1.
Popular science
–
Popular science is interpretation of science intended for a general audience. While science journalism focuses on recent scientific developments, popular science is more broad-ranging and it may be written by professional science journalists or by scientists themselves. It is presented in many forms, including books, film and television documentaries, magazine articles, Popular science is a bridge between scientific literature as a professional medium of scientific research, and the realms of popular political and cultural discourse. The goal of the genre is often to capture the methods and accuracy of science, the purpose of scientific literature is to inform and persuade peers as to the validity of observations and conclusions and the forensic efficacy of methods. Popular science attempts to inform and convince scientific outsiders of the significance of data and conclusions, by contrast, popular science emphasizes uniqueness and generality, taking a tone of factual authority absent from the scientific literature. The Literature of Science, Perspectives on Popular Scientific Writing, the University of Georgia Press, Athens,1993
Popular science
–
An image from the March 1883 issue of Popular Science Monthly. The article from this issue is called "Queer Phases of Animal Life", and the image is captioned "
Total depravity ".
Popular science
–
Art
2.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
3.
Albert Einstein
–
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein in 1921
Albert Einstein
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Einstein at the age of 3 in 1882
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)
Albert Einstein
–
Einstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (Aargauische Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the highest possible mark)
4.
Rufus Porter (inventor)
–
For the American football player see Rufus Porter. For the American poet see Rufus L. Porter, Rufus M. Porter was an American painter, inventor, and founder of Scientific American magazine. Rufus Porter descended from an old colonial New England family, the familys first immigrants to the US were Mary and John Porter who emigrated from Dorset, England to Salem, Massachusetts in the early 17th century. When John died in 1676 he was the largest landowner around, owning property that included the cities of Salem, Danvers, Wenham, Beverly, Topsfield and Boxford. Later descendants included Benjamin Porter, who was Rufus great-grandfather, Benjamin moved to West Boxford in 1716 and became the wealthiest man there. His descendants include ministers, doctors, lawyers, merchants, a colonel, a ships captain. He was related by marriage to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the Honorable Rufus King, the family farm descended to Abigail and Tyler Porter, parents of Rufus Porter. Porter was born in West Boxford, Massachusetts and he was one of six children. His father was Tyler Porter and his mother was Abigail Johnson, Rufus started school at age 4. The family farm was sold in 1801 and the moved to Maine when Rufus was 9 years old. They lived in Pleasant Mountain Gore, now part of Bridgton, at age 12 Rufus attended the Fryeburg Academy for six months. In 1807 he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, by 1816 Porter was living in New Haven, Connecticut, where he had a dancing school and began painting portraits. In 1818-1819 he made a voyage to the Pacific Northwest and Hawaii. He traveled by coach and on foot, painting portraits throughout New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. He became a prolific muralist between 1825 and 1845, decorating some 160 houses and inns in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, from simple silhouettes to scenes of entire towns or harbors, Porter spread his art throughout New England. His murals were executed in a large scale on dry plaster walls by a combination of freehand painting and stenciling. Some murals were in color, others in monochrome, with the foliage sometimes stamped in with a cork stopper instead of being painted with a brush. Often he would do portraits of the household members where he was doing the murals
Rufus Porter (inventor)
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Rufus Porter
Rufus Porter (inventor)
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Rufus Porter water color wall mural
Rufus Porter (inventor)
–
Rufus Porter advertisement for his 1849 New York to California transport
Rufus Porter (inventor)
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Rufus Porter mural in the Kent House,
Lyme, New Hampshire
5.
United States Patent and Trademark Office
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The USPTO is unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars. The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, the head of the USPTO is Michelle K. Lee. She took up her new role on January 13,2014, on March 13, she formally took office as Director after being nominated by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. She formerly served as the Director of the USPTOs Silicon Valley satellite office, the USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO mission is to maintain a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U. S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, an additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009. The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, the first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13,2012. In 2013, due to the sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location is due to open in San Jose City Hall in mid-2015. As of September 30,2009, the end of the U. S. governments fiscal year, of those,6,242 were patent examiners and 388 were trademark examining attorneys, the rest are support staff. They are generally newly graduated scientists and engineers, recruited from universities around the nation. They hold degrees in scientific disciplines, but who do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys, all examiners work under a strict, count-based production system. For every application, counts are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, the Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts. Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners may be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, the United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or PTAB. In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues, to address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006,1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, in 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the Patent Training Academy
United States Patent and Trademark Office
–
Relief representing the Patent Office at the
Herbert C. Hoover Building.
United States Patent and Trademark Office
–
Seal of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
United States Patent and Trademark Office
–
PTO headquarters in
Alexandria, Virginia
United States Patent and Trademark Office
–
First United States patent
6.
Perpetual motion
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Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics and these laws of thermodynamics apply even at very grand scales. Thus, machines that extract energy from finite sources will not operate indefinitely, because they are driven by the energy stored in the source, a common example is devices powered by ocean currents, whose energy is ultimately derived from the Sun, which itself will eventually burn out. Machines powered by more obscure sources have proposed, but are subject to the same inescapable laws. The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages, for millennia, it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not, but the development of modern theories of thermodynamics has shown that they are impossible. Despite this, many attempts have been made to such machines. Modern designers and proponents often use other terms, such as over unity, there is a scientific consensus that perpetual motion in an isolated system violates either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, or both. The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, in other words, In any isolated system, one cannot create new energy The output work power of heat engines is always smaller than the input heating power. The rest of the energy supplied is wasted as heat to the ambient surroundings. The efficiency has a maximum, given by the Carnot efficiency and it is always lower than one. The efficiency of heat engines is even lower than the Carnot efficiency due to irreversibility arising from the speed of processes. Statements 2 and 3 apply to heat engines, other types of engines which convert e. g. mechanical into electromagnetic energy, cannot operate with 100% efficiency, because it impossible to design any system that is free of energy dissipation. By way of example, clocks and other machines, such as Coxs timepiece, have been designed to run on the differences in barometric pressure or temperature between night and day. These machines have a source of energy, albeit one which is not readily apparent so that they seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics. Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do and they are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems. It thus violates the first law of thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy, a perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts thermal energy into mechanical work. When the thermal energy is equivalent to the work done, this does not violate the law of conservation of energy, however, it does violate the more subtle second law of thermodynamics
Perpetual motion
Perpetual motion
Perpetual motion
–
Perpetuum Mobile of
Villard de Honnecourt (about 1230).
Perpetual motion
–
Perpetual motion wheels from a drawing of
Leonardo da Vinci.
7.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
Abraham Lincoln
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Lincoln in 1863, aged 54
Abraham Lincoln
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The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Abraham Lincoln
–
1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,
Tad
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the
Black Hawk War.
8.
Universal joint
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A universal joint is a joint or coupling in a rigid rod that allows the rod to bend in any direction, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to each other, the universal joint is not a constant-velocity joint. The main concept of the joint is based on the design of gimbals. One anticipation of the joint was its use by the ancient Greeks on ballistae. The mechanism was described in Technica curiosa sive mirabilia artis by Gaspar Schott. The first recorded use of the universal joint for this device was by Hooke in 1676. He published a description in 1678, resulting in the use of the term Hookes joint in the English-speaking world, christopher Polhem of Sweden later re-invented the universal joint, giving rise to the name Polhemsknut in Swedish. In 1841, the English scientist Robert Willis analyzed the motion of the universal joint, by 1845, the French engineer and mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet had analyzed the movement of the universal joint using spherical trigonometry. The term universal joint was used in the 18th century and was in use in the 19th century. Edmund Morewoods 1844 patent for a metal coating machine called for a joint, by that name. Ephriam Shays locomotive patent of 1881, for example, used double universal joints in the drive shaft. Charles Amidon used a much smaller universal joint in his bit-brace patented 1884, beauchamp Towers spherical, rotary, high speed steam engine used an adaptation of the universal joint circa 1885. The term Cardan joint appears to be a latecomer to the English language, many early uses in the 19th century appear in translations from French or are strongly influenced by French usage. Examples include an 1868 report on the Exposition Universelle of 1867 and these variables are illustrated in the diagram on the right. Also shown are a set of fixed coordinate axes with unit vectors x ^ and y ^ and these planes of rotation are perpendicular to the axes of rotation and do not move as the axles rotate. The two axles are joined by a gimbal which is not shown, however, axle 1 attaches to the gimbal at the red points on the red plane of rotation in the diagram, and axle 2 attaches at the blue points on the blue plane. Coordinate systems fixed with respect to the axles are defined as having their x-axis unit vectors pointing from the origin towards one of the connection points. This configuration uses two U-joints joined by a shaft, with the second U-joint phased in relation to the first U-joint to cancel the changing angular velocity
Universal joint
–
Universal joints in a driveshaft
Universal joint
–
A universal joint
9.
Automobile
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Automobile
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Automobile
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Automobile
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Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Automobile
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
10.
