this article is based on a translation of its German equivalent. Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell, Beiträge zur bildenden Gartenkunst für angehende Gartenkünstler, auflage von 1825, Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, Worms,1998, ISBN 3-88462-150-5 Volker Hannwacker, Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell. Der Begründer des Landschaftsgarten in Deutschland, deutsche Verlag-Anstalt, Stuttgart,1992, ISBN 3-421-03012-X Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell in the German National Library catalogue
24.
Peter Anton von Verschaffelt
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Peter Anton von Verschaffelt was a Flemish sculptor and architect. Verschaffelt was born in Ghent, Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands, after his apprentice years in Ghent in the workshop of his grandfather, Verschaffelt worked in Brussels, Paris and, from 1737 to 1751, in Rome. In 1748, he received the commission to replace the statue of the archangel Michael on the Castel SantAngelo in Rome. In 1752 Verschaffelt moved to London, from there, he was appointed as a successor to the sculptor Paul Egell as court sculptor to Charles Theodore, Elector of the Palatinate, in Mannheim, Germany. Among his first tasks was the landscaping and statuary in the garden of Schwetzingen, for which he created the deer and the group of rivers. He died in Mannheim, Electoral Palatinate, Holy Roman Empire and this article is based in part on material from the German Wikipedia. Beisel, Edmund Ritter Peter Anton von Verschaffelt als Architekt Berlin Beringer, sein Leben und Werk Strasbourg Peter Anton von Verschaffelt Art net in English Ingrid Münch. Peter Anton von Verschaffelt University of Heidelberg in German
25.
Pan (god)
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In Greek religion and mythology, Pan is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature of mountain wilds and rustic music, and companion of the nymphs. His name originates within the ancient Greek language, from the word paein, meaning to pasture and he has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a faun or satyr. With his homeland in rustic Arcadia, he is recognized as the god of fields, groves, and wooded glens, because of this, Pan is connected to fertility. The ancient Greeks also considered Pan to be the god of theatrical criticism, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement of western Europe and also in the 20th-century Neopagan movement. Many modern scholars consider Pan to be derived from the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European god *Péh2usōn, the Hindu god Pushan is believed to be a cognate of Pan. The connection between Pan and Pushan was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz, the name Pan is probably also a cognate with the Greek word πάειν, meaning to pasture, which shares an origin with the modern English word pasture. In his earliest appearance in literature, Pindars Pythian Ode iii,78, Pan is associated with a mother goddess, perhaps Rhea or Cybele, Pindar refers to virgins worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poets house in Boeotia. In some early sources such as Pindar, his father is Apollo via Penelope, Herodotus, Cicero, Apollodorus and Hyginus all make Hermes and Penelope his parents. Pausanias 8.12.5 records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, other sources report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result. This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pans name with the Greek word for all, in the mystery cults of the highly syncretic Hellenistic era, Pan is made cognate with Phanes/Protogonos, Zeus, Dionysus and Eros. Accounts of Pans genealogy are so varied that it must lie buried deep in mythic time, like other nature spirits, Pan appears to be older than the Olympians, if it is true that he gave Artemis her hunting dogs and taught the secret of prophecy to Apollo. Pan might be multiplied as the Pans or the Paniskoi, Kerenyi notes from scholia that Aeschylus in Rhesus distinguished between two Pans, one the son of Zeus and twin of Arcas, and one a son of Cronus. In the retinue of Dionysos, or in depictions of landscapes, there appeared not only a great Pan, but also little Pans, Paniskoi. The worship of Pan began in Arcadia which was always the seat of his worship. Arcadia was a district of people, culturally separated from other Greeks. Greek hunters used to scourge the statue of the god if they had been disappointed in the chase. Being a rustic god, Pan was not worshipped in temples or other built edifices and these are often referred to as the Cave of Pan. In the 4th century BC Pan was depicted on the coinage of Pantikapaion, the goat-god Aegipan was nurtured by Amalthea with the infant Zeus in Athens
26.