Alfred Ely Beach
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Alfred Ely Beach was an American inventor, publisher, and patent lawyer, born in Springfield, Massachusetts. He is most known for his design of New York Citys earliest subway predecessor and he also patented a typewriter for the blind. Beach was born in Springfield, Massachusetts and was the son of a prominent publisher, Alfred Beach worked for his father until he and a friend, Orson Desaix Munn, decided to buy Scientific American, a relatively new publication. They ran Scientific American until their deaths decades later, and it was carried on by their sons and grandsons for decades more, Munn and Beach also established a very successful patent agency. Beach patented some of his own inventions, notably an early typewriter designed for use by the blind, after the Civil War he founded a school for freed slaves in Savannah, the Beach Institute, which is now the home of the King-Tisdell Cottage Foundation. Beachs most famous invention was New York Citys first subway, the Beach Pneumatic Transit and this came about during the 1860s, when traffic in New York was a nightmare, especially along the central artery, Broadway. Beach was one of a few visionaries who proposed building a railway under Broadway to help relieve the traffic congestion. Beach was also interested in pneumatic tubes for the transport of letters and packages, with a franchise from the state he began construction of a tunnel for small pneumatic tubes in 1869, but diverted it into a demonstration of a passenger railway that opened on February 26,1870. To build a passenger railway he needed a different franchise, something he lobbied for over four sessions,1870 to 1873. In 1870 state senator William M. Tweed introduced a bill for Beachs subway that did not pass. By the end of 1871 Tweeds Tammany Hall political machine was in disgrace and from then on Beach, in an effort to support from reformers. In 1873 Governor John Adams Dix signed a bill into law, but Beach was not able to raise funds to build over the next six months. During this same time, other investors had built a railway in Greenwich St and Ninth Ave. Beach operated his demonstration railway from February 1870 to April 1873, the former Devlins building was destroyed by fire in 1898. In 1912 workers for Degnon Contracting excavated the tunnel proper during the construction of a line running under Broadway. The tunnel was completely within the limits of the present day City Hall station under Broadway, the Beach tunnelling shield was used in the construction of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canadas first St. Clair Tunnel between Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario. In January 1887 Beach donated land to 7 men who were starting a club in Stratford. The Housatonic boat club is the oldest operating yacht club in CT. Beach died of pneumonia on January 1,1896 in New York City at the age of 69, the history of Beachs project is briefly described, but is ultimately unrelated to the criminals escape plan
Alfred Ely Beach
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Alfred Ely Beach
Alfred Ely Beach
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Plan of the Beach Pneumatic Transit station and tunnel
11.
Popular Science (magazine)
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Popular Science is an American bi-monthly magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the American Society of Magazine Editors awards for its excellence in both 2003 and 2004. With roots beginning in 1872, PopSci has been translated into over 30 languages and is distributed to at least 45 countries. The Popular Science Monthly, as the publication was called, was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans to disseminate scientific knowledge to the educated layman. Youmans had previously worked as an editor for the weekly Appletons Journal, early issues were mostly reprints of English periodicals. William Jay Youmans, Edwards brother, helped found Popular Science Monthly in 1872 and was an editor as well and he became editor-in-chief on Edwards death in 1887. The publisher, D. Appleton & Company, was forced for economic reasons to sell the journal in 1900, james McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers, by 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. The existing journal would continue the tradition as Scientific Monthly. Existing subscribers would remain subscribed under the new name, Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science. The Modern Publishing Company acquired the Popular Science Monthly name and this company had purchased Electrician and Mechanic magazine in 1914 and over the next two years merged several magazines together into a science magazine for a general audience. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and Worlds Advance, the volume number was that of Popular Science but the content was that of Worlds Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, an editor of Scientific American. The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic, the old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations, the new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaempffert was writing for the craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science. The circulation doubled in the first year, from the mid-1930s to the 1960s, the magazine featured fictional stories of Gus Wilsons Model Garage, centered on car problems. An annual review of changes to the new model year cars ran in 1940 and 41 and it continued until the mid-1970s when the magazine reverted to publishing the new models over multiple issues as information became available
Popular Science (magazine)
–
Popular Science
Popular Science (magazine)
–
Ship on Stilts Rides Above Waves, January 1936, by
Edgar Franklin Wittmack
12.
Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
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Holtzbrinck Publishing Group is a privately-held Stuttgart-based company which owns publishing companies worldwide. The company has published a variety of books, from The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie to classics by Agatha Christie, Jean-Paul Sartre, Ernest Hemingway. Other well-known publications of the include the scientific journal Nature. It is one of the Big Five English-language publishing companies, in 2015, it merged most of its Macmillan Science and Education unit with Springer Science+Business Media, creating the company Springer Nature. Holtzbrinck now owns 53% of the combined company, established by Georg von Holtzbrinck in 1948, the group first began as a German book club. In the 1960s, it purchased Droemer, Kindler, Rowohlt and S. Fischer Verlag, in 1985, it acquired the retail book division of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, naming it the Henry Holt Book Company. One year later, the company acquired Scientific American magazine for $52.6 million, in 1994, it purchased a majority interest in Farrar, Straus & Giroux from retiring Roger W. Straus, Jr. A year later, it purchased a 70% majority interest in The Macmillan Group, the policy was later changed and Tor titles became available as DRM-free e-books in 2012. The Tor UK label in Britain does the same, the company also received a good deal of attention when it bought the then leading German social networking platform StudiVZ in January 2007. Holtzbrinck has total sales of 2.1 billion euros, 49% of sales are in Germany. It had 2005 earnings before taxes of 142 million euros, chairman of the group is Stefan von Holtzbrinck. John Sargent is CEO of Macmillan, the company that unites the US-based businesses of the group, in Germany, S. Fischer Verlag O. W. Barth Wolfgang Krüger Argon Verlag Scherz Verlag Fretz & Wasmuth Rowohlt Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch Verlagsgruppe Droemer Knaur Verlag J. B, martins Press Tom Doherty Associates Tor Books Forge Books Bedford, Freeman and Worth Publishing Group W. H. Freeman Bedford-St. The Academic Publishing Industry, A Story of Merger and Acquisition – via Northern Illinois University
Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
–
German newspaper
Die Zeit in newsstand
13.
Nature Publishing Group
–
Nature Publishing Groups flagship publication is Nature, a weekly multidisciplinary journal first published in 1869. It also publishes Nature research journals, Nature Reviews journals, Springer Nature also publishes Scientific American in 16 languages, a magazine intended for the general public. In 2013, Nature Publishing Group bought a stake in Frontiers. Before Springer Nature was formed in 2015, the Nature Publishing Group was a part of Macmillan Science and Education, the Nature Publishing Group employs over 800 people in its offices in London, New York City, San Francisco, Seoul, Washington, D. C. Boston, Tokyo, Paris, Munich, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Gurgaon, Mexico City, as of September 2016, NPG publishes 148 academic journals. The former Nature Clinical Practice series was rebranded and folded into the Nature Reviews series in April 2009 and they also publish the njp series. In most cases, the costs of Springer Natures publications are recovered via subscription to individuals, over 40 journals allow their authors to publish open access articles, with the author paying a publication charge to the journal. The publisher also has open access journals. Authors are also allowed to post accepted, unedited papers on their websites or the funding bodys archives no earlier than 6 months after publication, the letter also described a potential boycott if the dispute was not resolved. On 2 December 2014, NPG announced that it would make content from all of Natures journals available online for free, providers can also provide annotations on the linked articles. The move was designed to counter the trend of dark sharing, while considering it a compromise between fully restricted access, critics do not consider this to be a true open access scheme due to its restrictions on use and distribution. In 2011, Nature launched its first line of textbooks for the college market, starting with Principles of Biology. Other active Nature Publishing Group services include, Naturejobs, containing scientific career information, tools, past experiments at offering online services include, The pre-print server Nature Precedings. Frontiers Official website Nature Network Scitable Nature ENCODE Nature Precedings Interview with Timo Hannay, director of Web Publishing for Nature Publishing Group
Nature Publishing Group
–
Nature Publishing Group
14.
John Rennie (editor)
–
John Rennie was the seventh editor in chief of Scientific American magazine. John Rennie was born in 1959 and he received a Bachelor of Science in Biology from Yale University in 1981, after which he worked as a science writer and researcher at Harvard Medical School. He currently teaches science writing as professor at New York Universitys Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute. He joined the Board of Editors at Scientific American in 1989, Rennie has written and edited articles on biology, technology and medicine and helped Scientific American produce award-winning single-topic issues for a variety of publications. He was editor of the magazine for almost fifteen years, from late 1994 to June 2009 and he appeared as a commentator in the History Channel programs Clash of the Cavemen, and Thats Impossible. He was also the host of the Weather Channel series Hacking the Planet, Rennie has performed improv in New York City and his home town of Boston, and also holds a black-belt in karate. Incomplete - to be updated Rennie, John, seven Answers to Climate Contrarian Nonsense. Six Things in Expelled That Ben Stein Doesnt Want You to Know, faculty profile, NYU JohnRennie. net, Official website The Gleaming Retort, Official Blog on PLoS
John Rennie (editor)
–
John Rennie sings karaoke in Mexico
15.