Nymphenburg Palace
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Castle of the Nymph, is a Baroque palace in Munich, Bavaria, southern Germany. The palace is the summer residence of the former rulers of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach. The central pavilion was completed in 1675, as a building material it utilised limestone from Kelheim. The castle was expanded and transformed over the years. Starting in 1701, Max Emanuel, the heir to Bavaria, two pavilions were added each in the south and north of Barellis palace by Enrico Zucalli and Giovanni Antonio Viscardi and connected with the centre pavilion by two gallery wings. In 1716 Joseph Effner redesigned the facade of the pavilion in French Baroque style with pilasters. Later, the section of the palace was further extended to form the court stables. For the sake of balance, the building was added to the north. Finally, a circle with Baroque mansions was erected under Max Emanuels son Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII Albert. In 1795 the Elector Charles Theodore ordered the widening of the galleries on the park side, with the Treaty of Nymphenburg signed in July 1741, Charles Albert allied with France and Spain against Austria. Two of the children were born here, Maria Antonia in 1724. Charles Albert lived during his time in Munich as Holy Roman Emperor in Nymphenburg Palace, Joseph founded the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory. In 1792 Elector Charles Theodor opened the park for the public, for a long time the palace was the favourite summer residence of the rulers of Bavaria. King Max I Joseph died there in 1825 and his great-grandson King Ludwig II was born there in 1845, in 1863 the only meeting between Ludwig and Otto von Bismarck was held in Nymphenburg, although they remained connected in a lifelong friendship. Today Nymphenburg is open to the public but also continues to be a home and chancery for the head of the house of Wittelsbach, currently Franz, the palace, together with its park, is now one of the most famous sights of Munich. The baroque facades comprise an overall width of about 700 metres, some rooms still show their original baroque decoration while others were later redesigned in rococo or neoclassical style. The Steinerner Saal in the pavilion, with ceiling frescoes by Johann Baptist Zimmermann and F. Zimmermann. Acting as a hall, it occupies over three floors of the central pavilion of the palace
27.
Rococo
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Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. By the end of the 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo usually covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XVs reign and it includes therefore, all types of art from around the middle of the 18th century in France. The word is seen as a combination of the French rocaille and coquilles, the term may also be a combination of the Italian word barocco and the French rocaille and may describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe in the 18th century. The Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts led some critics to say that the style was frivolous or merely modish, when the term was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning old-fashioned. While there is some debate about the historical significance of the style to art in general. Italian architects of the late Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic Germany, Bohemia and Austria by local princes, an exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIVs succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the long reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves. These elements are obvious in the designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Régence, court life moved away from Versailles and this change became well established, first in the royal palace. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XVs reign. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France, the style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications, william Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty that the lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace. The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have connected with the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality, Blondel decried the ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order, in Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke, and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil
28.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
31.
Stuttgart Region
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Stuttgart Region is an urban agglomeration at the heart of the Stuttgart Metropolitan Region. It consists of the city of Stuttgart and the districts of Ludwigsburg, Esslingen, Böblingen, Rems-Murr. About 2.7 million inhabitants live in that area, in fact, with 708 people per square kilometre, the Stuttgart Region is one of the most densely populated areas in Germany. Stuttgart Region is governed by an elected parliament. Situated at the heart of Baden-Württemberg, the Stuttgart Region is the hub of economic, scientific, the area currently has Germanys highest density of scientific, academic and research organisations, and tops the national league for patent applications. The Gross Domestic Product for Stuttgart Region was recorded at about €35,000 per capita, about €64,000 per employed person, the unemployment rate is 4.8 per cent. Stuttgart Region is one of Europes economic centres, in total, approximately 150,000 companies are located in the Stuttgart Region. 24 per cent of employees in the Stuttgart Region work in the high-tech sector – a European record, the Verband Region Stuttgart as a political entity is responsible for regional transportation planning and for the basic network of public transport in Stuttgart Region. Stuttgart Region shouldnt be confused with the Administrative District of Stuttgart, the Stuttgart Metropolitan Area, according to the definition of the European Union, is neither identical with the inner Stuttgart Region nor with the Administrative District of Stuttgart. The Stuttgart Metropolitan Area consists i. a. of the larger cities. Map of Baden-Württemberg Left, Stuttgart Region - Right, Stuttgart Administrative District Competence Centers Stuttgart Region Portal Region Stuttgart Push
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Hochburg