Federation
–
A federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions under a central government. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is known as federalism and it can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. Federations are often multiethnic and cover an area of territory. The initial agreements create a stability that encourages other common interests, at some time, that is recognized and a movement is organized to merge more closely. At other times, especially when common cultural factors are at such as ethnicity and language. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an example of formal non-unitary statehood. Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, the oldest continuous federation, and a role model for many subsequent federations, is the United States. Some of the New World federations failed, the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states ten years after its founding, others, such as Argentina and Mexico, have shifted between federal, confederal, and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy, australia and Canada are also federations. Germany is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815, the North German Confederation, the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system, Nigeria, Pakistan, India and Malaysia became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire. In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Iraq since 2005. The component states are in some sense sovereign, insofar as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government, however, a federation is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy, however, German Länder have that power, which is beginning to be exercised on a European level. Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others, an example of such a federation is Malaysia, in which Sarawak and Sabah agreed to form the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia. A federation often emerges from an agreement between a number of separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve problems and to provide for mutual defense or to create a nation state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former was the case with the United States and Switzerland, however, as the histories of countries and nations vary, the federalist system of a state can be quite different from these models
Federation
–
The
United Provinces of Central America was a short-lived federal republic
Federation
–
Unitary states
16.
Chongqing
–
Chongqing, formerly transliterated as Chungking, is a major city in Southwest China and one of the Five national central cities in China. Administratively, it is one of Chinas four direct-controlled municipalities, the municipality was created on 14 March 1997, succeeding the sub-provincial city administration that was part of Sichuan Province. Chongqings population as of 2015 is just over 30 million with a population of 18.38 million. The official abbreviation of the city, Yu, was approved by the State Council on 18 April 1997 and this abbreviation is derived from the old name of a part of the Jialing River that runs through Chongqing and feeds into the Yangtze River. Chongqing was also a Sichuan province municipality during the Republic of China administration, Chongqing has a significant history and culture and serves as the economic centre of the upstream Yangtze basin. It is a manufacturing centre and transportation hub, a July 2012 report by the Economist Intelligence Unit described it as one of Chinas 13 emerging megacities. Tradition associates Chongqing with the State of Ba, the Ba people supposedly established Chongqing during the Spring and Autumn period after moving from their first capital Yicheng in Hubei under pressure from Chu. This new capital was first named Jiangzhou, in 316 BC, however, the state of Ba was conquered by the State of Qin. Jiangzhou subsequently remained under Qin Shi Huangs rule during the Qin Dynasty, the successor of the Qin State, and under the control of Han Dynasty emperors. Jiangzhou was subsequently renamed during the Southern and Northern Dynasties to Chu Prefecture, then in 581 AD to Yu Prefecture, the name Yu however survives to this day as an abbreviation for Chongqing, and the city centre where the old town stood is also called Yuzhong. It received its current name in 1189, after Prince Zhao Dun of the Southern Song Dynasty described his crowning as king, in his honour, Yu Prefecture was therefore renamed Chongqing subprefecture marking the occasion of his enthronement. In 1362, Ming Yuzhen, a peasant rebelling leader, established the Daxia Kingdom at Chongqing for a short time, in 1621, another short-lived kingdom of Daliang was established by She Chongming with Chongqing as its capital. The Manchus later conquered the province, and during the Qing Dynasty, immigration to Chongqing, in 1890, the British Consulate General was opened in Chongqing. The following year, the city became the first inland commerce port open to foreigners, the French, German, US and Japanese consulates were opened in Chongqing in 1896–1904. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, it was Generalissimo Chiang Kai-sheks provisional capital, the city was also visited by Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Supreme Commander of SEAC which was itself headquartered in Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka. Chiang Kai Shek as Supreme Commander in China worked closely with Stilwell, the Japanese Air Force heavily bombed it. Due to its mountainous environment, many people were saved from the bombing, due to the bravery, contributions and sacrifices made by the local people during World War II, Chongqing became known as the City of Heroes. Many factories and universities were relocated from eastern China to Chongqing during the war, in late November 1949 the Nationalist KMT government fled the city
Chongqing
–
Clockwise from top:
Jiefangbei CBD Skyline, The Temple of the White Emperor,
E'gongyan Bridge,
Qutang Gorge, and the
Great Hall of the People.
Chongqing
–
A street scene in Chongqing, c. 1944
Chongqing
–
A night view of Chongqing Central Business District from across the Yangtze river
Chongqing
–
View of Chongqing from hills across the
Yangtze river
17.
Beijing
–
Beijing is the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and the worlds third most populous city proper. It is also one of the worlds most populous capital cities, the city, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by population after Shanghai and is the nations political, cultural. It is home to the headquarters of most of Chinas largest state-owned companies, and is a hub for the national highway, expressway, railway. The citys history dates back three millennia, as the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political centre of the country for much of the past eight centuries. Beijing was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium A. D, the city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Its art treasures and universities have made it centre of culture, encyclopædia Britannica notes that few cities in the world have served for so long as the political headquarters and cultural centre of an area as immense as China. Siheyuans, the traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. The city hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics and was chosen to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, many of Beijings 91 universities consistently rank among the best in China, of which Peking University and Tsinghua University are ranked in the top 60 universities in the world. Beijings Zhongguancun area is known as Chinas Silicon Valley and Chinas center of innovation. According to the 2016 InterNations Expat Insider Survey, Beijing ranked first in Asia in the subcategory Personal Finance Index, expats live primarily in urban districts such as Dongcheng and Chaoyang in the east, or in suburban districts such as Shunyi. Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had other names. The name Beijing, which means Northern Capital, was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming Dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing, the English spelling is based on the pinyin romanisation of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. Those dialects preserve the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 京 as kjaeng, the single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is BJ, the earliest traces of human habitation in the Beijing municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. Homo erectus fossils from the date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic Homo sapiens also lived more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, the first walled city in Beijing was Ji, a city from the 11th to 7th century BC
Beijing
–
Clockwise from top:
Beijing CBD skyline,
Tiananmen,
Temple of Heaven,
National Center for the Performing Arts, and
Beijing National Stadium
Beijing
–
The museum at
Zhoukoudian
Beijing
–
The
Tianning Pagoda, built around 1120.
Beijing
–
Longevity Hill in Beijing where
Kublai Khan wrote his poem.
18.
Taiwan
–
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
Taiwan
–
A young
Tsou man
Taiwan
–
Flag
Taiwan
–
Overview of
Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635
Taiwan
–
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the
Tapani Incident from the
Tainan jail to court, 1915.
19.
Simplified Chinese
–
Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
Simplified Chinese
–
Chinese characters
Simplified Chinese
–
Simplified Chinese
Simplified Chinese
–
The first batch of Simplified Characters introduced in 1935 consisted of 324 characters.
Simplified Chinese
–
The slogan 战无不胜的毛泽东思想万岁 (Zhàn wúbù shèng de Máo Zédōng sīxiǎng wànsuì; Long live the invincible
Mao Zedong Thought) on
Xinhua Gate in Beijing.
20.
Traditional Chinese
–
Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
Traditional Chinese
–
Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese
–
Traditional Chinese
Traditional Chinese
–
Job announcement in a Filipino Chinese daily newspaper written in Traditional Chinese characters.
Traditional Chinese
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A Series of Reading workbook in Traditional Chinese used in some Elementary schools in the Philippines.
21.
Encyclopedia Americana
–
Encyclopedia Americana is one of the largest general encyclopedias in the English language. Following the acquisition of Grolier in 2000, the encyclopedia has been produced by Scholastic, the encyclopedia has more than 45,000 articles, most of them more than 500 words and many running to considerable length. The works coverage of American and Canadian geography and history has been a traditional strength, most articles are signed by their contributors. Long available as a 30-volume print set, the Encyclopedia Americana is now marketed as an online encyclopedia requiring a subscription, in March 2008, Scholastic said that print sales remained good but that the company was still deciding on the future of the print edition. The company did not produce an edition in 2007, a change from its previous approach of releasing a revised print edition each year, the most recent print edition of the Encyclopedia Americana was published in 2006. The online version of the Encyclopedia Americana, first introduced in 1997, continues to be updated and this work, like the print set from which it is derived, is designed for high school and first-year college students along with public library users. Grolier Online is not available to individual subscribers, francis Lieber, a German political exile, who came to Boston, Massachusetts in 1827, began publication of Encyclopedia Americana in 1829. The 13 volumes of the first edition were completed in 1833, just before the beginning of the 20th century Richard S. Some of the old material was carried over into the new encyclopedia, the short article method of Brockhaus was continued. Thus in 1902 a new version in 16 volumes that carried some of the old material was published. The magazines editor, Frederick Converse Beach, was editor-in-chief, and was said to be assisted by hundreds of eminent scholars, the relationship with Scientific American was terminated in 1911. From 1907 to 1912, the work was published as The Americana, a major new edition appeared in 1918–20 in 30 volumes, with George Edwin Rines as editor-in-chief. An Annual or Yearbook was also published each year beginning in 1923, the encyclopedia was purchased by Grolier in 1945. Sales during this period were accomplished primarily through mail-order and door-to-door operations, telemarketing and third-party distribution through their Lexicon division added to sales volumes in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, Grolier had moved its operations to Danbury, in 1988 Grolier was purchased by the French media company Hachette, which owned a well-known French-language encyclopedia, the Hachette Encyclopedia. Hachette was later absorbed by the French conglomerate the Lagardère Group, a CD-ROM version of the encyclopedia was published in 1995. Although the text and images were stored on separate disks, it was in keeping with current at the time. More importantly, the work had been digitized, allowing for release of a version in 1997
Encyclopedia Americana
–
Encyclopedia Americana at
Göttingen State and University Library.
Encyclopedia Americana
–
This 1921 advertisement for the Encyclopedia Americana suggests that other encyclopedias are as out-of-date as the locomotives of 90 years earlier.
22.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
Wikisource
–
The original Wikisource logo
Wikisource
–
Screenshot of wikisource.org home page
Wikisource
–
::: Original text
Wikisource
–
::: Action of the modernizing tool
23.
Martin Gardner
–
He was considered a leading authority on Lewis Carroll. The Annotated Alice, which incorporated the text of Carrolls two Alice books, was his most successful work and sold over a million copies and he had a lifelong interest in magic and illusion and was regarded as one of the most important magicians of the twentieth century. He was considered the dean of American puzzlers and he was a prolific and versatile author, publishing more than 100 books. Gardner was one of the foremost anti-pseudoscience polemicists of the 20th century and his book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, published in 1957, became a classic and seminal work of the skeptical movement. In 1976 he joined with fellow skeptics to found CSICOP, an organization promoting scientific inquiry, Gardner, son of a petroleum geologist, grew up in and around Tulsa, Oklahoma. His lifelong interest in puzzles started in his boyhood when his father gave him a copy of Sam Loyds Cyclopedia of 5000 Puzzles, Tricks and he attended the University of Chicago, where he earned his bachelors degree in philosophy in 1936. Early jobs included reporter on the Tulsa Tribune, writer at the University of Chicago Office of Press Relations, during World War II, he served for four years in the U. S. Navy as a yeoman on board the destroyer escort USS Pope in the Atlantic. His ship was still in the Atlantic when the war came to an end with the surrender of Japan in August 1945, after the war, Gardner returned to the University of Chicago. He attended graduate school for a year there, but he did not earn an advanced degree, in 1950 he wrote an article in the Antioch Review entitled The Hermit Scientist. His paper-folding puzzles at that magazine led to his first work at Scientific American, appropriately enough—given his interest in logic and mathematics—they lived on Euclid Avenue. The year 1960 saw the edition of his best-selling book ever. In 1979, Gardner retired from Scientific American and he and his wife Charlotte moved to Hendersonville and he also revised some of his older books such as Origami, Eleusis, and the Soma Cube. Charlotte died in 2000 and two years later Gardner returned to Norman, Oklahoma, where his son, James Gardner, was a professor of education at the University of Oklahoma and he died there on May 22,2010. An autobiography — Undiluted Hocus-Pocus, The Autobiography of Martin Gardner — was published posthumously, the main-belt asteroid 2587 Gardner discovered by Edward L. G. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station in 1980 is named after Martin Gardner. Martin Gardner had a impact on mathematics in the second half of the 20th century. His column was called Mathematical Games but it was more than that. His writing introduced many readers to real mathematics for the first time in their lives, the column lasted for 25 years and was read avidly by the generation of mathematicians and physicists who grew up in the years 1956 to 1981. It was the inspiration for many of them to become mathematicians or scientists themselves
Martin Gardner
–
Martin Gardner
Martin Gardner
–
Gardner as a high school senior, 1932.
24.
Douglas Hofstadter
–
Hofstadters book Gödel, Escher, Bach, An Eternal Golden Braid, first published in 1979, won both the Pulitzer Prize for general non-fiction and a National Book Award for Science. His 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop won the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Science, Hofstadter was born in New York City, the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter and Nancy Givan Hofstadter. He grew up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor and he was initially appointed to the Indiana Universitys Computer Science Department faculty in 1977, and at that time he launched his research program in computer modeling of mental processes. In 1984, he moved to the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, in 1988 he returned to Bloomington as College of Arts and Sciences Professor in both cognitive science and computer science. In 1988 Hofstadter received the In Praise of Reason award, the Committee for Skeptical Inquirys highest honor, in April 2009 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 2010 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, Hofstadters many interests include music, visual art, the mind, creativity, consciousness, self-reference, translation and mathematics. Hofstadters doctoral student James Marshall subsequently extended the Copycat project under the name Metacat, the Letter Spirit project, implemented by Gary McGraw and John Rehling, aims to model the act of artistic creativity by designing stylistically uniform gridfonts. The pursuit of beauty has driven Hofstadter both inside and outside his professional work and he seeks beautiful mathematical patterns, beautiful explanations, beautiful typefaces, beautiful sonic patterns in poetry, etc. Hofstadter has said of himself, Im someone who has one foot in the world of humanities and arts, and he has had several exhibitions of his artworks in various university art galleries. These shows have featured large collections of his gridfonts, his ambigrams, the computational architectures that share these precepts are called active symbols architectures. In GEB he draws an analogy between the organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent colony of neurons. The prototypical example of this notion is the self-referential structure at the core of Gödels incompleteness theorems. Both in his writing and in his teaching, Hofstadter stresses the concrete, constantly using examples and analogies, typical of the courses he teaches is his seminar Group Theory and Galois Theory Visualized, in which abstract mathematical ideas are rendered as concretely as possible. He puts great effort into making ideas clear and visual, and asserts that when he teaches, if his students do not understand something, it is never their fault, in addition to English, his mother tongue, he speaks French and Italian fluently. At various times in his life, he has studied German, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Mandarin, Dutch, Polish and his love of sounds pushes him to strive to minimize, and ideally get rid of, any foreign accent. In this book, Hofstadter jokingly describes himself as pilingual, as well as an oligoglot, in 1999, the bicentennial year of Russian poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, Hofstadter published a verse translation of Pushkins classic novel-in-verse Eugene Onegin. Hofstadters Law states that It always takes longer than you expect, the Law is outlined in his work Gödel, Escher, Bach, An Eternal Golden Braid. Hofstadters former Ph. D. students include, Don Byrd—Music Notation by Computer David Chalmers—Toward a Theory of Consciousness Gray A
Douglas Hofstadter
–
Hofstadter in Bologna, Italy, in March 2002
Douglas Hofstadter
–
Hofstadter giving a presentation at the 2006
Singularity Summit
25.
Metamagical Themas
–
Metamagical Themas is an eclectic collection of articles that Douglas Hofstadter wrote for the popular science magazine Scientific American during the early 1980s. The anthology was published in 1985 by Basic Books, the volume is substantial in size and contains extensive notes concerning responses to the articles and other information relevant to their content. Another notable feature is the inclusion of two dialogues in the style of those appearing in Gödel, Escher, Bach, there are three articles centered on the Lisp programming language, where Hofstadter first details the language itself, and then shows how it relates to Gödels incompleteness theorem. Two articles are devoted to Rubiks Cube and other such puzzles, many other topics are also mentioned, all in Hofstadters usual easy, approachable style. Many chapters open with an illustration of an extremely abstract alphabet, yet one which is recognizable as such. The game of Nomic was first introduced to the public in this column, in June 1982, the index of the book mentions Hofstadters recurring alter ego, Egbert B. Beginning in January 1981 Hofstadter began sharing the games column in Scientific American magazine with Martin Gardner, the subject matter of the articles is loosely woven about themes in philosophy, creativity, artificial intelligence, typography and fonts, and important social issues. He called his column Metamagical Themas, an anagram of Gardners title Mathematical Games, during 1981 they alternated writing the columns. Then Hofstadter took over in January 1982 and continued writing the feature until he retired his column in July 1983 for a total of 25 columns and these columns are listed in chronological order below. Metamagical Themas was also published in French, under the title Ma Thémagie, the translators being Jean-Baptiste Berthelin, Jean-Luc Bonnetain, the wordplay was lost in the French title, and replaced with another one. Metamagical Themas at Google Books A Person Paper on Purity in Language, one of the included essays, first published in September 1983
Metamagical Themas
–
Books
26.