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The Hochburg is a castle ruin situated between the city of Emmendingen and the village of Sexau in the region of Baden, located in the southwest of Germany. It was presumably built in the 11th century and was known as castle Hachberg. The line of known as the Margraves of Baden-Hachberg most likely derive their name from this castle. Historians are uncertain about where the name Hachberg comes from, one theory is that an estate in the region was given to a man referred to as Hacho who was a part of Charlemagnes retinue. This hypothesis is supported by an engraved plaque added to the castle by Karl II. In any case, whoever the true builder of the castle is most likely chose its name for their lineage, resulting in the family sidebranch of the house of Baden known as Baden-Hachberg. The first mention of a transition from Hachberg to Hochberg can be found in French sources concerned with members of the lineage of Hachberg-Sausenberg, dietrich von Emmendingen most likely founded the castle to harvest the forests surrounding it for lumber. Its first mention dates back to a document from 1127, the further development of later property documents suggests that Erkenbold von Hachberg, the last of his name, gave his holdings to the Zähringer to finance his participation in the crusades. A document on the talks about the founding of the monastery Tennenbach from 1161 implies that Hermann IV von Baden was the lord of castle Hachberg at the time. When his sons Hermann V and Henrich I divided the margraviate among each other in 1212 the castle became the centre of power for the margraves of Baden-Hachberg, Margrave Bernhard I of the main family of Baden acquired the castle from the highly indebted Margrave Otto II von Baden-Hachberg. The castle survived the war of the Oberrheinischer Städtebund versus Bernhard I in 1424, Karl II greatly enhanced the castles defences in 1553 and turned it into a more modern, renaissance style fortification. Margrave Georg Friedrich added 7 bastions around the perimeter and gave some the names of Hachbergs sister castles in Baden all of which laid in the realm of Margraves of Baden-Durlach. The castle was besieged for two years during the Thirty Years War in 1634 and was slighted for the first time after surrendering to the attackers, however, in 1660 Margrave Friedrich VI induced the reconstruction of the castle. Only three years later caused a fire which destroyed the remaining living quarters. And in 1688 French troops destroyed what remained of the fortification. The first steps at preserving the ruin were taken towards the end of the 19th century, work was only temporarily halted during the two world wars. The Society for the conservation of the Hochburg has been taking care of the ruin on voluntary work since 1971, the Hochburg can be visited by anyone free of charge. It is part of the program for the preservation of castles and gardens in Baden-Württemberg
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Husen Castle (Hausach)
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Husen Castle is a ruined hill castle of the high medieval period in the valley of the Kinzig in the Black Forest. It is sited above the town of Hausach in the county of Ortenaukreis in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, the original hill castle, recorded for the first time in 1246 as castrum Husen, was probably built here by the dukes of Zähringen in the 12th century. It later went into the possession of the counts of Freiburg, in 1303, the castle went to the counts of Fürstenberg as a result of the marriage of Verena of Freiburg. Count Henry IV of Fürstenberg had the castle extensively remodelled and expanded from 1453 to 1477, a neck ditch and an outer ward guarded the heart of the castle with its palas and bergfried. The castle was the residence of the princes castellans, in 1632 it burned down and was rebuilt. In 1643 French-Weimar troops under Jean Baptiste Budes de Guébriant destroyed the castle, later the ruins were incorporated into fortified earthworks or schanzen in order to defend the valley against enemy troops. In 1896 the bergfried was given instead of the tower’s conical roof. In 1968 the town of Hausach purchased the ruins from the House of Fürstenberg, today, parts of the palas wall, the so-called battery tower and the bergfried survive. Kurt Klein, Burgen, Schlösser und Ruinen - Zeugen der Vergangenheit im Ortenaukreis, reiff Black Forestverlag, Offenburg,1997, ISBN 3-922663-47-8, pp. 32–33
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Inzlingen Castle
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Inzlingen Castle, also Reichenstein Castle is a medieval castle surrounded by a moat situated in the village of Inzlingen. Inzlingen is located in the district of Lörrach, Baden-Württemberg, in the very south-west of Germany just at the Swiss border line near Basel, the origins of the castle cannot be clearly dated. The first written evidence dated 1511 – at this already a possession of a relative of the barons Reich von Reichenstein. This noble family hold fiefdoms from the Prince-Bishopric of Basel, the Margraviate of Baden, a Prince-bishop of Basel, six mayors of Basel and a principal of Basel University came from this noble family. A first major conversion of the castle dated 1563 to 1566, a copper engraving published 1625 shows the buildings at this time. Later the buildings were converted to a Baroque style and at about 1750 a Baroque interior followed, since 1820 the castle was a domicile for a weaving mill producing silk ribbons and afterwards it was used for a century as a farm house. In 1969 Inzlingen Castle was purchased by the municipality of Inzlingen, since 1978 it functions as city hall of the municipality of Inzlingen. Furthermore, there is a restaurant within the castle. In 1980 the Deutsche Post issued a stamp showing an engraving of Inzlingen castle, emil A. Erdin, Das Wasserschloss Inzlingen. In, Nachrichten des Schweizerischen Burgenvereins, Band 51, Heft 5,1978 online, Retrieved Mai 1,2013 Website of EBIDAT - datebase of castles
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Kastelburg
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The Kastelburg is a ruined castle above Waldkirch in the district Emmendingen in Baden-Württemberg. It stands on a hill about 100 meters above the center of Waldkirch in Breisgau, the Kastel castle was built between 1260 and 1270 by the Lords of Schwarzenberg. Like the Schwarzenburg on the side of the valley its purpose was to defend the town Waldkirch. The first inhabitant of the castle was Johann I of Schwarzenberg, the Schwarzenbergs died out already in 1345 and the castle was sold to Martin Malterer from Freiburg who fell in 1386 in the Battle of Sempach. In 1429 the castle was passed on to Berthold of Staufen, in the Thirty Years War the castle was destroyed by troops of the Kaiser on 14 March 1634 so that it did not fall into the hands of the advancing Swedish troops. In recent years attempts have been made to conserve the structure of the ruin that is standing romantically above the historic center of Waldkirch. •Alfons Zettler, Thomas Zotz, Die Burgen im mittelalterlichen Breisgau, jan Thorbecke Verlag, Ostfildern 2006, ISBN 3-7995-7365-8, pp. 470–496
Media related to Schloss Schwetzingen at Wikimedia Commons