Michael Shermer
–
The Skeptics Society currently has over 55,000 members. Shermer also engages in debates on topics pertaining to pseudoscience and religion in which he emphasizes scientific skepticism, Shermer is also the producer and co-host of the 13-hour Fox Family television series Exploring the Unknown. Since April 2001, he has been a monthly columnist for Scientific American magazine with his Skeptic column and he is also a scientific advisor to the American Council on Science and Health. Shermer was once a fundamentalist Christian, but ceased to believe in the existence of God during his graduate studies and he accepts the labels agnostic, nontheist, atheist and others. He has expressed reservations about such labels for his lack of belief in a God, however, as he sees them being used in the service of pigeonholing and he also describes himself as an advocate for humanist philosophy as well as the science of morality. Michael Brant Shermer was born on September 8,1954 and he was born an only child, and raised in Southern California, specifically the La Cañada area in the foothills surrounding Los Angeles. His father died of an attack in 1986, and his mother of brain cancer in 2000. Shermer began his year of high school in 1971, when the evangelical movement in the United States was beginning to gain popularity. One night at the behest of his best friend George, whose parents were Christian, for the next seven years he evangelized door-to-door as part of his profoundly held beliefs. Shermer enjoyed the social aspects of religion, and particularly relished its theological debates and his stepfather was a hunter who took Shermer and their hunting dogs with him on hunting excursions half a dozen times a year, shooting game such as doves, ducks, and quail with shotguns. They ate everything they killed, for which Shermers stepfather also displayed culinary skills, growing up, Shermer owned a BB gun, then a pellet gun, then a 20-gauge shotgun, and then a 12-gauge shotgun. Shermer graduated from Crescenta Valley High School in 1972, desiring serious theological training, he enrolled at Pepperdine University with the intent of becoming a theologian. He initially majored in Christian theology, in addition to taking courses on the Bible, Shermer studied the writings of C. S. Lewis, and he attended chapel twice a week, which was required for all students. He completed his B. A. in psychology at Pepperdine in 1976 and these discussions, along with his studies in cultural anthropology, led him to question his religious beliefs. From this, Shermer came to conclude it obvious that God was made in our likeness, by midway through his graduate training, he removed the Christian silver ichthys medallion that he had been wearing around his neck for years. He completed his M. A. degree from the California State University in psychology in 1978, the final step in Shermers abandoning religion came when his college sweetheart, Maureen, was in an automobile accident that broke her back and rendered her paralyzed from the waist down. Shermer relates, When I saw her at the Long Beach Medical Center ER, there, in the ER, day after dreary day, night after sleepless night, I took a knee and bowed my head and asked God to heal Maureens broken back. I cried out to God to overlook my doubts in the name of Maureen, at that time and in that place, I was once again a believer
Michael Shermer
–
Shermer on the
Skeptics Society Geology Tour on June 8, 2007.
Michael Shermer
–
Shermer is a cycling enthusiast and has been involved in the development of cycling gear.
Michael Shermer
–
Shermer giving a talk on the evolution of
economic systems in 2007 at
The Amaz!ng Meeting 5. He addressed this topic in his book The Mind of The Market.
27.
Public Broadcasting Service
–
The Public Broadcasting Service is an American non-profit public broadcaster and television program distributor headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid 2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. Founded by Hartford N. Gunn Jr, in 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations. Each station is charged with the responsibility of programming content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule
Public Broadcasting Service
–
PBS
28.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
–
President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
United States Atomic Energy Commission
–
Seal of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
United States Atomic Energy Commission
–
President
Harry S. Truman signs the
Atomic Energy Act of 1946.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
–
David E. Lilienthal, who chaired the AEC from its creation until 1950.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
–
Gordon Dean, who chaired the AEC from 1950 to 1953.
29.
Hans Bethe
–
For most of his career, Bethe was a professor at Cornell University. During World War II, he was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory which developed the first atomic bombs. After the war, Bethe also played an important role in the development of the hydrogen bomb, Bethe later campaigned with Albert Einstein and the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists against nuclear testing and the nuclear arms race. He helped persuade the Kennedy and Nixon administrations to sign, respectively, freeman Dyson, once one of his students, called him the supreme problem-solver of the 20th century. Bethe was born in Strasbourg, which was part of Germany, on July 2,1906, the only child of Anna and Albrecht Bethe. Although his mother, the daughter of a professor at the University of Strasbourg, was Jewish, despite having a religious background, he was not religious in later life, and described himself as an atheist. His father accepted a position as professor and director of the Institute of Physiology at the University of Kiel in 1912, and he was initially schooled privately by a professional teacher as part of a group of eight girls and boys. The family moved again in 1915 when his father became the head of the new Institute of Physiology at the University of Frankfurt am Main, Bethe attended the Goethe-Gymnasium in Frankfurt, Germany. His education was interrupted in 1916, when he contracted tuberculosis, by 1917, he had recovered sufficiently to attend the local realschule, and the following year he was sent to the Odenwaldschule, a private, coeducational boarding school. He attended the Goethe-Gymnasium again for his three years of secondary schooling, from 1922 to 1924. Having passed his abitur, Bethe entered the University of Frankfurt in 1924 and he decided to major in chemistry. Bethe entered the University of Munich in April 1926, where Sommerfeld took him on as a student on Meissners recommendation, Sommerfeld taught an advanced course on differential equations in physics, which Bethe enjoyed. Because he was such a renowned scholar, Sommerfeld frequently received advance copies of scientific papers, when Bethe arrived, Sommerfeld had just received Erwin Schrödingers papers on wave mechanics. For his PhD thesis, Sommerfeld suggested that Bethe examine electron diffraction in crystals, as a starting point, Sommerfeld suggested Paul Ewalds 1914 paper on X-ray diffraction in crystals. Bethe later recalled that he became too ambitious, and, in pursuit of greater accuracy, when he met Wolfgang Pauli for the first time, Pauli told him, After Sommerfelds tales about you, I had expected much better from you than your thesis. I guess from Pauli, Bethe later recalled, that was a compliment, after Bethe received his doctorate, Erwin Madelung offered him an assistantship in Frankfurt, and in September 1928 Bethe moved in with his father, who had recently divorced his mother. His father met Vera Congehl earlier that year, and married her in 1929 and they had two children, Doris, born in 1933, and Klaus, born in 1934. Bethe did not find the work in Frankfurt very stimulating, while there, he wrote what he considered to be his greatest paper, Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Korpuskularstrahlen durch Materie
Hans Bethe
–
Hans Bethe
Hans Bethe
–
Signature
Hans Bethe
–
Hans Bethe, aged 12, with his parents
Hans Bethe
–
Hans Bethe lecturing at
Dalhousie University, 1978. On the day he learnt that he had been awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics, he still insisted on teaching his regular physics class.
30.
Hydrogen bomb
–
A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
Hydrogen bomb
–
Edward Teller in 1958
Hydrogen bomb
–
The basics of the Teller–Ulam design for a thermonuclear weapon. Radiation from a primary fission bomb compresses a secondary section containing both fission and fusion fuel. The compressed secondary is heated from within by a second fission explosion.
Hydrogen bomb
–
Operation Castle thermonuclear test,
Castle Romeo shot.
Hydrogen bomb
–
Operation Grapple on
Christmas Island was the first British hydrogen bomb test.
31.
Book burning
–
Book burning refers to the ritual destruction by fire of books or other written materials. In some cases, the works are irreplaceable and their burning constitutes a severe loss to cultural heritage. Book burning can be an act of contempt for the contents or author. Examples include the burning of Wilhelm Reichs books by the FDA, in modern times, other forms of media, such as phonograph records, video tapes, and CDs have also been burned, shredded, or even crushed. According to the Tanakh, in the 7th century BC King Jehoiakim of Judah burned part of a scroll Baruch ben Neriah had written at prophet Jeremiahs dictation. Qin Shi Huang, first emperor of Qin Dynasty, ordered a Burning of books and burying of scholars in 213 BC, some of these books were written in Shang Xiang, a superior school founded in 2208 BC. The event caused the loss of many treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought. The official philosophy of government survived, as soon as he is discovered in this offense, he shall be submitted for capital punishment. According to Elaine Pagels, In AD367, Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria. Pagels cites Athanasiuss Paschal letter for 367 AD, which prescribes a canon, heretical texts do not turn up as palimpsests, washed clean and overwritten, as do many texts of Classical antiquity. According to author Rebecca Knuth, multitudes of early Christian texts have been as thoroughly destroyed as if they had publicly burnt. Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world and it was burned multiple times during its history. Activity of Cyril of Alexandria brought fire to almost all writings of Nestorius, in 1244, as an outcome of the Disputation of Paris, twenty-four carriage loads of Talmuds and other Jewish religious manuscripts were set on fire in the streets of Paris. During the conquest of the Americas and the aftermath of the encounter between European and indigenous American civilizations, many written by indigenous peoples were destroyed. There were many books written by the Aztecs in existence at the time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán in the 16th century, however, most were destroyed by the Conquistadors and the Catholic priests, with the exception of Priest Bartolome de la Casas. In particular, many books in Yucatán were ordered destroyed by Bishop Diego de Landa in July 1562, ironically, most of the books that were destroyed by the Europeans were biased and based upon the Aztec peoples version of the history of the region. The Aztecs too had conquered the area and destroyed much of the Mayan books, the Library of Congress was founded in 1800,24 years after the United States gained its independence from England. In 1813,3,000 books from the Library of Congress were used by the English forces to burn down the US Capitol during the Burning of Washington
Book burning
–
Contemporary book burning
Book burning
–
Thousands of books smoulder in a huge bonfire as Germans give the Nazi salute during the wave of book-burnings that spread throughout Germany - NARA - 535791
Book burning
–
In 1933, Nazis burned works of Jewish authors, and other works considered "un-German", at the library of the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft in Berlin.
Book burning
–
Symbol of the "
New York Society for the Suppression of Vice ", advocating book-burning
32.
The Skeptical Environmentalist
–
It was first published in Danish in 1998, while the English edition was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. Although published by the sciences division of Cambridge University Press. This interpretation of The Skeptical Environmentalist as a work of environmental science generated much of the controversy, some critics focus on his lack of training or professional experience in the environmental sciences or economics. Supportersargue his research is an application of his expertise in cost-benefit analysis. His advocates further note that many of the scientists and environmentalists who criticized the book are not themselves environmental policy experts or experienced in cost-benefit research. Lomborg describes the views he attributes to environmental campaigners as the Litany, which he at one time claims to have affirmed, the general analytical approach employed by Lomborg is based on cost-benefit analyses as employed in economics, social science, and the formulation and assessment of government policy. Much of Lomborgs examination of his Litany is based on data analysis. Since it examines the costs and benefits of its topics, it could be considered a work in economics. In arriving at the work, Lomborg has used a similar approach in each of his works main areas. From there, Lomborg chooses data that he considers to be the most reliable and reasonable available and he then analyzes that data to prove or disprove his selected proposition. In every case, his calculations find that the claim is not substantiated, the Skeptical Environmentalists subtitle refers to the State of the World report, published annually since 1984 by the Worldwatch Institute. Lomborgs work directly challenged popular examples of concerns by interpreting data from some 3,000 assembled sources. The author suggested that environmentalists diverted potentially beneficial resources to less deserving environmental issues in ways that were economically damaging, much of the books methodology and integrity have been subject to criticism which argue that Lomborg distorted the fields of research he covers. Support for the book was staunch as well, the Litany comprises very diverse areas where, Lomborg claims, overly pessimistic claims are made and bad policies are implemented as a result. He cites accepted mainstream sources, like the United States government, United Nations agencies and others, preferring global long-term data over regional, therefore, challenges to human prosperity are essentially logistical matters, and can be solved largely through economic and social development. He dismisses Thomas Malthus theory that increases in the population lead to widespread hunger. However, Lomborg notes that Africa in particular still produces too little sustenance, concerning prosperity, Lomborg argues that wealth, as measured by per capita GDP, should not be the only judging criterion. He points to improvements in education, safety, leisure, in this section, Lomborg looks at the worlds natural resources and draws a conclusion that contrasts starkly to that of the well known report The Limits to Growth
The Skeptical Environmentalist
–
Hardcover edition
The Skeptical Environmentalist
–
Bjørn Lomborg
33.
Cato Institute
–
The Cato Institute is an American libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D. C. It was founded as the Charles Koch Foundation in 1974 by Ed Crane, Murray Rothbard, in July 1976, the name was changed to the Cato Institute. Cato was established to have a focus on advocacy, media exposure. According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report, Cato is number 16 in the Top Think Tanks Worldwide, Cato also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks. The institute was founded in December 1974 in Wichita, Kansas as the Charles Koch Foundation, the other members of the first board of directors included co-founder Murray Rothbard, libertarian scholar Earl Ravenal, and businessmen Sam H. Husbands Jr. and David H. Padden. Cato relocated first to San Francisco, California in 1977, then to Washington, D. C. in 1981, the Institute moved to its current location on Massachusetts Avenue in 1993. Various Cato programs were ranked in a survey published by the University of Pennsylvania in 2012. The Cato Institute publishes numerous policy studies, briefing papers, periodicals, peer-reviewed academic journals include the Cato Journal and Regulation. Other periodicals include Catos Letter, Cato Supreme Court Review, Cato published Inquiry Magazine from 1977 to 1982 and Literature of Liberty from 1978 to 1979. S. Federal Government and recommendations for decreasing various programs, libertarianism. org is a website focused on the theory and practice of libertarianism. Cato Unbound, a publication that features a monthly open debate between four people. The conversation begins with one lead essay, followed by three response essays by separate people, after that, all four participants can write as many responses and counter-responses as they want for the duration of that month. PoliceMisconduct. net contains reports and stories from Catos National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, overlawyered is a law blog on the subject of tort reform run by author Walter Olson. HumanProgress. org is an interactive data web project that increases in prosperity driven by the free market. Social media sponsored by Cato includes Daily Podcasts, plus pages on Facebook, Twitter, Google+, speakers at Cato have included Federal Reserve Chairmen Alan Greenspan and Ben Bernanke, and International Monetary Fund Managing Director Rodrigo de Rato. In 2009 Czech Republic President Václav Klaus spoke at a conference, many Cato scholars advocate support for civil liberties, liberal immigration policies, drug liberalization, and the repeal of Dont Ask Dont Tell and laws restricting consensual sexual activity. The Cato Institute officially resists being labeled as part of the movement because conservative smacks of an unwillingness to change. In 2006, Markos Moulitsas of the Daily Kos proposed the term Libertarian Democrat to describe his particular liberal position, Cato has stated on its About Cato page, The Jeffersonian philosophy that animates Catos work has increasingly come to be called libertarianism or market liberalism
Cato Institute
–
Cato Institute building in Washington, D.C.
Cato Institute
–
Cato Institute
Cato Institute
–
John A. Allison IV speaking at the 2014 International Students for Liberty Conference (ISFLC)
34.
Ronald Bailey
–
Ronald Bailey is an American libertarian science writer and author and editor of books on economics, ecology and biotechnology. Bailey was born in San Antonio, Texas, and raised in Washington County and he lives in Washington, D. C. and Charlottesville, Virginia with his wife Pamela. Bailey attended the University of Virginia, where he earned a B. A. in philosophy and he worked briefly as an economist for the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. From 1987 to 1990 he contributed articles to Forbes, Bailey worked as a reporter for The Tico Times in San José, Costa Rica during 1990 and 1991. His articles and reviews have appeared in newspapers and magazines and have been selected for inclusion in The Best American Science Writing anthology series. Bailey was the producer of the PBS series Think Tank and has produced or co-produced several series and documentaries for PBS television. Since 1997 he has been a correspondent for Reason magazine. Bailey was the 1993 Warren T. Brookes Fellow in Environmental Journalism at the Competitive Enterprise Institute, Bailey testified before a congressional sub-committee in 2004 on, “The Impact of Science on Public Policy. ”Bailey has described himself as a libertarian transhumanist. He explains this in his book Liberation Biology, in 2005, Bailey said that new data convinced him that the earth is definitely warming and that the likely cause is human activity. He has endorsed a carbon tax as one possible solution, as the new IPCC Summary makes clear, climate change Pollyannaism is no longer looking very tenable. Bailey voted for George W. Bush in both 2000 and 2004, a fact which he wrote made him disheartened and ashamed. In 2008, he voted for Barack Obama because he felt that he Republicans must be punished and punished hard, eco-scam, The False Prophets of Ecological Apocalypse. Liberation Biology, The Scientific and Moral Case for the Biotech Revolution, the End of Doom, Environmental Renewal in the Twenty-first Century. Earth Report 2000, Revisiting the True State of the Planet, global Warming and Other Eco-myths, How the Environmental Movement Uses False Science to Scare Us to Death. Brave New World argument Enough argument Appearances on C-SPAN
Ronald Bailey
–
Ronald Bailey in 2007
35.
Iraq War
–
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
Iraq War
–
Clockwise from top: U.S. troops at Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein's hideout; insurgents in northern Iraq; an Iraqi insurgent firing a
MANPADS; the toppling of the
Saddam Hussein statue in
Firdos Square.
Iraq War
–
A UN weapons inspector examines an Iraqi factory in 2002.
Iraq War
–
President George Bush, surrounded by leaders of the House and Senate, announces the
Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 2 October 2002.
Iraq War
–
Excerpt from Donald Rumsfeld memo dated 27 November 2001
36.
Wall Street Journal
–
The Wall Street Journal is an American business-focused, English-language international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal, along with its Asian and European editions, is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, the newspaper is published in the broadsheet format and online. The Wall Street Journal is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, according to the Alliance for Audited Media, the Journal had a circulation of about 2.4 million copies as of March 2013, compared with USA Todays 1.7 million. The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes through 2015 and derives its name from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8,1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, the Journal also publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ. They were later aggregated in a daily summary called the Customers Afternoon Letter. In 1896, The Dow Jones Industrial Average was officially launched and it was the first of several indices of stock and bond prices on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1899, the Journals Review & Outlook column, which still today, appeared for the first time. Journalist Clarence Barron purchased control of the company for US$130,000 in 1902, circulation was then around 7,000, Barron and his predecessors were credited with creating an atmosphere of fearless, independent financial reporting—a novelty in the early days of business journalism. In 1921, Barrons, Americas premier financial weekly, was founded, Barron died in 1928, a year before Black Tuesday, the stock market crash that greatly affected the Great Depression in the United States. Barrons descendants, the Bancroft family, would continue to control the company until 2007, the Journal took its modern shape and prominence in the 1940s, a time of industrial expansion for the United States and its financial institutions in New York. Bernard Kilgore was named managing editor of the paper in 1941, under Kilgore, in 1947, that the paper won its first Pulitzer Prize, for William Henry Grimess editorials. In 1970, Dow Jones bought the Ottaway newspaper chain, which at the time comprised nine dailies, later, the name was changed to Dow Jones Local Media Group. In 2007 News Corp. acquired Dow Jones, a luxury lifestyle magazine, was launched in 2008. A complement to the print newspaper, The Wall Street Journal Online, was launched in 1996, in 2003, Dow Jones began to integrate reporting of the Journals print and online subscribers together in Audit Bureau of Circulations statements. In 2007, it was believed to be the largest paid-subscription news site on the Web. Since then, online subscribership has fallen, due in part to rising subscription costs, in May 2008, an annual subscription to the online edition of The Wall Street Journal cost $119 for those who do not have subscriptions to the print edition. By June 2013, the monthly cost for a subscription to the edition was $22.99, or $275.88 annually
Wall Street Journal
–
April 28, 2008 front page
Wall Street Journal
–
The Wall Street Journal
Wall Street Journal
–
Vladimir Putin with Journal correspondent
Karen Elliott House in 2002
Wall Street Journal
–
Scarlett Johansson covers WSJ. April 2014
37.
Amateur astronomy
–
Amateur astronomy is a hobby whose participants enjoy watching the sky, and the abundance of objects found in it with the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Many amateurs are beginners or hobbyists, while others have a degree of experience in astronomy and often assist. Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, people have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework, without any formal method of funding. It is only within about the past century, however, that amateur astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from professional astronomy, collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as clusters, galaxies. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, one branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum, non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were built for astronomy research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example, Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is common for amateur astronomers to build their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy, although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Amateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings, although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences. The Internet is a tool of amateur astronomers. The popularity of CCD imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images, much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists, a great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their observing sessions using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart
Amateur astronomy
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Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the
Perseid meteor shower.
Amateur astronomy
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An image of the
Cat's Paw Nebula created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope.
38.
Amos Root
–
He founded his own company, which continues in business to the present day. His wide-ranging interests and curiosity led him to become the only eyewitness to publish articles about successful airplane flights made by the Wright brothers in Ohio in 1904-1905, Root began working as a jewelry manufacturer and took up beekeeping in his twenties as a hobby. Among his major contributions was a method to harvest honey without destroying the beehive and he became a nationally- and internationally-known expert and a wealthy businessman. Root founded his company in 1869 in his hometown of Medina, Ohio to manufacture beehives, at the peak of its business, the company was shipping four railroad freight cars of beekeeping equipment a day. Root held strong Christian beliefs and wrote about his ideas and observations of society in a trade publication he started. His book, ABC of Bee Culture was published in 1879 and continues to be updated in the present day as The ABC, during Root’s tenure a piano was installed at the factory and employee breaks were mandated. During the break hymns would be sung and employees were prohibited from visiting the nearby tavern, in the late 1890s Roots company started selling beekeeping equipment produced by competitor Dadant and Sons, Inc. The venture was unsuccessful and was discontinued, in 1928 the company began a transition into candle-making when a local priest made a request for high quality liturgical candles. The production of beekeeping equipment was reduced and eventually phased out, the company, now known as Root Candles, is still owned by the Root family and is run by his great-great grandson. The companys influence in its hometown is seen in the name of the Medina High School mascot, on September 20,1904 he saw Wilbur Wright fly the first complete circle in an airplane. He wrote an article about the achievement for his Gleanings periodical and he apparently saw several other flights as well. Root offered his reports to Scientific American magazine, but received no reply and his writing suggested the Wrights invention would cause profound changes, Root became interested in advances in educating blind and deaf children and contributed to that effort. In response he received a letter from Helen Keller thanking him for his kindness. He remained friends with her for the rest of his life, complete scan of The ABC of bee culture 1879 edition by A. I. Root WrightStories Famous Wright Airplane Flights
Amos Root
–
Amos Root
39.
New Scientist
–
New Scientist is a weekly English-language international science magazine, founded in 1956. Since 1996 it has run a website. Sold in retail outlets and on subscription, the magazine covers current developments, news, reviews and commentary on science and it also publishes speculative articles, ranging from the technical to the philosophical. A readers letters section discusses recent articles, and discussions take place on the website. New Scientist, based in London, publishes editions in the UK, the United States, the magazine was founded in 1956 by Tom Margerison, Max Raison and Nicholas Harrison as The New Scientist, with Issue 1 on 22 November, priced one shilling. The British monthly science magazine Science Journal, published 1965–71, was merged with New Scientist to form New Scientist, originally, the cover had a text list of articles rather than a picture. Pages were numbered sequentially for an entire volume, as is the norm for academic journals. Until the 1970s, colour was not used except for on the cover, from the beginning of 1961 The was dropped from the title. From 1965, the front cover was illustrated, since its first issue, New Scientist has written about the applications of science, through its coverage of technology. For example, the first issue included an article Where next from Calder Hall, on the future of nuclear power in the UK, a topic that it has covered throughout its history. In 1964 there was a regular Science in British Industry section with several items, an article in the magazines 10th anniversary issues provides anecdotes on the founding of the magazine. In 1970, the Reed Group, which went on to become Reed Elsevier, Reed retained the magazine when it sold most of its consumer titles in a management buyout to what is now IPC Media. The Grimbledon Down comic strip, by the renowned cartoonist Bill Tidy, issues of New Scientist from Issue 1 to the end of 1989 have been made free to read online. In the first half of 2013, the circulation of New Scientist averaged 125,172. While this was a 4. 3% reduction on the previous years figure, for the 2014 UK circulation fell by 3. 2% but stronger international sales, increased the circulation to 129,585. New Scientist currently contains the sections, Leader, News, Technology, Opinion, Features, CultureLab, Feedback, The Last Word. A Tom Gauld cartoon appears on the Letters page, there are 51 issues a year, with a Christmas and New Year double issue. The double issue in 2014 was the 3, 000th edition of the magazine, the Editor is Rowan Hooper, Editor-in-chief is Sumit Paul-Choudhury and Editor-at-Large is Jeremy Webb
New Scientist
–
New Scientist cover, 6 February 2010
40.
Discover (magazine)
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Discover is an American general audience science magazine launched in October 1980 by Time Inc. It has been owned by Kalmbach Publishing since 2010, Discover was created primarily through the efforts of Time magazine editor Leon Jaroff. He noticed that magazine sales jumped every time the cover featured a science topic, Jaroff interpreted this as a considerable public interest in science, and in 1971, he began agitating for the creation of a science-oriented magazine. This was difficult, as a former colleague noted, because Selling science to people who graduated to be managers was very difficult, jaroffs persistence finally paid off, and Discover magazine published its first edition in 1980. During this period, Discover featured fairly in-depth science reporting on hard science, most issues contained an essay by a well-known scientist—such as Stephen Jay Gould, Jared Diamond, and Stephen Hawking. Another common article was a biography, often linked with mentions of other scientists working in the field, the Skeptical Eye column sought to uncover pop-science scams, and was the medium where James Randi released the results of Project Alpha. Jaroff said that it was the section at its launch. Jaroff told the editor-in-chief that these were not solid sciences, and was sent back to Discovers parent, Time, Skeptical Eye and other columns disappeared, and articles covered more controversial, speculative topics. The new format was a success, and the new format remained largely unchanged for the next two decades. Gilbert Rogin, a Sports Illustrated editor, was brought in 1985 to revive Discover, in 1986, Time purchased the subscription lists of the shuttered magazines Science Digest and Science 86 from their publishers. Circulation for the magazine reached 925,000 by May 1987 with revenue for 1986 being $6.9 million, but annual net loss were $10 million per year. In January 1987, Time appointed a new Discover publisher, Bruce A. Barnet, hayes, who was appointed publisher of Fortune. The magazine changed several times. In 1987, Time, Inc. sold Discover to Family Media, from January to July 1991, Discover magazine lost 15% of its advertising while still remaining profitable. Family Media closed down while suspending publication of all its magazines, Family Medias last Discover issue was August 1991, with a circulation of 1.1 million copies. In September 1991, The Walt Disney Company bought the magazine for its Disney Publishings Magazine Group, the magazines main office was moved to the Magazine Group office in Burbank while leaving one third behind in New York in a small editorial and advertising office. Disney was able to retain Family Medias editor-in-chief for the magazine, Disney increased the magazines photography and its content budget to over come skipping 2 issues in Family Medias shutdown and ownership change. In 1993, Disney Magazine Publishing Inc, in October 2005, Bob Guccione, Jr. founder of Spin and Gear magazines, and some private equity partners purchased the magazine from Disney
Discover (magazine)
–
January 2005 issue of Discover
41.
American Scientist
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American Scientist is an American bimonthly science and technology magazine published since 1913 by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Each issue includes four to five feature articles written by prominent scientists, each issue also includes the work of cartoonists, including those of Sidney Harris, Benita Epstein, and Mark Heath. Also included is the Scientists Nightstand that reviews a vast range of science-related books, American Scientist Online was launched in May 2003. Official website Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society
American Scientist
–
Cover of the 2007 September–October issue
42.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
New York Times
–
Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on
Operation Pillar of Defense.
New York Times
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The Times Square Building, The New York Times ' publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
New York Times
–
The New York Times newsroom, 1942
New York Times
–
A speech in the newsroom after announcement of
Pulitzer Prize winners, 2009
43.
Time (magazine)
–
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
Time (magazine)
–
The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring
Speaker Joseph G. Cannon.
Time (magazine)
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Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time (magazine)
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Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.
44.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
45.
LibraryThing
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LibraryThing is a social cataloging web application for storing and sharing book catalogs and various types of book metadata. It is used by authors, individuals, libraries, and publishers, based in Portland, Maine, LibraryThing was developed by Tim Spalding and went live on August 29,2005. As of December 2015, it has over 2,000,000 users and 100 million books catalogued. The primary feature of LibraryThing is the cataloging of books, movies, music and other media by importing data from libraries through Z39.50 connections and from six Amazon. com stores. Should a record not be available from any of these sources, each work may comprise different editions, translations, printings, audio versions, etc. Members are encouraged to add publicly visible reviews, descriptions, Common Knowledge and other information about a work, ratings, collections, discussion in the forums is also encouraged. LibraryThings social features have been compared to bookmark manager Del. icio. us, similar book cataloging sites include aNobii, BookLikes, Goodreads, Libib, Shelfari, and weRead. In 2016 LibraryThing launched TinyCat, an OPAC designed for the cataloging, TinyCat is marketed towards small independent libraries, such as religious institutions, schools, community centers, and academic departments, as well as individuals. LibraryThing is majority owned by founder Tim Spalding, online bookseller AbeBooks bought a 40% share in LibraryThing in May 2006 for an undisclosed sum. In January 2009, Cambridge Information Group acquired a minority stake in the company, at the end of June 2006, LibraryThing was subject to the Slashdot effect from a Wall Street Journal article. The sites developers added servers to compensate for the increased traffic. la Readgeek Wenzler, J. LibraryThing, a Workshop on Next Generation Libraries. San Francisco State University CARL NITIG, September 7,2007, cataloging with LibraryThing, as easy as 1,2,3. Library Hi Tech News,25, pp. 5–7
LibraryThing
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LibraryThing
46.
Reason (magazine)
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Reason is an American libertarian monthly magazine published by the Reason Foundation. The magazine has a circulation of around 50,000 and was named one of the 50 best magazines in 2003 and 2004 by the Chicago Tribune, Reason was founded in 1968 by Lanny Friedlander as a more-or-less monthly mimeographed publication. In 1970 it was purchased by Robert W. Poole, Jr. Manuel S. Klausner, and Tibor R. Machan, who set it on a more regular publishing schedule. As the monthly print magazine of free minds and free markets, it covers politics, culture, and ideas with a mix of news, analysis, commentary, during the 1970s and 80s, the magazines contributors included Milton Friedman, Murray Rothbard, Thomas Szasz and Thomas Sowell. In 1978, Poole, Klausner, and Machan created the associated Reason Foundation, marty Zupan joined Reason in 1975, and served through the 1980s as managing editor and editor-in-chief, leaving in 1989. Virginia Postrel was editor-in-chief of the magazine from July 1989 to January 2000 and she founded the magazines website in 1995. Nick Gillespie became editor-in-chief in 2000, erik Spiekermann, the designer of the Meta typeface, headed a redesign of Reason in 2001, aiming for a look that is cleaner, more modern, making use of the Meta typeface throughout. In June 2004, subscribers to Reason magazine received an issue that had their name. The concept was to demonstrate the power of public databases, as well as the customized printing capabilities of Xeikons printer, according to then editor-in-chief Nick Gillespie. The move was seen by David Carr of The New York Times as the ultimate in customized publishing, in 2008, Reasons web site was named a Webby Award Honoree in the magazine category. That same year, Matt Welch became magazines editor-in-chief, with Gillespie becoming editor-in-chief of reason. tv, in 2011, Gillespie and Welch published The Declaration of Independents, How Libertarian Politics Can Fix Whats Wrong with America. Katherine Mangu-Ward became the magazines editor-in-chief in June 2016, with Welch moving to an editor-at-large position. Other Reason editors include Jacob Sullum, Jesse Walker, Brian Doherty, Peter Suderman, and Damon Root, contributors include Ronald Bailey, Greg Beato, Cathy Young, Hit & Run is Reasons group blog. It is maintained and written by the staff of the magazine, Reason editors referred to this co-opting of the former website as the Suck-ification of Reason. In 2005, Hit & Run was named as one of the best political blogs by Playboy, Reason TV is a website affiliated with Reason magazine that produces short-form documentaries and video editorials. The site produced a series of videos called The Drew Carey Project hosted by comedian Drew Carey, Reason. tv teamed with Carey again in 2009 to produce Reason Saves Cleveland, in which Carey suggested free market solutions to his hometowns problems. Since 2010, comedian Remy Munasifi has partnered with Reason TV to produce parody videos, the Declaration of Independents The Independents Official website Reason TVs channel on YouTube Wired founder helps Reason
Reason (magazine)
–
October 2012 issue of Reason
47.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
Cornell University
–
Ezra Cornell
Cornell University
–
Cornell University
Cornell University
–
Andrew Dickson White
Cornell University
–
The Arts Quad on Cornell's main campus with iconic
McGraw Tower in the background
48.
Internet Archive
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
Internet Archive
–
Since 2009, headquarters have been at 300 Funston Avenue in
San Francisco, a former
Christian Science Church
Internet Archive
–
Internet Archive
Internet Archive
–
Mirror of the Internet Archive in the
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Internet Archive
–
From 1996 to 2009, headquarters were in the
Presidio of San Francisco, a former U.S. military base
49.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
LibriVox
–
Hugh McGuire, founder of LibriVox
50.
Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
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Holtzbrinck Publishing Group is a privately-held Stuttgart-based company which owns publishing companies worldwide. The company has published a variety of books, from The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie to classics by Agatha Christie, Jean-Paul Sartre, Ernest Hemingway. Other well-known publications of the include the scientific journal Nature. It is one of the Big Five English-language publishing companies, in 2015, it merged most of its Macmillan Science and Education unit with Springer Science+Business Media, creating the company Springer Nature. Holtzbrinck now owns 53% of the combined company, established by Georg von Holtzbrinck in 1948, the group first began as a German book club. In the 1960s, it purchased Droemer, Kindler, Rowohlt and S. Fischer Verlag, in 1985, it acquired the retail book division of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, naming it the Henry Holt Book Company. One year later, the company acquired Scientific American magazine for $52.6 million, in 1994, it purchased a majority interest in Farrar, Straus & Giroux from retiring Roger W. Straus, Jr. A year later, it purchased a 70% majority interest in The Macmillan Group, the policy was later changed and Tor titles became available as DRM-free e-books in 2012. The Tor UK label in Britain does the same, the company also received a good deal of attention when it bought the then leading German social networking platform StudiVZ in January 2007. Holtzbrinck has total sales of 2.1 billion euros, 49% of sales are in Germany. It had 2005 earnings before taxes of 142 million euros, chairman of the group is Stefan von Holtzbrinck. John Sargent is CEO of Macmillan, the company that unites the US-based businesses of the group, in Germany, S. Fischer Verlag O. W. Barth Wolfgang Krüger Argon Verlag Scherz Verlag Fretz & Wasmuth Rowohlt Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch Verlagsgruppe Droemer Knaur Verlag J. B, martins Press Tom Doherty Associates Tor Books Forge Books Bedford, Freeman and Worth Publishing Group W. H. Freeman Bedford-St. The Academic Publishing Industry, A Story of Merger and Acquisition – via Northern Illinois University
Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
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German newspaper
Die Zeit in newsstand
Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
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Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group
